2018

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AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER
Analysis and Design

In this report we have fetched and manipulated some data

about analogue computer , act as an important device in history
to solve complex machine problems of electronics.

GROUP NO 01
AVIONICS ENGINEERING
12/9/2018
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER ii

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF AMPLIFIERS IN

ANALOGUE COMPUTERS

by

Group Members:

1 BAEM-F16-001 KHURRAM BAIG

2 BAEM-F16-003 MUHAMMAD AZEEM
3 BAEM-F16-004 ZERGHAM AHMED
4 BAEM-F16-005 HAMZA HABIB

Submitted to: Engr. Rao Asif

Date: October 12, 2018
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER iii

ABSTRACT:

An electronic analog computer is a tool for solving mathematical differential

equations. The basis for the use of such a computer in the simulation of many
scientific and engineering problems is the possibility of characterizing these situations
as formal mathematical systems by using differential equations. In this paper,
following a brief description of the computing elements, the applications of analog
computers in the study of various linear, nonlinear, and time-varying systems are
described with typical illustrative examples from diverse fields of interest. Computer
applications in solving partial differential equations are also discussed. Analog
computers played a key role in enabling the simulation of control systems for several
decades, leading to a better understanding of theory and better designs in practice. In
this report we have defined the working automation and simulation of analogue
computer. As according to report, the structure of a general analogue computer is
defined also the applications of this machine in history is defined with a retrieval of
data from reports of different authors.

CONTENTS:

ABSTRACT:.................................................................................................................iii

LIST OF FIGURES : .................................................................................................... iv

INTRODUCTION to Analogue computer..................................................................... 1

DESCRIPTION OF AN ANALOGUE COMPUTER : ............................................. 2

ELECTRONIC ANALOGUE COMPUTER : ........................................................... 2
ELEMENTS OF ANALOGUE COMPUTER : ......................................................... 3
AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER : ....................................................... 3
Amplifiers: .............................................................................................................. 3
Classification of Signal Amplifier : ........................................................................ 4
Ideal Amplifier model : .......................................................................................... 4
Gain : ...................................................................................................................... 5
Amplifier Gain:....................................................................................................... 5
Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal: ........................................................................ 5
Types of Amplifier Gain: ....................................................................................... 5
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER iv

 Voltage amplifier Gain. ................................................................................... 5

 Current amplifier Gain. ................................................................................... 5
 Power amplifier Gain. ..................................................................................... 5
Amplifier Efficiency: .............................................................................................. 5
Analog Amplifier Classes:...................................................................................... 5
Power Amplifier Classes: ....................................................................................... 7
OPERATIONAL RESEARCH QUARTERLY : ....................................................... 9
THE ANALOGUE CIRCUIT : ................................................................................ 10
ANALOGUE PROGRAMS :................................................................................... 12
COMPARISON OF ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS : .................... 12
AUTOMATION IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER : ................................................. 13
ANALOGUE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS : ..................................................... 14
SIMULATION IN ANALOG COMPUTER ........................................................... 15
CONCLUSION : .......................................................................................................... 16

FUTURE WORK : ....................................................................................................... 16

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 16

LIST OF FIGURES :

Figure 1: Ideal Amplifier model block diagram ............................................................ 4

Figure 2 : Gain of the Input Signal block diagram ........................................................ 5
Figure 3: Class A : Amplifier Output Waveform .......................................................... 6
Figure 4: Class B : Amplifier Output Waveform........................................................... 6
Figure 5 : Class AB : Amplifier Output Waveform ....................................................... 6
Figure 6 : Sine wave input ........................................................................................... 10

LIST OF TABLES:
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER v

Table 1 : Signal Amplifier ............................................................................................. 4

Table 2 : Power Amplifier Classes ................................................................................ 8
Table 3 : Basic computing elements .............................................................................. 9
Table 4 : Five forecasting rules .................................................................................... 12
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ANALOGUE COMPUTER

An analog computer is a computer which is
used to process analog data.
An analog computers, works by measuring
voltages and currents rather than by the
process of counting. An analog computers
works on supply of continuous electrical
signals and display outputs continuously.
Side rule is an example analogdevice in
which numbered as expressed as distances Analog computers store data in a continuous
form of physical quantities and perform calculations with the help of measures. It is quite
different from the digital computer, which makes use of symbolic numbers to represent
results. Analog computers are excellent for situations which require data to be measured
directly without converting into numerals or codes. Analog computers, although available
and used in industrial and scientific applications like control systems and aircraft, have been
largely replaced by digital computers due to the wide range of complexities involved. [1].

Analog computers were the earliest computer machines developed and were the among the
most complicated machines for analog computation and process control. Analog data is not
discrete, but rather is of a continuous nature. Examples of such data are pressure,
temperature, voltage, speed and weight. An analog computer makes use of continuous
values and not discrete values. Because of this, processes with an analog computer cannot
be repeated for exact equivalent results. Unlike digital computers, analog computers are
immune to quantization noise. Some of the common computing elements found in analog
computers are function generators, integrators, comparators and multipliers. Depending on
the application, other specialized components can also be used. Programming on an analog
computer involves transformation of the problematic equations into the analog computer
circuit. [1]
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 2

DESCRIPTION OF AN ANALOGUE COMPUTER :

An analogue computer is essentially an electronic circuit, in which the com- ponents are
interconnected so that the circuit variables (voltage or current, but usually voltage) will
obey certain pre-specified mathematical relationships. The components may be grouped into
functional blocks, according to the opera- tions they perform on voltages fed into them. The
basic operations which are available are given below:

 To multiply a voltage by a constant coefficient;

 To add two voltages;
 To integrate a voltage with respect to time;
 To multiply two voltages;
 To generate one voltage as a function of a second voltage.[7]

ELECTRONIC ANALOGUE COMPUTER :

During World War II, mechanical analogue computers were used to control guns. An
analogue computer would receive the firing ship's location, heading, and speed, plus the
wind direction, and other parameters, as well as
operator-entered data concerning the type of projectile,
the amount of explosive charge and, most importantly,
the location of the target. The analogue computer would
then control the aiming of the gun. From 1950 to 1965,
electronic analogue vacuum-tube computers were used
to design, test and run civilian and military equipment,
like aircraft, ships or rockets. Analogue computers have
been widely used in simulations of aircraft, nuclear-
power plants, and industrial chemical processes. Other
major uses included analysis of hydraulic networks (eg
the flow of liquids through a sewer system) and
electronics networks (eg the performance of long-
distance circuits).[7]
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 3

ELEMENTS OF ANALOGUE COMPUTER :

The analog computers are such type of electronic devices having no state. The utilization
has been automated than manual as it was difficult for users to handle the computations
manually. Though, the
development of analog
computers is not an easy
task yet they are less
expensive when dealing
with the storage devices
as they do not require
any memory devices.
Analog computers are
declining to a great
extent due to their
unreliability and
depriving in giving the
accurate result. But analog computers are fast at performing its computation i.e. solving of
differential equations. In terms of mathematical terms analog computers are widely used
and implemented for this purpose. The most highlighting feature of analog computer which
needs a special mention is that they formed the basis for the development of digital
computers. The fundamental elements of analog computer are integrators, function
generators, comparators and multipliers. Some of the functional computing elements
required to provide a solution for a problem are time delay devices and resolvers which can
be operated too.[2]

AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER :

Amplifiers:
In Analog Electronics small signal amplifiers are commonly used devices as they
have the ability to amplify a relatively small input signal, for example from
a Sensor such as a photo-device, into a much larger output signal to drive a relay,
lamp or loudspeaker for example.
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 4

There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as amplifiers, from Operational
Amplifiers and Small Signal Amplifiers up to Large Signal and Power Amplifiers.
The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the signal, large or small,
its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal, that is the relationship
between input signal and current flowing in the load.

Classification of Signal Amplifier :

Type of Frequency of
Type of Signal Classification
Configuration Operation

Small Signal Common Emitter Class A Amplifier Direct Current (DC)

Large Signal Common Base Class B Amplifier Audio Frequencies (AF)

Common Collector Class AB Amplifier Radio Frequencies (RF)

VHF, UHF and SHF

Class C Amplifier
Frequencies

Table 1 : Signal Amplifier

Ideal Amplifier model :

Figure 1: Ideal Amplifier model block diagram

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 5

Gain :
The amplified difference between the input and output signals is known as the Gain of
the amplifier. Gain is basically a measure of how much an amplifier “amplifies” the
input signal. For example, if we have an input signal of 1 volt and an output of 50
volts, then the gain of the amplifier would be “50”. In other words, the input signal
has been increased by a factor of 50. This increase is called Gain.

Amplifier Gain:
Amplifier gain is simply the ratio of the output divided-by the input. Gain has no units
as its a ratio, but in Electronics it is commonly given the symbol “A”, for
Amplification. Then the gain of an amplifier is simply calculated as the “output signal
divided by the input signal”.

Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal:

Figure 2 : Gain of the Input Signal block diagram

Types of Amplifier Gain:

 Voltage amplifier Gain.
 Current amplifier Gain.
 Power amplifier Gain.

Amplifier Efficiency:

Analog Amplifier Classes:

The various mode of operation of amplifier is known as amplifier class.
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 6

 Class A Amplifier has low efficiency

of less than 40% but good signal
reproduction and linearity.

Figure 3: Class A : Amplifier Output Waveform

 Class B Amplifier is twice as

efficient as class A amplifiers with a
maximum theoretical efficiency of
about 70% because the amplifying
device only conducts (and uses power)
for half of the input signal.

Figure 4: Class B Amplifier Output Waveform

 Class AB Amplifier has an efficiency

rating between that of Class A and Class
B but poorer signal reproduction than
Class A amplifiers.

Figure 5 : Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 7

 Class C Amplifier is the most efficient amplifier class but distortion is very
high as only a small portion of the input signal is amplified therefore the output
signal bears very little resemblance to the input signal. Class C amplifiers have
the worst signal reproduction.

Power Amplifier Classes:

Class A B C AB

Conduction
360o 180o Less than 90o 180 to 360o
angle

In between the
Position of Centre Point of Exactly on the Below the X-axis and the
the Q-point the Load Line X-axis X-axis Centre Load
Line
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 8

Better than A
Overall Poor Better Higher
but less than B
Efficiency 25 to 30% 70 to 80% than 80%
50 to 70%

None if At the X-axis

Signal Large
Correctly Crossover Small Amounts
Distortion Amounts
Biased Point

Table 2 : Power Amplifier Classes

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 9

OPERATIONAL RESEARCH QUARTERLY :

Thus, given a flow graph representation of a problem or system to be simu- lated, the
computer can be programmed by substituting for each branch of the graph a computing
element that performs the branch operation; the connexions between various computing
elements are carried out by flexible wire leads. Problem variables are then read from the
computer as voltages, which may be displayed on a cathode-ray tube or plotted on graph

paper via a pen recorder. To simplify programming, symbols are used to represent the

various com- puting elements, and amming, symbols are used to represent the various com-
puting elements, and a flow graph drawn with these symbols constitutes the analogue
program.[8]

Table 3 : Basic computing elements

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 10

THE ANALOGUE CIRCUIT :

A relatively simple analog circuit which does not use operational amplifiers, but only
resistance-capacitor circuit.The basic analogue element used in sampled data systems is the
sample hold circuit. This device samples an input voltage over a very short interval of time,
then holds this voltage at the output for a subsequent time period. This cycle is repeated
many times per second and the output from a sample hold circuit for a sine wave input is
shown in Figure :

Figure 6 : sine wave input

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 11

By operating two sample hold circuits at equal but time shifted intervals, information
storage is incorporated in the system, and by suitable interconnection of the sample
hold elements, more complex operations can be performed. The analogue circuit for
implementing the schematic diagram of Figure 3.

Figure 7: Analogue computer program.

 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 12

ANALOGUE PROGRAMS :

Using different techniques we can solve many complex differential calculations by analogue
computer, the authors have synthesized analogue circuits to simulate five forecasting :

Table 4 : Five forecasting rules

COMPARISON OF ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS :

Analogue computers differ from digital computers in that they employ distinct computing
elements for each mathematical operation. This method of parallel operation accounts for
the very high computing speeds that are possible and enables data to be acted upon the
instant they are available in the machine. This does not mean, however, that information
storage is never used in analogue computation; in some cases it may be essential and this
has led to the mating of analogue and digital machines to yield what is called a hybrid
computer. The Use of an Analogue Computer Because of practical limitations on accuracy
in the manufacture of analogue components, the output accuracy of the computer is
restricted and for computation requiring a high degree of precision, it cannot match the
digital computer. It should be borne in mind, however, that in many problems a high degree
of accuracy is unnecessary and that results obtained by analogue computation may be quite
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 13

adequate, also that the average error can be estimated. Assessing the relative merits of
digital and analogue computers from a cost effectiveness point of view is difficult without
referring to particular problems, where the availability of programs and routines may be a
significant factor. Often, where a problem can be handled on an analogue computer, it may
be cheaper to do it that way, provided the degree of accuracy available is acceptable. In
general, for accuracies of the order of 0.01 per cent the cost of using analogue computation
rises sharply. One important asset of the analogue computer is that it allows for simple and
easy access. This is particularly useful when the investigator wishes to obtain an insight into
the behaviour of a system, in which the interrelationships are little understood. In such cases
it is difficult to prescribe a complete course of investigation in advance, and the investigator
has to feel his way as he goes along; feeding variables and sets of data into the machine and
analysing the results become parts of a continuous process, in which the lack of
interruptions or delays owing to programming procedures is very welcome.[8]

AUTOMATION IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER :

Automation in analog computer can be done by combining different levels into one system.
Previously when manually all the operations of
analog computer was performed it was difficult
for the users as the processing was time
consuming and required huge amount of effort
on their part. But nowadays everything is
computerized and the processing is done within
seconds. Automation in analog computers has
thus gained significance. Efficient strategy for
automation would be modularising the work in
different modules and at the same time aligning
the work in a particular hierarchy. At the top
level, priority must be deciding the blueprint of the system architecture. Next level should
be focused at deciding all the parameters of the circuit or device being used. At the lowest
level one should concentrate on the designing of the circuit. If at some level there is a-
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 14

problem then one should manipulate the parameters such that the problem is nullified. For
this the input parameters can be analysed.[3]

ANALOGUE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS :

The authors propose to describe briefly four operational research problems which they have
investigated with the aid of an analogue computer. The Electrical Engineering Department
at Imperial College kindly provided facilities on their 48-amplifier transistorized machine.
Special ancillary equipment was built to allow the computer to operate on sampled data and
the output was obtained on an oscilloscope and recorded on magnetic tape or traced, using a
pen recorder. The capacity of this computer was found to be adequate for the four problems
reported in this paper. These problems include:

 simulation of a sampled data system;

 simulation of forecasting methods;
 locating a warehouse or a distribution centre;
 controlling and resetting policies for processes subject to trend.

Owing to restrictions of space the discussion of these problems here is necessarily limited; a
more detailed account of the last two problems is given elsewhere, and further reports on
the first two are now being prepared.[8]

Many other applications and potential applications of analog computers in biological and
medical problems could be cited. In particular, other applications discussed in this
monograph include cardiac and neurophysiology, distribution functions, circulation control,
glucose metabolism, and electrocardiogram analysis. Itis apparent that analog devices are
being fairly widely used by biologists. It may be noted; however, that in an effort to see
whether I might be unaware of some important biomedical applications, I was unable to find
any reference either to analog or to computer in the Index Medical or in the index of the a
manual Review of Physiology for the past six years. The advocates of analog systems
evidently have some missionary-type work to do if the possibilities of the analog method
are to be more generally recognized.[4]
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 15

These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically
used:

 Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central Fire Control System.

 Deltar.
 Kerrison Predictor.
 Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's Analogue Calculating Machines based on "fusee sans
fin"
 Librascope, aircraft weight and balance computer.
 Mechanical computer.
SIMULATION IN ANALOG COMPUTER :
As mentioned an analog computer is continuous in giving results as is natural systems.
Simulation between systems with continuous and discrete data may sound unrealistic. A
natural system may not be able to function properly when sampled using digital system
involving discrete data as they involve infinite number of system variables.Analog
simulations are utilized both in analog and digital design. At times, digital systems prove to
be a failure when data resolution is done to a great extent. In this the analog systems
produce more continuous results when simulated for different sets of system variables.
Thus, analog computers generate more uninterrupted variables which is more real which is
not possible when dealing with digital system.

Simulation can be advantageous when performed using basic software like excel or
spreadsheets in the following ways:

 Expenditure is minimized as these packages are available widely.

 The different features available like the chart feature, graphics formulas and toolbars
to name a few can enhance the overall exercise.
 It is user friendly as any user can easily learn to work with these software. They will
attract a wide audience of computer users.
 For educational purposes too, these packages prove very beneficial as there
flexibility upgrades them to be used in various areas such as mathematics and
engineering.
 They are time saving as they produce fast results and more accurate.

In terms of speed, by using analog computer a program can be executed in a fraction of

time. An analog computer proves to be stable under resistive loading. Analog
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 16

computergives high amount of precision and is regarded as versatile. Expenditure can be

minimized by covering many users when an analog computer is to be purchased.[3]

CONCLUSION :
Analog computers played a key role in enabling the simulation of control systems for
several decades, leading to a better understanding of theory and better designs.
Analogue computer is used to solve various problems including mechanical or
electrical systems by using switching of amplifiers or using its other properties. It was
good machine of its time as it overcome the problems of solving differiantial
equations of practical cases. Also we can overcome the problems issues related with
the development, simulation and automation the researchers and scientists must be
equipped with an analog computer which gives results more accurately with great
precision and within the stipulated time.[3]

FUTURE WORK :
i. Design and Analysis of Gaussian profiled conical horn antenna using mode matching
technique by using analogue circuits
ii. Optimization of Gaussian profiled horn antenna using particle swarm optimization
iii. Optimization using Generic algorithm in AC component circuits.

REFERENCES :
[1] Retrieved from: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5955/analog-computer

Retrieved Date: 2 Oct, 2018

[2] Retrieved from: International Journal of Latest Engineering and Management Research (IJLEMR)
ISSN: 2455-4847 www.ijlemr.com ǁ Volume 1 - Issue 8 ǁ September 2016 ǁ PP. 54-56 J. Benford, J.
A. Swegle, and E. Schamiloglu, High Power Microwaves, Second Edition, 2nd ed. Taylor &
Francis, 2007.
[3] Retrieved from: www.ijlemr.com, Chua, L. O. and P. M. Lin, Computer-Aided Analysis of
Electronic Circuits, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1975.
[4] 1. KORN, G. A. & T. M. KORN. 1956. Electronic Analog Computers. McGraw-Hill Hook Co., Inc.
New York, N. Y.
[5] NASA (Huntsville,Houston), Martin Marietta (Orlando), Lockheed, Westinghouse, Hughes Aircraft. In
Europe: CEA (French Atomic Energy Commission), MATRA, Aerospatiale, BAC (British Aircraft
Corporation)
 AMPLIFIERS IN ANALOGUE COMPUTER 17

[6] Retrieved from:https://www.soler7.com/IFAQ/Electronic%20analogue%20computers. Retrieved

Date: 2 Oct, 2018
[7] Retrieved from : 129.16.69.49 on Tue, 29 Dec 2015 05:57:11 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms
and Conditions S. Eilon and D. P. Deziel - The Use of an Analogue Retrieved Date: 11 Oct, 2018
[8] Retrieved from 129.16.69.49 on Tue, 29 Dec 2015 05:57:11 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms
and Conditions.Book : S. Eilon and D. P. Deziel - The Use of an Analogue Computer, Retrieved
date : Date: 11 Oct, 2018