CHAPTER 2

Understanding
Biomotor Abilities
The skeleton comprises bones and contractile structure). Of more
joints, which provide a framework importance to the athletic develop-
and leverage for the body. But the ment professional, skeletal muscle
joints cannot provide movement on is known as voluntary muscle
their own. All functions of the body tissue, because it has a regulatory
involving movement (or any mechanism that means it can be
unsupported action, such as made to contract under conscious
standing) require muscle activity. control.
Muscle action occurs because
muscles change chemi-cal energy
into mechanical energy to generate
force, perform work and produce
movement.
The integrated action of the
muscles, bones and joints enables
the body to move, and skel-etal
muscle contractions in the body
(within and between body
segments) enable the body to
stabilize in a number of static or
dynamic situations. This interaction
is complex. The human body is a
multisegmented system, which
means that movement in one
segment (for example, the trunk)
can influence all the other
segments of the body. Movement
requires a coordinated interaction
throughout the kinetic chain. This
movement is enabled by the
various fascial slings and nervous
system components of the body.
Skeletal muscle is so called
because it is attached to bones
and moves parts of the skeleton.
Skeletal tissue is also called stri-
ate because of its alternating light
and dark bands (a function of its
 Each muscle group has a series of topic will be explained within this
unique biomechanical chapter. This knowledge leads to
characteristics (force, velocity and the realization that, if the central
range of movement) that require nervous system has a regulatory
coordi-nation throughout the function in muscle action and ther
multijoint, multimus-de system to ef ore movements, athletes should
produce a common movement be training the central nervous
function. These characteristics will system to produce movement more
be explored in more detail from effectively.
chapter 5 onwards. The executive A fundamental tenant of
control structure governing the developing athletes, then, is to train
movement process is within the movements, not muscles. This
brain. Move-ment is a feeling thing, approach differs widely from that of
a coordinated musculo-skeletal other similar industries, in which
response to the actions of the the aesthetic size and quality of
sensory and motor nervous systems muscle may be an objective. Devel-
(figure 2.1). oping the central nervous system is
To understand the regulation of the comer-stone to the development
human movement, the practitioner of athletic movement qualities. Not
needs a working understanding of surprisingly, this concept also forms
the central nervous system and the the basis for rehabilitation
motor unit as an operational (movement function re-education)
structure within the body. This programmes as well.

17
18 Athletic Movement Skills

Nerve Spinal cord

Myotendinous
(muscle and tendon)
Motor unit 2 junction within the bone

Motor unit 1

Motor neuron
cell body
Motor neuron axon Muscle
Synaptic
terminals at
neuromuscular
junctions

Muscle fibres
(cells)

Figure 21 Movement is a brain thing! The central nervous system regulates

muscular responses to the
environment at any one time. As its narre suggests, skeletal
muscle anchors to bones and is
As with any programme objective, responsible for movement and
in edu-cating (or training) the central control of the skeleton. In
nervous system, practitioners are mechanics, form dictates function.
seeking to move it from where it is Theref ore, studying the form
(in terms of capabilities) to where it (structure and shape) of the muscle
has never been. Effective training leads to a greater understanding of
leads to improved physical abilities, how it functions and how training
skilled actions and movement can influence it.
capabilities through changes in the
organism. This change occurs not
only in the processes that cause
movements to occur but also to the
senses that detect the need for the
movements to be initiated in the first
place. To study this dynamic system
is an extensive process.1 The major
considerations and their application
to training development are outlined
in this chapter.

Musculoskeletal System
The skeletal and muscular systems
work together to produce movement.
Collectively, they are referred to as
the musculoskeletal system. For a
basic review of the major func-tions
of each of these systems, see Kenney
et al.2
Forro and Function This concept is simple when
viewed in iso-lation. To illustrate
of Skeletal Muscle this point, let's look at the biceps
Skeletal muscles attach to bone at brachii, which attaches to the
either end of the muscle. scapula and the humerus (upper
Connective tissue runs throughout arm bone) at one end and the ulna
the collection of individual muscle and radius bones of the forearm at
fibres that come together to make a the other end (figure 2.2a). With
muscle. This con-nective tissue the shoulder fixed, contraction in
forms the tendons, which join the biceps brachii moves the hand
muscle to bone. The myotendinous towards the shoulder, and the
junction enables a pulling force to elbow flexes (figure 2.2b); the ulna
be created between the bones (i.e., and radius are moved relative to
if a muscle attaches to different the humerus. If the hands are fixed
bones at each of its ends, the (for example, when hanging from a
muscle can exert a pull between bar in a chin-up) and the biceps are
bones, creating movement of one contracted, the humerus is moved
bone relative to the other). closer to the ulna and radius, again
through elbow flexion (figure 2.2c).
 Biceps
brachii

Biceps brachii Brachialis

(long head)
Middle and
Biceps brachii lower trapezius
(short head) Brachialis
Rhomboid
major
Brachioradialis
Latissimus
dorsi

Gluteus
maximus

Anterior deltoid
Biceps brachii
Brachialis
Brachioradialis

Figure 2.2 Muscles exert forces that

b enable bones to move relative to each
other.

19
20 Athletic Movement
Skills

Althou occur in
gh this isolation
explanat . A
ion is complex
designe interacti
d to on
illustrat between
e how muscles
bones exert-
move ing
relative differen
to each tial
other, forces
the on
example bones
is produce
oversim s the
plified. phenom
Move- enon
ment that we
doesn't observe
really as
occur as moveme
an nt.
isolated For
action; example
for , to fiex
example (bend)
, the arm
executin at the
g a chin- elbow
up from a
requires normal
the carrying
work of position
many (assum-
muscles ing a
. relativel
Complet y heavy
ely mass) to
under- a
standin position
g in which
moveme the
nt palm of
means the
acceptin hand
g that faces
muscle the
actions shoul-
rarely der joint
at full fossa of
flexion, the
the clavicle
primary —is
force is fixed by
created contract
by ion of
contract the
ing the rotator
biceps cuff
brachii muscles
and the (infraspi
brachial natus,
is, with teres
assistan minor,
ce from subscap
the ularis
brachi- and
oradialis supraspi
as natus).
resistan The
ce triceps
increase brachii
s. In this (the
action, primary
the extensor
primary muscle
stabilize of the
r of the elbow)
elbow also
joint is acts as
the a
anconeu synergis
s. The t to fix
position the
of the position
shoulde of the
r—the humeru
humeral s
head is relative
in to the
position shoul-
against der
the (figure
glenoid 2.3).3
Anoth
er
example
of how
antagon
istic
muscle
groups
work in
synchro flexed
nization starting
to bring position
about at the
coordin beginni
ated ng of
moveme the
nt can vertical
be seen compon
in the ent of
vertical the
jump. action
The (figure
practica 2.4a).
l con- The
siderati prime
ons for extenso
developi r group
ng and for the
progra knee is
mming the
this quadric
activity eps
are muscle
explore group:
d in vastus
detail in medialis
chapter , vastus
9. interme
The dius,
vertical vastus
jump lateralis
involves and
the near rectus
simul- femoris.
taneous Within
extensio this
n of the group,
hip, the
knee rectus
and femoris
anide crosses
joints both the
from the hip
 Figure 2.3 Muscle
arrangement
Sternocleidomastoid
around the
glenohumeral Scapula
(shoulder) joint.
Pectoralis
Clavicle Supraspinatus major

First rib Infraspinatus

Deltoid
Teres minor S
ubscapu laris
Long
of biceps Teres major
brachii
(tendon)
Long head
of biceps
Humerus brachii

Lateral head
of triceps
Brachialis brachii

Brachioradialis

Radius

Anconius
Ulna
Understanding Biomotor Abilities
21

and knee maximus

joint and must
is concentric
responsibl ally
e for contract to
flexion of extend the
the hip in hip joint
standing from the
(i.e., leg to
raising the counter
femur the hip-
until it is flexing
perpendic actions of
ular to the the rectus
floor) as femoris
well as and
extension iliopsoas.
of the This action
knee. The brings the
conjoined trunk into
muscles of an upright
the position as
iliopsoas the hip
are also extends
powerful forcibly at
hip flexors the same
that bring time as the
the upper knee and
body anide
forward (figure
when the 2.4b). The
feet are on resultant
the floor. force
Theref enables
ore, if the the body
desired to leave
hip the floor
extension (figure
is to occur, 2.4c). The
the gluteus
hamstring medius
s (biceps and
femoris, gluteus
semi- minimus
membrano stabilize
sus and the hip
semitendin joint in
osus) and this action.
the Note
gluteus that the
respective the correct
movement movement
s of the s, muscles
joints and are trained
the functionall
relative y. In other
positioning words,
of the train
bones to movement
each other s, not
throughou muscles!
t the
actions
bring
about the
muscle
activation
patterns.
This
observatio
n
reinforces
a
fundament
al train-ing
philosophy
emphasize
d
throughou
t this
book:
When
athletic
developme
nt
programm
es
emphasize
that
technique
is based
on placing
the joints
in the
right
positions
by
developing
 A
principle
central to
this idea is
that the
arrangeme
nt
(positionin
g) of the
joints
directly
influences
the
functionin
g of the
muscles, a
concept
explained
by the
gross
structure
of the
muscles
themselve
s (figure
2.5).

Musculos
keletal
System
Response

Gluteus

medius

Gluteus

minimus

s to
Training them in
the correct
Although sequence
many of to
the optimize
architectu the
ral anatomical
features arrangeme
(for nt of the
example, muscles.
limb Correct
length) of technique
the means that
musculosk the correct
el-etal muscles
system are (i.e., those
not muscles
influenced that have
by evolved to
training, best
two undertake
specific this task)
adaptation will be
s can be recruited
targeted. and in
The first is position to
related in perform
large part the work
to the required
neuromusc (i.e., to
ular cause or
system in assist in
that it the motion
involves of the
learning joint). As
correct this book
tech- continuous
nique. ly
Correct highlights,
technique because
places the joint
joints in position
the correct determines
positions muscle
and moves function,
a b
Figure 2.4 Coordinated
muscle actions in a
vertical
countermovement jump:
(a) starting position; (b)

ti
hip, knee lliopsoa
and ankle
s
extend; (c) jump.
Gluteus
maximus
Hamstrings

Quadriceps
22 Athletic Movement Skills

Tendon
Muscle belly
Epimysium (deep fascia)

Fasciculus

Endomysium
(between fibres)

Sarcolemma
Sarcoplasm

Myofibril

Perimysium
Myofilaments-
actin (thin)
—myosin
(thick) Single muscle fibre
Nucleus

Figure 2.5 Gross structure of muscle. The tendon connects to the bone.

an athletic development number of qualities, it has only

programme should emphasize the one action. It can contract to
correct movement technique cause or resist a force in response
(dynamic joint positioning) to to a com-mand from the central
develop muscles. nervous system (formed by the
The second training response is brain and spinal column). The
specific to the application of a executive control structure
resistive load. This response is governing the movement process
an increase in the cross-sectional is within the brain.
area of the muscle, or It has been established that
hypertrophy. Although the movement is a feeling thing, a
specific mechanisms for how this coordinated response to the
occurs are often debated,3 an
increase in muscle size is clearly
caused by the addition of
myofibrils (contractile proteins)
to the muscle fibre. This result
can be seen as advantageous to
the athlete because muscle
cross-sectional area is directly
proportional to the maximum
force-generating capability of the
muscle.4 A more detailed
exploration of the concept of
necessary (or functional)
hypertrophy can be found in
chapter 3.

Neuromuscular System
Although skeletal muscle has a
actions of the sensory and motor Anyone who is involved in the
nervous systems. Theref ore, to analysis and development of
develop effective move-ments, it is sporting performances should
necessary to understand the role realize that the performer who
of the central nervous system and can execute the most forceful
the motor unit structure in skills usually wins; that is, the
regulating human movement strongest and fastest prevails!
(figure 2.6). Another important understanding
If the central nervous system is that the produc-tion and
has a regula-tory function in increased application of forces is
muscle action, and theref ore the result of neuromuscular
movements, those involved in processes. In 1687, Isaac Newton
athletic devel-opment should be wrote that the brain governed
educating (training) the central movement. Therefore, the
nervous system to produce fundamental princi-ple of
movement more effectively. This strength training is more than
goal differentiates the athletic 400 years old. All muscle actions
development professional from are initiated by neural
related professionals who have stimulation, and theref ore
other objectives related to body training (teaching) the
sculpting purely for aesthetic neuromuscular system is the first
reasons. object of the athletic development
coach.
Understanding Biomotor
Abilities 23

External stimuli

Processed
Rapid process response in the
in motor sensory cortex
cortex

Figure 2.6 Interaction

between the central
nervous system and
muscular and endocrine
control.

Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Motor
Neuromuscular envi- (metabolic and
learning
junction is ronmental control processes,
the demand. e.g. hunger, thirst,
Signal sent through
temperature)
process of For the spinal column
program- example,
ming the consider Pituitary Spinal Other
cord

brain and shooting gland endocrine

the central at goal in glands
nervous a game of
system to soccer. A
undertake player can
specific develop
movement this system (motor unit) response
Muscular
tasks technique
under by
various shooting
complex at a goal
conditions in a
in terms of practice
context n is a key
with no theme for
fatigue. building
Skill any
(which can programm
be e or
considered curriculu
the m. This
forceful topic is
application explored
of in more
technique detall in
under chapter 7.
pressure) The
can be central
better nervous
developed system is
if the responsibl
player e for
shoots at a processing
goal when informatio
pressured n received
by a from the
defender.
Learning
is tested
even more
fully if the
player
shoots at a
goal while
being
pressured
by a
defender
in the last
few
minutes of
an
exhausting
game of
high
importanc
e.
Function
al
applicatio
n relating
to the
principies
of motor
learning
and
progressio
environme autonomic
nt nervous
(through system
the (ANS). The
sensory ANS is
cortex) largely
and responsibl
commandi e for
ng a involuntar
response y systems
from the that
rest of the control
body. This normal
book functions,
focuses on such as
movement making
responses the heart
involving a beat,
signal which
from the fortunately
motor can't be
cortex, but reg-ulated
the by
response voluntary
could thought
equally be processes!
a As with
metabolic all organs
one (e.g., in the
increased body, the
rate of brain
respi- develops
ration, progressiv
increased ely and in
heart rate response
or to its
temperatu environme
re nt. At
regulation times of
). These peak
signals growth, or
would be transition
processed in
through circumsta
the nces, the
hypothala brain
mus, under-
which takes a
regulates rewiring
primary process,
hormonal whereby
responses neural
as well as pathways
the that are
well used those that
and are less
developed needed in
are the
retained present
and will be
promoted, pruned
whereas
24 Athletic Movement
Skills

or shut develop
down to ment,
enable particul
the arly in
release chaotic
of brain and
capacity mul-
. tidirecti
This onal
phenom sports
enon is such as
importa soccer,
nt for America
anyone n
working football
with and
children basketb
to all.
underst
and, Motor
because
an Units
inappro and
priate Movem
focus
on ent
highly The
speciali collectiv
zed e term
moveme for a
nts at motor
too neuron
early a and all
stage in the
an muscle
athlete' fibres
s that it
develop innervat
ment es is a
may motor
shut unit
down (figure
neural 2.7).
pathwa One
ys that motor
could neuron
be can
importa make
nt at a contact
later with an
stage of
average precise
of 150 moveme
muscle nts have
fibres. one
When motor
stimulat unit
ed, one supplyin
motor g small
unit will number
cause s
all the
muscle
Figure 27
fibres it
Structure
connect
s with of a
motor unit.
to con-
tract.
Remem
ber that
skeletal
muscle
is either
activate
d
(contrac
ted) or
not.
Muscl
e
s
Dendrite

Cell body (soma)___________-y

Nucleus____________________

Axon
collateral

Axon

Myelin

Node of
Ranvier

Motor
end /píate

Muscle fibres

that
control
of . Note
fibres, that the
maybe nerve
as few stimulus
as 2 or is to the
3. muscle
Muscles fibre,
respons not the
ible for whole
powerfu muscle.
l, gross Therefo
moveme re, a
nts (for percent
example age of
, a fibres
quadric within a
eps muscle
muscle) can be
have activate
one d, not
motor necessa
unit rily the
supplyi whole
ng muscle.
approxi Motor
mately units
2,000 within a
muscle muscle
fibres. fascicul
A us (see
motor figure
neuron 2.5) can
(nerve) be
delivers different
an ially
electri- recruite
cal d
stimulus accordin
from the g to the
central demand
nervous of the
system task; the
to a greater
muscle the level
fibre, a of force
cell required
within , the
the larger
muscle, the
which number
causes of motor
the fibre units
to activate
contract d.
 Messa action
ges are potentia
transfer l arrives
red at the
along motor
neural end
pathwa plate,
ys the
through greater
a motor the
action force of
potentia contract
l, a ion
wave of stimulat
depolari ed
zation within
(action both the
potentia motor
l) that is unit and
propaga the
ted muscle
from as a
the whole.
central Therefo
nervous re, the
system more
along MAPs
the that are
axon of sent
the through
nerve. the
The central
frequen nervous
cy of system
motor along
action the
potentia axon of
ls the
(MAPs) nerve
greatly within a
infiuenc defined
es the period,
activati the
on of greater
motor the
units. contract
The ile
greater respons
the e is
frequen within
cy with the
which muscle.
the This
motor respons
e is to
trainabl human
e, and moveme
stimuli nt
to control.
achieve It is the
this regulato
result ry
can and protein
should that
be determi
integrat nes the
ed speed of
within the
training motor
progra action
mmes potentia
to l from
enhance the
the central
ability nervous
to system
recruit to the
motor muscle
units fibre.
more Myelin
efficient accelera
ly. tes the
Aroun motor
d the action
axon of potentia
a motor l along
nerve is the axon
a pro- of the
tein nerve,
coverin and
g called therefor
myelin. e
This regulate
substan s
ce is moveme
often nt
referred control.
to as As with
the most
white adaptati
matter ons that
in the occur
central within
nervous the
system. human
Myelin body,
is myelin
crucial is
produce stimuli.
d in If a
respons signal is
e to received
repeate with
d
Understanding Biomotor
Abilities 25

sufficient hear that

strength practice
and leads to
frequency perfect.
that the This
brain maxim has
recognizes been
the reconcept
movement ualized to
pattern state that
that needs perfect
reinforcing practice
, myelin makes
will be permanent
created in (learn-ing
response equates to
to the a more or
increased less
need. This permanent
outcome is change in
related to behaviour)
the . Part of
concept of this
neural propositio
plasticity n can be
(the argued
dynamic, against
experience strongly,
- however,
dependent because
developme one of the
nt of the key
nervous features of
system); learning
that is, the theory is
neurologic that to
al learn, a
mechanis person
ms within must be
the body able to
can make
change mistakes
with use or and
disuse. receive
Why is it feedback
important that can
to grasp be used as
this a basis for
concept? adaptation
We often . This idea
is in a
especially positive
relevant way to
when it develop
comes to useful and
tactical coordinate
learning, d
or the movement
developme s with
nt of game synchrono
sense, that us firing of
is, how motor
and when units in a
to use coordinate
particular d manner,
motor as
skills in a opposed to
given being laid
sporting down in a
context. manner
But in that
terms of promotes
learning inappropri
movement -ate
pat-terns movement
and patterns
developing or those
neural that lead
pathways, to
the coach movement
should compensat
think of ions. Put
the another
propositio way,
n in a repetition
slightly of
different incorrect
way: or
Perfect undesirabl
practice e motor
makes patterns
myelin; will cause
myelin them to
makes become
permanent ingrained
.5 Looking and
at how the habitual,
athlete and
moves is therefore
essential, difficult to
because unlearn,
myelin especially
should be when the
laid down movement
skill has to communic
be ation
performed mechanis
under m between
pressure the nerve
or fatigue. and
Between muscle
the axon fibre is the
of the neurotrans
nerve and mitter ace-
the sheath tylcholine.
of the The
muscle is amount of
the motor neurotrans
end plate. mitter
This released is
element directly
has a proportion
junction, al to the
known as strength of
a syn- the neural
apse, that signal. The
has a greater
critical the motor
function in action
regulating potential
movement is, the
. As the larger the
motor release of
action ace-
potential tylcholine
reaches is.
the end of Acetylcholi
the nerve, ne crosses
the signal the
has to synapse
cross the and binds
synapse so with a
that the receptor
signal can site. This
initiate the process
contractio continues
n within until the
the fibre. motor
The action
potentials
cease to
be
transmitte
d along
the axon.
This
process is
continuous
. In a living unit will
human, a not
situation contract.
never This out-
occurs in come is
which a known as
neurotrans the all-or-
mitter isn't nothing
being principle
released. of motor
But to unit
prevent contractio
motor n; that is,
units from motor
being units are
permanent either
ly activated
activated, or not.
evolution
has Motor
created a
threshold Unit
effect. Classifica
When tion
enough
neurotrans Motor
mitter units are
binds to classified
the muscle according
fibre to the
membrane histochemi
, the cal
electrical properties
potential of the
of the fibre muscle
membrane fibre,
changes. If which
insufficient influence
neurotrans the speed
mitter is of
present, contractio
the n of the
electrical fibres and
signal will theref ore
not be their
passed to function
the muscle within
fibres human
attached movement.
to the The
motor classificati
nerve, and on is pre-
there-fore dominantly
the motor determine
d by the indicates
enzyme the
profiles predomina
within the nt
protein metabolic
myofilame pathway
nts of the of the
fibre. But fibre
the volume (aerobic or
and anaerobic)
density of and theref
the ore the
sarcoplas motor
mic unit's
reticulum resistance
also to fatigue.
influence The
calcium synchro-
release nization
and other between
dynamic these
component motor
s of the units is
muscular crucial to
contractio producing
n skilled
mechanis movement
m.2 .
Motor Type I
units can fibres are
consist of predomin
only one antly
type of known as
fibre: Type slow-
I, Ha or twitch, or
llx. enduranc
Besides e, fibres.
signifying Mus-cles
contractile required
speed, the to be
fibre type fatigue
also resistant
are
26 Athletic Movement Skills

predomi ally, a
nantly process
made known
up of as slow
slow- glycolys
twitch is,
fibres. which is
For explaine
example d later
, the in this
gastroc chapter.
nemius As
and such,
soleus, these
the calf fibres
muscles have a
, are relativel
predomi y slow
nantly contract
slow ion
twitch speed.
in Type I
nature fibres
because need a
they good
allow supply
humans of
to stand oxygen,
and which
walk for in turn
relativel requires
y long a good
periods supply
without of
muscle
fatigue.
Because
of the
enduran
ce
nature
of these
fibres,
they
rely
predomi
nantly
on
energy
produce blood.
d These
aerobic fibres
also
have a and can
large recover
number quickly
of from
mitocho bouts of
ndria intense
(where exercise
ATP is . Type
produce Ha
d by fibres
slow are
glycolys theref
is) that ore
are ideal for
larger athletes
in size in
than the multiple
fibres of high-
other intensit
muscles y
. (multipl
Type e
IIa are sprints
interme or
diate collision
muscle ) sports
fibres. or
They events
are such as
known slalom
as fast- skiing
twitch or the
oxidativ 800 to
e-gly- 1,500
colytic metres,
(FOG) in which
fibres. athletes
Because perform
these explosiv
fibres e
con-tain actions
large for
number longer
s of periods.
mitocho Type
ndria, llx*
they muscle
tend to fibres
be have a
reasona fast
bly contrac-
resistan tion
t to speed
fatigue (i.e.,
they are fibres.
fast- These
twitch fibres
fibres) are
and respons
react up ible for
to 10 power-
times ful,
faster high-
than intensit
slow- y
twitch moveme
nts.
They
100% of
have an
fibres enzyme
recruited profile
designe
d to
produce
energy
by
anaerob
50% of ic
fibres glycolys
recruite
d
is. As
such,
they are
not
resistan
t to
fatigue
and can
o operate
maxima
lly for
only
short
periods.
Becau
se Type
IIx
motor
units do
not
require
oxygen
to
produce
ATP,
they
have a
relativel
y poor
blood
supply.
These number
fibre of fibres
types for each
also motor
have neuron,
fewer, so large
smaller forces
mitocho can be
ndria achieve
than d
slow- quickly
twitch by
fibres recruiti
do. ng a
Relative relativel
ly y small
speakin number
g, of motor
athletes units.
who The
excel in contract
explosiv ile force
e achieve
moveme d by a
nts muscle
(e.g., can be
sprint- increase
ers, d
thrower through
s, two
weightli mechani
fters) sms.
can First,
have a more
large motor
number units
of type can be
IIx recruite
muscle d to
fibres. perform
Motor the
units work.
that Force
have producti
predomi on is
nantly related
fast- to the
twitch recruit
fibres ment
are sequenc
charact e of
erized fibres,
by a which
large depends
on the referred to
as Type IIb
intensit fibres.
y of Technically
exercise speaking,
. This Type IIb
fibres are
con- found only
cept is in rodent
known tissue. But
this small
as the technicality
size should not
recruit change the
context of
ment referral.
principi
e,
illustrat Key
ed in Type Ilx fast-twitch
figure glycolytic energy
supply
2.8.
Type Ilx fast-twitch
oxidative-glycolylic
*In some energy supply
texts, Type Type 1 slow-twitch
rtx muscle oxidative energy
supply
fibres are
 50% of maximum strength 100% of maximum strength

Figure 2.8 The size principie of motor

unit recruitment.
Understanding Biomotor
Abilities 27

Type I ilx fibres

fibres are can be
recruited recruited
first. Type (and
IIa fibres therefore
are trained)
recruited only with
next, loads or
either velocities
because of that
more force demand
being the
required or appropriat
because of e
fatigue in contractile
the Type I forces or
fibres. At intensities.
near
maximal Proprioce
levels of
force ption and
requireme the
nt, the Stretch
largest
motor Reflex
units, the The
Type "Ex cerebellum
fibres, are is a key
recruited. component
But these of the
fibres are central
not nervous
resistant to system,
fatigue and because it
will not is
perforen primarily
work for responsibl
long e for
periods, coordinati
even in ng the
highly propriocep
trained tive
athletes. mechanis
Understan ms within
ding the the body.
size Propriocep
recruitmen tion is the
t principie sense that
is determines
important. the
Type Ha or
relative aspects of
position of movement
body parts such as
to other musde
parts of length,
the body musde
(or the tension,
ability to contrac-
reposition tile
a joint to a velocities
predetermi and
ned contact
position) with
and the externa'
strength of objects,
effort often
being described
employed by sport
when performers
moving or as touch or
when feel (i.e.,
resisting 'feel of the
an ball').
externally Kinaesthes
imposed ia allows
load. the
A related neuromusc
(but ular
distinct) system to
sense is send
kinaesthe- motor
sia, the action
sensation potentials
that a body to other
part has muscles,
moved. enabling
Propriocep fine (or
tive organs gross)
exist adjustment
within the s to be
muscles, made. This
the and other
connective mechanis
tissue, the ms provide
joints and feedback
the skin. to the
They central
provide nervous
informatio system and
n back to enable the
the central brain to
nervous receive
system feedback
about about
whether hit a
and how a baseball
consciousl pitch with
y a bat—
controlled requires a
movement finely
was com- tuned
pleted and sense of
then the
prepare position of
for any the joints.
subsequen With
t actions. appropriat
Proprioc ely
eption, progressed
object training,
control this sense
and can
locomotor become
skills all automatic
require a and
well- consolidat
defined ed, which
sense of has a
propriocep profound
tion and influence
kinesthesis on skill
. The developme
ability to nt and
strike an sporting
object—for performan
example, ce. Muscle
to kick a spindle
ball or fibres and
golgi
tendon
organs are
propriocep
-tors that
have a
major
influence
on the
func-tional
performan
ce of
muscles,
because
they
regulate
one of the
key
mechano-
physiologic
al presented
responses in chapters
for the 8 and 9.
neuromusc Muscle
ular fibres have
system in a elastic
sporting properties
context: that
the stretch enable
reflex. them to
Understa elongate.
nding the The action
stretch is similar
reflex is to an
import-ant elastic
in band,
developing which can
physical be
qualities in stretched
a per- to store
former, potential
because energy
the stretch until it
reflex is reaches a
both a criti-cal
protective point. The
mechanis critical
m for the point may
athlete and be related
the key to how far
physio- the stretch
mechanica has
l action elongated
underpirmi the
ng much muscle,
movement sensed by
control propriocep
within the tive
body. It is organs
certainly called
the basis muscle
of the most spindle
powerful fibres.
actions Muscle
such as spindles
rurming, are
jumping encapsulat
and ed
forceful intrafusal
training fibres that
techniques fie in
such as series
plyometric (lengthwis
s, as e) within
the reflex
fasciculus contractio
(see figure n in the
2.5). If the muscle
rate of fibres.'
change in Synergis
length is tic
excessive, muscles,
then those that
before the produce or
muscle support
fibre tissue the same
is injured, movement,
the muscle are also
spindle inner-
fibres will vated
send a when the
message to stretch
the spinal reflex is
cord activated,
through further
Type la strengthen
afferent ing the
nerves.6 protective
These (and
nerves powerful)
synapse reflex
with alpha action.
motor The
neurons in stretch
the spinal reflex
cord to (also
send a known as
preprogra a myotatic
mmed and reflex) is
rapid important
(typically 1 in both
to 2 producing
millisecon powerful
ds) motor sporting
action move-
potential ments and
back to the maintainin
motor unit g postural
to initiate integrity.
a strong
28 Athletic Movement
Skills

A Practica!
Explanation of
the Stretch
Reflex
Stand with the finger is
your hand pulled back,
on your the quicker
thigh. Using the finger
your index will release
finger, hit and hit the
your thigh thigh. But
as hard as even a pull
possible. back and
Then, using pause action
your other will elicit a
hand, pull slow
the index stretch-
finger back shortening
until you feel cycle
a stretching response,
sensation and stored
and then let elastic
it go. Pulling energy will
back the cause a
finger and high-force
releasing it Impact on
causes the the thigh
finger to hit compared
the thigh with a
much harder voluntary
than hitting contraction.
the thigh
without the
prior stretch
of the finger.
The quicker

The and
propriocepti maintai
ve senses ning
enable a dynamic
constant postural
process of control
adjusting through
out the the
kinetic golgi
(move- tendon
ment) organ
chain, causes
the muscle
importa inhibitio
nce of n and
which override
will be s the
emphasi neural
zed stimulus
through to the
out this motor
book. A unit to
practica protect
l means against
of excessiv
explaini e
ng the loading
stretch of the
reflex is muscle.
shown Becau
in the se
sidebar. sporting
Golgi tasks
tendon often
organs require
are the
located rapid
within develop
the ment of
muscle high
— levels of
tendon tension
junction within
. These muscle
organell groups
es because
respond of
to the external
rate of loadings
increase , one of
in the
muscula things
r that
tension progra
that mmes
occurs need to
because develop
of graduall
externa' y is
loading. golgi
Stimulat tendon
ion of
organ g
inhibitio
n. The Many
muscle possible
can adaptati
then ons to
resist training
rapid within
rates of the
force neurom
producti uscular
on in system
both are
training transfer
and able to
sporting sporting
tasks actions.
without First,
become when
deactiva teachin
ted. g skilled
This actions,
outcom the
e can be coach
achieve should
d emphasi
through ze joint
general position
strengt ing
hening
and
specific
power
activitie
s such
as
plyomet
rics,
which
are the
focus of
chapter
9.

Neuro
muscul
ar
System
Respon
ses to
Trainin
within the
techniq develop
ues. At ment of
early proprio
stages cep-tion
of and
learning kinaest
, joint hetic
position awaren
ing is ess,
more enablin
importa g the
nt than athlete
the to
speed execute
or the
power position
of in
technic increasi
al ngly
executio novel
n, and
because complex
joint tasks.
position This
ing training
determi will
nes enhance
muscle intermu
function scular
-ing. By coordin
reinforc ation,
ing the which
moveme refers
nt to the
patterni ability
ng of of the
the agonist,
joints, antagon
the ist and
athlete synergis
will t
train muscles
the to
muscles contribu
that are te fully
recruite to the
d. target
Repetiti activity,
on of and
these involves
actions minimiz
also -ing
enables coactiva
tion and scular
maximiz coordin
ing ation,
synergis which
tic relates
contribu to the
tion.8 excitati
Traini on and
ng will inhibitio
increas n
e the pattern-
inhibitio ing of
n of the
certain agonist
organs muscles
(for .
example Appro
, the priate
golgi training
tendon also
organs) causes
or increase
facilitat d
e other myelina
actions tion to
(such as occur
the within
activati the axon
on of of the
muscle motor
spindle nerve
fibres), (neuron
leading ),
to enablin
increas g much
ed more
ability effective
to use a transmi
stretch- ssion of
shorteni the
ng cycle motor
to action
produce potentia
powerfu l from
l the
moveme central
nts. nervous
These system
adaptati to the
ons will muscle.
contrib Learned
ute to patterns
enhance within
d the
intramu
central n—the
nervous pattern
system encod-
also ing of
improve the
the motor
sequenc action
ing of potentia
motor ls.
unit Similarl
activatio y,
Understanding Biomotor
Abilities 29

the kinaesthet
frequency ic
at which feedback
neural and the
signals identified
(rate need to
coding) initiate
reach the responsive
muscles movement
can be s.
enhanced. Therefore,
These an
adaptation important
s mean training
that adaptation
muscles is the
can be ability to
activated sense
to produce changes in
much the muscle
greater fibre's
contrac- length,
tile f orces tension
through and
improved velocity of
intramusc shortening
ular to provoke
coordinati correspon
on.8 ding
These signals to
adaptation motor
s occur at units that
a more can
global produce
level; they corrective
are not or
restricted responsive
to actions.
individual The ability
motor to
units. organize
Indeed, motor
skilled action
performan poten-tials
ces are the to cause
result of synchroniz
sensory ation or
and coordinate
propriocep d
tive or sequencin
g of motor As the
unit great
activations sprint
, or indeed coach
larger Loren
muscle Seagrave
group once said,
actions, is 'Any idiot
a key can make
training someone
response. tired. The
trick is to
make them
Bioener tired in the
getic right way
and
System without
losing the
All the quality of
work done the
within the technique'
body (personal
(thinking, communic
moving, ation).
manipulati Energy is
ng) created by
requires breaking
energy. To down a
improve stor-age
the molecule.
capacity of In sport,
the glycogen,
athlete's the
motor muscular
system, storage of
training glucose, is
the usually
availability broken
of energy down, but
to fuel sometimes
mechanica it can be
l work is fat.
as Breaking
important down
as these
developing molecules
the involves a
movement number of
skills to physical
perform systems.
the work For
with example,
optimum the
efficiency. respiratory
system Rather
brings than focus
oxygen on each of
into the these
body; the systems in
vascular turn, let's
system work on
transports the
the oxygen premise
in the that the
blood, function of
which is these
pumped by systems is
the cardiac to
muscle contribute
(hence col-
cardiovasc lectively to
ular) and the
is used in production
the cell at of energy.
the end There-
stage of a fore, we
series of will refer
metabolic to them
reactions collectivel
within a y as the
pathway to bioenerget
produce ic system.
energy. The
bioenerget
ic system
is
responsibl
e for
producing
the
chemical
energy
that
enables all
work
undertake
n by the
respective
organs and
systems
within the
body to
occur. The
primary
factor that
limits the
rate at
which
physical appropriat
work can e rate to
be enable the
performed production
is the of energy
availability to support
of the the
energy imposed
currency demand of
in the the
body, sporting
adenosine activity.
triphospha The
te (ATP), a availability
molecule of ATP
of limits the
adenosine athlete's
that is movement
chemically capabil-
bonded ities, so the
with three coach
phosphate needs to
molecules. understand
These a little
chemical about how
bonds these
store energy-
energy delivering
that is mechanism
released to s work
enable with
work to be different
performed intensities
when the of activity.
chemical Three
bonds are energy
broken. systems
Because are
little ATP is responsibl
stored in e for
the body producing
cells ATP from
(typically the body's
this supply stores of
is chem-ical
exhausted energy:
after 1 to 3 Phospha
seconds of gen. This
exercise), system is
the athlete sometime
needs to s
train to referred
produce to as the
ATP at an phosphoc
reatine es
or referred
creatine to as
phosphat anaerobi
e system. c
It usually (without
can oxygen)
produce glycolysi
energy s (the
for splitting
intense of
periods glycogen
of ).
exercise Aerobic
up to 10 metabol
seconds ism.
long by Slow
breaking glycolysi
down s is a
creatine series of
phosphat metaboli
e stores c
in the reactions
body to that
produce produce
ATP. ATP in
After the
these presence
stores of
are oxygen.
exhauste
d, the These
body three
uses energy
glycolysis systems
as the are not
predomin indepen-
ant dent of
means to each other.
create Indeed,
ATP. they are
integrated,
Fast and in any
glycolys activity, a
is. This combinatio
system is n of these
sometim
30 Athletic Movement
Skills

systems league
supplies (figure
energy. 2.9) can
How be
they differen
combine tiated
and from
which sports
energy such as
supply soccer,
mechani which
sm pre- has
dominat many
es in short
any bursts
given of high-
activity in-
depends tensity
on the sprints
intensit interspe
y of the rsed
exercise with
. The long
more periods
intense of
the relativel
exercise y low-
is (i.e., intensit
the y
closer it running
is to and
maximu walking.
m The
intensit differen
y at any ce in
given the
time), activity
the profiles
greater between
the the
contribu sports
tion that needs to
fast be
glycolys reflecte
is will d in the
have. In relative
this conditio
way, ning of
sports the
such as athletes
rugby . When
demand plus
for ATP hydro-
begins gen,
to which is
exceed used at
supply, a later
fatigue stage to
will produce
quickly more
occur to ATP in
prevent the
the presenc
body e of
from oxygen.
reach- The
ing a com-
point of bined
systemi actions
c of the
failure. ATP—
Glycol PCr
ysis (phosph
involves agen)
breakin and
g down glycolyti
the c
mus- systems
cular allow
and muscles
liver to
stores of generat
glycoge e force
n into a when
sub- the
stance demand
called for
pyruvat energy
e. This exceeds
conversi the rate
on at which
requires energy
12 can be
enzymat supplied
ic aerobi-
reaction cally. In
s in total this way,
and these
produce two
s a net energy
gain of systems
three are
molecul
es of
ATP
Os 4s
lOs the
major
energy
contrib
utors
during
the
early
minutes
of high-
intensit
y
exercise
.
The
fate of
the
pyruvat
e
molecul
e
depends
on the
intensit
y of the
work
being
perform
ed. The
rate-
limiting
factor is
the
ability
of the
cardiore
spirator
y
system
to
supply
oxygen
to the
working
musdes.
In low-
intensit
y
exercise
, in
which
the
demand
for
oxygen e of
can be glycoge
met by n is 39
the molecul
supply, es). The
oxygen- by-
depend product
ent s of the
(slow) reaction
gly- s that
colysis occur to
allows produce
pyruvat this ATP
e to be are
transpo water
rted and
into an carbon
organell dioxide,
e within which
the are
muscle remove
cell d from
known the
as a muscle
mitocho cells by
ndrion. the
In the blood
mitocho and
ndria, a exhaled
series of through
chemica the
l lungs.
reaction This
s process
occurs, (known
which as
ultimate oxidativ
ly e
produce phospho
s up to rylation)
36 can
molecul occur
es of for as
ATP long as
(thus, the
the athlete
potentia is able
l total to
producti deliver
on of glycoge
ATP n and
from oxygen
one to the
molecul working
muscles largely
. respons
When ible for
the creating
intensit ATP.
y of The net
exercise product
exceeds ion of
that at ATP is
which the
the same
oxygen (two or
supply three
is molecul
sufficie es), but
nt, then the fate
oxygen- of the
indepen pyruvat
dent e
(fast)
glycolys
Ti m e
is
1.5min
become 3min +
s

_ //
Focus of rugby league o_
i—
endurance training a Any single-skill effort, 0-10m sprints

Recovery periods to Aerobic-

{ Slow glycolysis
By-product of rugby league replace oxygen debt endurance
endurance training

I
m
m
e
di
a Sustained-power work 0-20-
ATP-
t phosphagen 100m sprints, fast breaks,
e collisions and wrestles
a
nd Anaerobic-power endurance
Phosphagen and fast glycolysis Wrestles and repeat plays, sustained plays,
set of six defending, repeat sets, support play
s
h
o
rt
-
t
e
r
m

L
o
 n
g
-
t
e
r
m
anaer
obic
syste
ms

aerob
ic
syste
m

Figure 2.9
Bioenergetic
requirements of
rugby league.
Understanding Biomotor
Abilities 31

molecule Alternativ
changes. ely, it is
Instead of removed
being from the
transporte muscle
d into the cell, taken
mitochond by blood
ria, to the liver
pyruvate is and
reduced to converted
lactate in back into
the muscle glucose
cell. for use as
During an energy
medium- store at a
intensity later
exercise, stage.
lactate is Thus, it
formed. can be
Lactate seen that
has two lactate,
uses. rather
When than being
suffi-cient a toxin (as
oxygen is many
available coaches
(for think it is),
example, is actually
after a useful
intense fuel
work when source for
the athlete the body,
is particularl
replacing y in slow-
the oxygen twitch
debt by muscle
breathing fibres,
hard), which
lactate is have a
transforme high
d back number of
into mitochond
pyruvate, ria in
transporte them.
d into the High-
mitochond intensity
ria and anaerobic
converted work,
into 36 which
molecules forms the
of ATP. major
component can
s of the produce
majority of immediatel
game- y available
based energy for
sports and up to 2
all sports in minutes in
which fit players,
performanc but a
es last less significant
than 3 fatigue
minutes, component
cannot be limits how
sustained long the
for long player can
periods. keep
High- working
intensity anaerobica
anaerobic lly. This
work occurs
because
the build-
up of
lactate in
the muscle
cell is
accompani
ed by an
increase in
hydrogen
ions (11+).
High
concentrat
ions of
these posi-
tively
charged
particles
make the
muscle cell
more
acidic.
Higher
levels of
acidity
interfere
with the
muscle
contractio
n
mechanis
ms and the
efficiency
of the
enzymes summarize
involved in s the
ATP training
production adapta-
, thereby tions
causing possible
fatigue. within the
The body biomotor
has systems.
evolved The
this importanc
protective e of the
mechanis neuromusc
m to limit ular and
the mus-
amount of culoskeleta
work that l systems
a human in enabling
can do the
before produc-
reaching tion of
exhaustion skilled
. For a movement
review on has been
the train- discussed
ing throughout
adaptation this
s to the chapter. By
bioenerget understan
ic system, ding the
see Kenny, basic
Wilmore principles
and for
Costill.2 developing
Figure the
2.10 component
s
 Performance
Neuromuscul Musculoskele
ar system tal system

Functio y
nal Struct Central
training ural adaptati
effects trainin ons
g Peripher
effect al
s adaptati
ons

Intermuscular
coordination:
Intramuscular
Synchronization
coordination:
or sequencing of
Activation of
muscle-group
numbers of
actions such as
motor units
inhibition,
(number
Primary level of intervention for the athletic development coach

disinhibition, encoding);
facilitation sequencing of motor-
unit activation (pattern
encoding); neural
signal frequency (rate
coding)

Figure 2.10 The athletic

development coach can

manipulate biomotor
Bioenergetic system
systems to
enhance performance.

Joint positioning Fibre hypertrophy

Proprioception
Kinaesthesia
32 Athletic Movement
Skills

of the loading
motor of
system, training
the to
athletic achieve
develop the
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