University Of Gondar

Institute Of Technology
Mechanical engineering department

Engineering Materials II

Compiled By: Melese Sh.

Office : F05--09
1
 •Why need we study material science and engineering
material?

chapter-1 Alloy Steel

(Ferrous alloy)
Content :
introduction :
 Effect Of Alloying Elements On Steel
Mechanical And Physical Properties alloys*
, Corrosion And Oxidation Resistance Of The Following
Class Of Steels*
 Carbon Steel ,
 Stainless Steel,
2 Heat treatment
Introduction :
Steel: steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.
However ,steel contain other elements like silicon,
manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, nickel, etc .

Influence of Alloying Elements in Steel

 Iron -- Iron is the chief element of steel.
• Normally commercial iron contains other elements
present in varying quantities which produce the required
mechanical properties.
•Iron lacks strength, is very ductile and soft and does not
respond to heat treatment to any appreciable degree.
• It can be hardened somewhat by cold working, but not
nearly as much as even a plain low carbon steel.
3
CARBON –
When a small amount of carbon is added to iron,
the properties which give steel its great value begin
to appear.
As the amount of carbon increases up to .80 or
.90%, the metal becomes harder, possesses greater
tensile strength, and, what is most important,
becomes increasingly responsive to heat treatment
with corresponding development of very high
strength and hardness.

4
Exercise 1.
(a) List the four classifications of steels. (b) For each, briefly describe the properties and typical applications.
Solution
This question asks that we list four classifications of steels, and, for each, to describe properties
and cite typical applications.
Low Carbon Steels
Properties: nonresponsive to heat treatments; relatively soft and weak; Machin able and
wieldable.
Typical applications: automobile bodies, structural shapes, pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin
cans.
Medium Carbon Steels
Properties: heat treatable, relatively large combinations of mechanical characteristics.
Typical applications: railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and machine parts.
High Carbon Steels
Properties: hard, strong, and relatively brittle.
Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, and hacksaw blades.
High Alloy Steels (Stainless and Tool)
Properties: hard and wear resistant; resistant to corrosion in a large variety of environments.
Typical applications: cutting tools, drills, cutlery, food processing, and surgical tools.

5
Exercise: 2
(a)Cite three reasons why ferrous alloys are used so
extensively.
(b) Cite three characteristics of ferrous alloys that limit
their utilization.

6
 The purpose of alloying elements
 To increase hardenablity
 To increase the resistance to corrosion and oxidation
To improve high temperature properties
To increase resistance to abrasion
 To enhance the strength

Disadvantages of alloying
 Special handling
 Temper brittleness in certain grades
 Cost

7
 Effects of Alloying elements on Steel.

8
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often
grouped into two classes—ferrous and nonferrous.
Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal
constituent, include steels and cast irons.
Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals
Iron Aluminum
Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others Others
9
 Classification scheme for the
various ferrous alloys.

10
Plain Carbon Steels
 Since the properties of plain carbon steels are so dependent
upon their carbon percentage, these steels are further classified
into following categories on the basis of carbon percentage only:
(i) Low carbon or dead mild steel having carbon below 0.15%,
(ii) Mild steel having carbon between 0.15–0.3%,
(iii) Medium carbon steel having carbon between 0.3–0.7%, and
(iv) High carbon steels having carbon content above 0.7% (the
higher practical limit of C% is
1.3%).
 As the carbon percentage increases, the strength and hardness of
plain carbon steel increases while ductility decreases

11
Applications and Uses of Plain Carbon Steel
 Dead mild steel. It has got very good weld ability and
ductility. Hence, it is used in welded and solid drawn tubes, thin
sheets and wire rods, etc. It is also used for those parts which
undergo shock loading but must have good wear-resistance. To
increase its wear-resistance, the parts have to undergo case
hardening process; which provides a hard surface, while the core
remains soft and tough.
 Mild steel. It is used very extensively for structural work. It
retains very good weld ability if carbon percentage is limited to
0.25%. Forgings, stampings, sheets and plates, bars, rods and
tubes are made of mild steel.

12
Medium carbon steel. It has little weld ability but is stronger
and has better wearing property than mild steel. It is used for
railway axles, rotors and discs, wire ropes, steel spokes, marine
shafts, carbon shafts, general agricultural tools etc.
High carbon steels. It is used for hand tools like cold chisels,
cold working dies, hammers, boiler maker’s tools, wood
working tools, hand taps and reamers, filers, razors, shear blades
etc. High carbon steels can be hardened by the process of
quenching and being hard can be used for cutting tools which are
not used in hot condition. If they become hot (above 150°C),
they begin to lose their hardness and become blunt.

13
 Microstructure, mechanical properties, and uses of plain carbon
14
steels
WROUGHT IRON
 It is the purest form of iron; although it may contain traces of
carbon. It is usually made by ‘‘puddling process’’ and besides iron
contains a small quantity of slag. It is very costly and its use has
been almost totally replaced by cheaper steel. However, for some
components like chain-links and chain-hooks wrought iron is still
the preferred raw material. In old havelis/houses, one can still see
iron railings and gates made of wrought iron.
CAST IRON
 Cast irons contain more than 2% carbon, which is the
theoretical limit for steels. However, in actual practice, carbon
content of most cast irons is between 3 to 4 per cent. One
characteristic of cast irons (except white cast iron) is that much
of the carbon content is present in free form as graphite. It is
15
this fact, which determines, largely, the properties of cast iron.
Cast iron is generally produced in coke-fired cupola furnaces by
melting a mixture of pig iron, scrap cast iron and a small
percentage (usually not exceeding 5%) of small sized steel scrap.
Melting point of cast iron is much lower than that of steel. Most
of the castings produced in a cast iron foundry are of grey cast
iron. These are cheap and widely used. There are many varieties
of cast iron. These are listed below:
(i) Grey cast iron,
(ii) White cast iron,
(iii) Malleable cast iron,
(iv) Nodular cast iron, and
(v) Alloy cast iron

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
*Exercise:
1. Give the broad classification of cast irons.
2. Cite three reasons why ferrous alloys are used so extensively. And cite three characteristics of
ferrous alloys that limit their utilization.
3. Compute the volume percent of graphite VGr in a 2.5 wt% C cast iron, assuming that all the
carbon exists as the graphite phase. Assume densities of 7.9 and 2.3 g/cm3 for ferrite and
graphite, respectively.
4. On the basis of microstructure, briefly explain why gray iron is brittle and weak in tension.
5. Compare gray and malleable cast irons with respect to (a) composition and heat treatment,
(b) microstructure, and (c) mechanical characteristics.
6. Compare white and nodular cast irons with respect to (a) composition and heat treatment,
(b) microstructure, and (c) mechanical characteristics.
7. Is it possible to produce malleable cast iron in pieces having large cross-sectional dimensions?
Why or why not?
8. Differentiate between free and combined carbon?
9. Why should the iron-iron carbide diagram not be used to determine the structures in gray
iron?
10. Assume that a C clamp is to made of cast iron. Select a suitable a type of cast iron and
explain the reasons for the selection.

25
**************
 Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys—those of which iron is the prime constituent—are
produced in larger
quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as
engineering construction materials. Their widespread use is accounted
for by three factors:
(1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the
earth’s crust;
(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques;
and
(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored
to have a wide range of mechanical and physical properties.

26
Nonferrous Alloys
Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large
quantities because they have such a wide range of mechanical
properties, may be fabricated with relative ease, and are economical to
produce. However, they have some distinct limitations, chiefly:
(1) a relatively high density,
(2) a comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
(3) an inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common
environments.
Thus, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to
utilize other alloys having more suitable property combinations. Alloy
systems are classified either according to the base metal or according to
some specific characteristic that a group of alloys share

27
 The Properties Of All Alloys Are Determined By The
Kinds And Amounts Of Phases
• Ferrous alloys contains of two or more phases known
as ferrite, austenite, carbides and graphite.
•The alloying element in ferrous alloying element affect
the stability of this phases
• The alloying element also affect the properties of phases
in which each elements exist
 Thus, alloying elements achieve control of the properties
of ferrous alloys
Limitation of ferrous alloys
1) Relatively high density
2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance
28
 Phase diagram of Fe-C

29
 Classification of Ferrous
Alloys

30
Steel
It contains Iron and carbon as main constituent
 The mechanical properties of steel is highly dependent on the
composition of carbon
Depending on the composition of alloying element it can be divided into:
• Low carbon steel
• Medium carbon
• High carbon steel
Microstructure of Steel
Five main constituents:
a) Ferrite
b) Austenite
c) Cementite
d) Pearlite
e) Martensite
31
32
33
 N.B
Types Of Crystal Structures
In metals, three lattice structures are common:
(1) body centred cubic (BCC),
(2) face entered cubic (FCC), and
 (3) hexagonal close-packed (HCP),.
Note that some metals undergo a change of structure at different
temperatures. Iron, for example, is BCC
at room temperature; it changes to FCC above 912C (1674F) and back
to BCC at temperatures above 1400C(2550F).When a metal (or other
material) changes structure
like this, it is referred to as being allotropic.

34
 Body centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure:
(a) unit cell, with atoms indicated as point locations in a three-dimensional
axis system;
(b) unit cell model showing closely packed atoms (sometimes called the
hard-ball model); and
35
(c) repeated pattern of the BCC structure.
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
*Exercise:
1. Sketch the temperature – time diagram during the heating cycle of a
0.8% C steel. Use standard Fe- Fe 3 C phase diagram.
2. What is eutectic point?
3. If an eutectoid steel is kept at 700⁰ C what change do you expect?
4. What is the limitation of phase diagram?
5. Which microstructure in eutectoid steel has maximum hardens? Give
reason.
6. Is it possible to have an iron-carbon alloy for which the mass
fractions of total cementite and pro-eutectoid ferrite are 0.057 and 0.36,
respectively? Why or why not?
7. Briefly explain why a proeutectoid phase (ferrite or cementite) forms
along austenite grain boundaries.
8. Draw the Fe- Fe 3 C phase diagram and label all the phases. Also
explain in detail each phase.
49 *********************
 Heat treatment process

50
51
 Types of heat treatment process
1. Annealing(heating-holding-cooling at room temperature)
 Full Annealing
 Process Annealing
 Stress relief Annealing
 Recrystallization Annealing
 Spheroids Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Case hardening
 Carburizing
 Cyaniding
 Nitriding
 Flame hardening
52 Induction hardening
 1.Annealing
Annealing is the process of heating the steel slightly above the
critical temperature and slowly cooling it.
Note: critical temperature-is the temperature at which the
structure of the metal start changing.
a) Full annealing
•Heating the steel 30 to 50°C above the critical temperature
•Keeping it at this temperature at some time.
•Slowly cooling it inside the furnace itself.
•When the steel is heated above the critical temperature , coarse
grained austenite structure is formed .when steel is kept at this
temperature for some time a uniform austenite structure is formed
through the metal. Then the metal is cooled slowly .because the
slow cooling the austenite structure is transformed into :
I --A Pearlite and ferrite structure in hypoeteuctoid steel
II-.A Pearlite and Cementite structure in hypereutectoid steel
53
b) Process Annealing
•When steel is cold worked, its ductility is decreased and hardness
is increased. so it is unsuitable for further cold working. To get back
the ductility for the steel , process annealing is done .In this
process steel is heated below critical temperature for some time.
Slowly cooling it inside the furnace itself.
•This process doesn’t produce any new structure. And not heated
above its critical temperature. This process known as
Recrystallisation.
c) Stress relief Annealing
•The Stress relief Annealing is a heat treatment process that is
employed to eliminate internal residual stress by cold working,
casting, machining, welding, quenching..etc.
•These stresses cause brittleness .
•If internal residual stress are not removed, then distortion or
warpage of the material may result.
•Heating Temperature range—550 to 650 °C
54
•Then cooled furnace itself.
 d) Recrystallisation Annealing
•Recrystallisation is a process by which distorted grains of the cold
work metal are replaced by new, strain-free grain during heating
above a specific temperature.
•Recrystallisation temperature is a temperature at which
crystallization takes place i.e. new grains are formed is called
Recrystallisation temperature.
•Recrystallisation does not produce new structure.
e) Spheroidise Annealing
•This process is widely used for annealing hyper eutectoid steel
(high carbon steel) and alloying steel for improving their
machinability.
•In this process steel heated in either of the two method,
•Heating just below lower critical temperature and keeping steel at
this temperature for a long time.
•Heating and cooling alternately between the temperature above
and below the critical temperature.
55
2. Normalizing
The process of normalizing consist of ,
•Heating the metal to a temperature of 50⁰C above the upper critical temperature
•Holding the steel at this temperature for a short time.
•Cooling in still air
when steel is heated above to 50⁰C above the upper critical temperature the
structure becomes austenite.
When its is cooled in still air the austenite structure transforms into homogenous fine
grain structure of ferrite and pearlite for hypo eutectoid steel. Cementite and Pearlite
for hyper eutectoid steel.
3. Hardening .
•Hardening is the process of increasing the hardness of the steel .this is done by
the heating the steel to a above the critical temperature and rapidly cooling it by
quenching in a liquid.
The purpose of hardening are,
•To increase the hardness of the steel so that it can resist wear.
•to enable the steel to cut other metals .(it is to make it suitable for cutting tools so
that it decrease the hardness of steel so that it can resist wear).
56
 4. Surface Hardening or case hardening
A special heat treatment process used for
hardening only the outer surface is known as
case hardening
Purpose of case hardening:
•To produce a wear resistant hard surface
•To improve corrosion resistance
•To improve heat resistance
•To increase the useful life of the component.

57
 *Exercise:
1. If a piece of steel having 0.2% carbon is quenched after soaking at a temperature just above
A 1 what type of structure will you get? Estimate approximate constituents of phases present
and their compositions.
2. Carbon atoms occupy octahedral interstitial sites in austenite and ferrite. Estimate fraction
of these sites that are occupied in these if carbon contents are 0.1 and 0.01wt% respectively.
3. Show that the inter-lamellar spacing of pearlite is inversely proportional to the degree of
under cooling.
4. Which is the more stable, the pearlite or the spheroid tic microstructure? Why?
5. Microstructure of isothermally transformed pearlite should have identical spacing in all
colonies. However often its microstructure often shows that lamellar spacing varies from colony
to colony. Why is it so?
6. Cite two major differences between martensitic and pearlite transformations.
7. Use the concept of Bain distortion to estimate maximum displacement experienced by iron
atom during martensitic transformation. Lattice parameters of austenite and ferrite are
0.356nm & 0.286 respectively. Assume c/a ratio of marten site to be 1.15.
8. Name three most important characteristics of martensitic transformation in steel.
9. Explain why bainite does not form during continuous cooling in plain carbon steel.
10. Why do not you have long carbide plates like Pearlite in Baintite?
58
11. Suggest a simple experimental method for determination of Ms temperature of steel if you
have only facility for heat treatment and metallographic examination.
12.Which of the two would require more severe cooling rate to get fully hardened structure?
(a) 0.8 % carbon steel (b) 1.0 % C steel.
13. Briefly describe the simplest continuous cooling heat treatment procedure that would be
used to convert a 4340 steel from (marten site + bainite) to (ferrite + pearlite).
14. A piece of steel which was quenched after prolonged holding at 700⁰ C was found to have
ferrite marten site structure. Explain when would you expect this to happen?
15. List the factors that determine the strength of proper hardened steel.
16. 0.2 % plain carbon steel in annealed condition has 25% coarse pearlite. If it is normalized
(heat treatment) what changes would you expect in its microstructure?
17. A thin strip of 1.2% carbon steel is quenched in water from its fully austenitic state. What
structure would you expect in this steel?
18. List the factors that determine hardenability of steel. Which of these are preferred? Give
reasons.
19. What is meant by severity of quench? List the factors that determine this. What is its
dimension?
20. Give example of a shallow hardening and a deep hardening steel.
21. A hardened steel has become embrittled on tempering. Can this be de-embrittled?
59
60