Example [1]:

The expression for the heat transfer coefficient for air cooling of orange (7 cm OD) is given as
Nu = 5.05 Re1/3. The initial rate of heat transfer from an orange, the temperature gradient at the orange
surface, and the value of the Nusselt number are to be determined.
Assumptions:
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. Orange is spherical in shape.
3. Convection heat transfer coefficient is constant over the entire surface.
4. Properties of water is used for orange.
Properties The thermal conductivity of the orange is k = 0.50 W/m.°C. The thermal conductivity and
the kinematic viscosity of air at the film temperature of (Ts + T∞)/2 = (15+5)/2 = 10°C are:
k = 0.02439 W/m.K  = 1.426x10-5 m2/s

𝐀 𝐒 = 𝛑𝐝𝟐 = 𝛑(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟗 𝐦𝟐

Air
𝐕𝐃 𝟎. 𝟑(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕) V = 0.3 m/s
𝐑𝐞 = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟑
𝛎 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟔𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟓 T∞= 5oC
Orange
T1= 15oC
𝑵𝒖 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 𝑹𝒆𝟏/𝟑
𝒉𝒅
= 𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 𝑹𝒆𝟏/𝟑
𝒌𝒂𝒊𝒓 d =7 cm
𝒌𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟑𝟗
𝒉 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 ( ) 𝑹𝒆𝟏/𝟑 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 ( ) (𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟑)𝟏/𝟑
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝑾
𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑲
Newton’s law of cooling:
𝐐̇ = 𝐡𝐀 𝐒 (𝐓𝐒 − 𝐓∞ ) = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟗)(𝟏𝟓 − 𝟓) = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝐖
The temperature gradient at the orange surface is determined from:
𝛛𝐓
𝐪̇ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯 = 𝐪̇ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 = −𝐤 ( ) = 𝐡(𝐓𝐒 − 𝐓∞ )
𝛛𝐫 𝐫=𝐑
𝜕𝑇 𝐡(𝐓𝐒 − 𝐓∞ ) 20.02(15 − 5) 𝐨
( ) =− = = −𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐂/𝐦
𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅 𝐤 0.5
The Nusselt number is:

𝐡𝐝 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕)

𝐍𝐮 = = = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓
𝐤 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟑𝟗
Example [2]
Experimental tests on a portion of turbine blade indicated that a 95000 W/m2
heat flux to the blade of 95000 W/m2. To maintain a steady-state Air Coolant
surface temperature of 800oC heat transferred to the blade is channel
V = 160 m/s
removed by circulating a coolant inside the blade. TS= 800oC
❑ Determine the heat flux to the blade if its temperature is T∞= 1150oC
reduced to Ts,i= 700oC by increasing the coolant flow.
❑ Determine the heat flux at the same dimensionless location for L = 40 mm
a similar turbine blade having a chord length of L=80 mm,
when the blades operates in an air flow at T∞= 1150oC and
V=80 m/s with TS= 800oC.
Assumptions:
i. Steady-state conditions
ii. Constant air properties.
The heat flux is 95000 W/m2 when the blade temperature is 800oC, so, from Newton’s law of cooling:
𝒒̇ = 𝒉(𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 )
𝐪̇ 𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐡= = = 𝟐𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝐖⁄(𝐦𝟐 𝐊)
(𝐓∞ − 𝐓𝐒 ) 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎𝟎
Case (1): TS1= 700oC
𝒒̇ 𝟏 = 𝒉(𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺,𝟏 )
𝒒̇ 𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟖(𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟕𝟎𝟎) = 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟖𝟓 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐
To determine the heat flux associated with the larger blade and the reduced air flow case (2), we first
note that although L has increased by a factor of 2, the velocity has decreased by the same factor and
the Reynolds number has not changed.
𝑽𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝑽𝑳
𝑹𝒆𝑳,𝟐 = = = 𝑹𝒆𝑳
𝝂 𝝂
Since x* and Pr are also unchanged, the local Nusselt number remain the same.

𝑵𝒖𝟐 = 𝑵𝒖

Because the characteristic length is different, however, the convection coefficient changes, where:

𝒉𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝒉𝑳
=
𝒌 𝒌
𝑳 𝒒̇ 𝑳
𝒉𝟐 = 𝒉 ( )= ( )
𝑳𝟐 (𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 ) 𝑳𝟐

(𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 ) 𝑳 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑾
𝒒̇ 𝟐 = 𝒉𝟐 (𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 ) = 𝒒̇ ( ) = 𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( ) = 𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟐
(𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝑺 ) 𝑳𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎
Example [3]
Parallel flow of oil between two plates is considered. The upper plate is maintained at 40oC and its velocity is 12 m/s. The
lower plate is stationary and its temperature is 15oC. If the oil is 0.7 mm thickness, determine the velocity and temperature
distributions, the maximum temperature, and the heat flux.
V2= 12 m/s
Assumptions T2= 40oC
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. Oil is an incompressible substance with constant properties. 0.7 mm Oil
3. Body forces such as gravity are negligible.
4. The plates are large so that there is no variation in z direction.
T1= 15oC
Properties The properties of oil at the average temperature of (40+15)/2 = 27.5°C :
2
k = 0.145 W/m⋅K and μ = 0.605 kg/m⋅s = 0.605 N⋅s/m
Analysis (a) We take the x-axis to be the flow direction, and y to be the normal direction. This is parallel flow between two
plates, and thus v = 0.
Then the continuity equation reduces to
𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐯 𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐯
+ =𝟎 → =𝟎 → =𝟎
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲
Therefore, the x-component of velocity does not change in the flow direction (i.e., the velocity profile remains unchanged).
Noting that u = u(y), v = 0, and P/x = 0 (flow is maintained by the motion of the upper plate rather than the pressure
gradient), the x-momentum equation (Eq. 6-28) reduces to :
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢
𝑥 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚: 𝜌 (𝑢 +𝑣 ) = − + 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
𝜌 [𝑢(0) + 𝑣 ( )] = −(0) + 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑦 2
This is a second-order ordinary differential equation, and integrating it twice gives:
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2
The fluid velocities at the plate surfaces must be equal to the velocities of the plates because of the no-slip condition.
Therefore, the boundary conditions are u(0) = 0 and u(L) = V , and applying them gives the velocity distribution to be:
𝑉
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑦
𝐿
𝜕𝑢 𝑉
=
𝜕𝑦 𝐿
Frictional heating due to viscous dissipation in this case is significant because of the high viscosity of oil and the large
plate velocity. The plates are isothermal and there is no change in the flow direction, and thus the temperature depends on y
only, T = T(y). Also, u = u(y) and v = 0. Then the energy equations with dissipation (Eqs. 6-36 and 6-37) reduce to:
Energy:
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑢 2
𝑘 2 +𝜇( ) = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕𝑢 2 𝑉 2
𝑘 2 = −𝜇 ( ) = −𝜇 ( )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝐿
𝜕2𝑇 𝜇 𝑉 2
= − ( )
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑘 𝐿
By twice integration:
 𝝁 𝑽 𝟐 𝟐
𝑻(𝒚) = − ( ) 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟑 𝒚 + 𝑪𝟒
𝟐𝒌 𝑳
Applying the boundary conditions T(0) = T and T(L) = T gives the temperature distribution to be
1 2

𝜇 𝑉 2
𝑇1 = − ( ) (0)2 + 𝐶3 (0) + 𝐶4 → 𝐶4 = 𝑇1
2𝑘 𝐿
𝜇 𝑉 2 𝑇1 − 𝑇1 𝜇𝑉 2
𝑇2 = − ( ) (𝐿)2 + 𝐶3 (𝐿) + 𝑇1 → 𝐶3 = +
2𝑘 𝐿 𝐿 2𝑘𝐿
𝐓𝟐 −𝐓𝟏 𝛍𝐕 𝟐 𝐲 𝐲 𝟐
𝐓(𝐲) = 𝐓𝟏 + ( )𝐲 + [ − ( ) ] ............................................................................ (A)
𝐋 𝟐𝐤 𝐋 𝐋

(b) The temperature gradient is determined by differentiating T(y) with respect to y,

𝒅𝑻 𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 𝛍𝐕 𝟐 𝟐𝐲
=( )+ [𝟏 − ]
𝒅𝒚 𝐋 𝟐𝐤𝐋 𝐋

The location of maximum temperature is determined by setting dT/dy = 0 and solving for y,
𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 𝛍𝐕 𝟐 𝟐𝐲
𝟎=( )+ [𝟏 − ]
𝐋 𝟐𝐤𝐋 𝐋
𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 1 40 − 15 1
𝑦 = 𝐿 [𝑘 ( ) + ] = 0.0007 [0.145 ( )+ ]
𝜇𝑉 2 2 0.605 ∗ 122 2
𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟗 𝐦 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟏 𝐦𝐦
Substitute in Eqn.(A):
𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓(𝟏𝟐)𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟏 𝟐
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟓 + ( ) (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟏) + [ −( ) ]
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟓) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟏𝐨 𝐂

(C ) Heat flux at the plates is determined from the definition of heat flux,

𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝛍𝐕 𝟐 𝟐𝐲
𝑞̇ 𝑜 = −𝑘 ( ) = −𝑘 [( )+ (𝟏 − )]
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=0 𝐿 𝟐𝐤𝐋 𝐋 𝑦=0
40 − 15 0.605(12)2 𝑊
𝑞̇ 𝑜 = −0.145 [ + (1 − 0)] = −67400 2
0.0007 2(0.0007) 𝑚
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝛍𝐕 𝟐 𝟐𝐲
𝑞̇ 𝐿 = −𝑘 ( ) = −𝑘 [( )+ (𝟏 − )]
𝑑𝑦 𝑦=𝐿 𝐿 𝟐𝐤𝐋 𝐋 𝑦=𝐿
40 − 15 0.605(12)2 𝑊
𝑞̇ 𝐿 = −0.145 [ + (1 − 2)] = 57100 2
0.0007 2(0.0007) 𝑚
Discussion
A temperature rise of about 76°C confirms our suspicion that viscous dissipation is very significant. Calculations are done
using oil properties at 27.5°C, but the oil temperature turned out to be much higher. Therefore, knowing the strong
dependence of viscosity on temperature, calculations should be repeated using properties at the average temperature of
about 65°C to improve accuracy.
In a boundary layer during steady two-dimensional flow, the velocity component in the flow direction is much larger
than that in the normal direction, and thus u >> v, and ∂v /∂x and ∂v/∂y are negligible. Also, u varies greatly with y in the
normal direction from zero at the wall surface to nearly the free-stream value across the relatively thin boundary layer,
while the variation of u with x along the flow is typically small. Therefore, ∂u/∂y>>∂u/∂x. Similarly, if the fluid and the
wall are at different temperatures and the fluid is heated or cooled during flow, heat conduction will occur primarily in the
direction normal to the surface, and thus ∂T/∂y>>∂T/∂x. That is, the velocity and temperature gradients normal to the
surface are much greater than those along the surface. These simplifications are known as the boundary layer
approximations.