2018

Old and New Concept of

Disciplining in Education

FUUST Abdul-Haq (Campus)

Assignment of education
Group Members Name
Head: Muhammad Kashif
Bushra shafiq
Jaffar Ali
Aftab Kareem
Rukhsana
Wajahat Ali
9/14/2018
 THE DISCIPLINE OF EDUCATION

1.1.0 Introduction
Richard Peters, in his inaugural lecture as professor of philosophy of education at the
Institute of Education, London, in 1963, insisted that ‗education is not an autonomous
discipline, but a field, like politics, where the disciplines of history, philosophy,
psychology, and sociology have application.‘1 Similarly, in his classic 1966 paper
Hirst argued that educational enquiry ‗is not itself an autonomous ―form‖ of
knowledge or an autonomous discipline. It involves no conceptual structure unique in
its logical features and no unique test for validity. Such validity, in educational
research and enquiry, was to be found in forms of knowledge grounded elsewhere in
the academy – in philosophy, psychology, sociology and history in particular.‘2 In a

similar way, Dearden (1970)3 questions the disciplinary status of education by saying,
‗I do not know quite what an ―educationist‖ is, or what sort of expert or authority he
is supposed to be. I know what a philosopher of education is, or an educational
psychologist or an educational sociologist, but I am not at all sure what a plain
―educationist‖ would be.‘ Many of us are surprised by our early encounters with
educational studies. In schools, we study math, science, history and other subjects but
not usually the education process itself. Therefore, we may be unsure of what to
expect when beginning study of process of education as a subject in its own right.
Where an academic discipline or field of study is well established, properly organized
and intellectually respectable, we need not to encounter with such questions.
However, condition is not the same with the study of education. It is still not clear
whether ―education‖ is an academic discipline in its own right or merely a field to
which other academic disciplines bring their specialized knowledge and skills.
Education is not viewed as a ‗discipline‘ in the sense that it had its own distinctive
conceptual frameworks and methods of validation. The intellectual crisis has a
number of manifestations. For example, it is not clear whether teaching is a profession
or a trade. It is not settled, even among educators themselves, whether teaching is a
craft that is best taught by example or a profession with a coherent theory at its core.
The problem is that teaching, as a form of educational enquiry, is not viewed as
01
constituting a disciplined form of knowledge. Studying, practicing and researching
education is considered at the lowest position in the intellectual hierarchy. Therefore,
it is necessary to find a suitable place for education in the academic world. With this
intention, in this chapter, education as a field of study is analyzed on different
characteristics of a discipline. The term education has multifaceted meaning.
Therefore, before analyzing ‗nature of education as a discipline‘ it is necessary to
analyze meaning of the term ‗education‘ first.

1.2.0 Meaning of Education

In English, the term ―Education‖ has been derived from Latin words Educare,
Educere and Educatum. The term ―Educatum‖ denotes the act of teaching. It also
means to train or mold. The terms Educare and Educere mean to bring up, to lead out,
to draw out, or propulsion from inward to outward.4 These all terms mainly indicate
development of the latent faculties of the child. In Indian view point, the term
―Siksha‖ has come from the Sanskrit word ―Shiksh‖. ―Shiksh‖ means to acquire
knowledge or to make others learn or attain knowledge.5

The term education stands for both the study of the field and for the formal enterprise
(or system) that is being studied. To understand this dual meaning, consider two
definitions of education. The first is a standard definition from American Heritage
Dictionary: 6
(i) The act or process of educating or being educated.
(ii) The knowledge or skill obtained or developed by a learning process.
(iii) A Program of instruction of a specified kind or level.
(iv) The field of study that is concerned with the pedagogy of teaching and
learning.
(v) An instructive or enlightening experience.

The second is from the essay on ―Education‖ by William Frankena in the Dictionary
of the History of Ideas: 7
(i) As the activity of one doing the educating, the act or process of educating or
teaching engaged in by the educator.

02
(ii) The process or experience of being educated or learning that goes on in the
one being educated.
(iii) As the result produced and in the one being educated by the double process of
educating and being educated.
As a discipline or study of education.

From these definitions, it is clear that the term ‗Education‘ is used in three senses:
Knowledge, Subject and Process. In the first sense, all formal and informal knowledge
gained by an individual during his lifetime is termed as his education. When a person
achieves degree up to certain level, we do not call it education. As for example, if a
person has secured Master Degree then we utilize education in a very narrower sense
and call that the person has achieved education up to Masters Level. In the second
sense, education is used in a sense of discipline. As for example if a person had taken
education as a paper or as a discipline during his study in any institution then we
utilize education as a subject. As a field of study education is a contemplative search
for theory and science of the process of educating. In the third sense, education is used
as a process. In fact when we talk of education, we talk in the third sense i.e.
education as a process. As an enterprise it contains various systems of education and,
therefore, primarily an activity. However, in this study we are dealing only with
second meaning of education i.e. education as a subject or discipline that is taught at
various levels. The subject relates itself to preparation of educators and study of
teaching learning conditions. Most precisely the discipline of Education can be
defined as the study of process of educating. It studies various factors, methods and
elements involved in the process of educating. It also studies various principles and
ideas govern this process. A major purpose of the education as a field of study is to
help to understand and improve the enterprise. As an activity, the education enterprise
is highly complex. Its immediate purpose relates to the intellectual, moral, social, and
physical development of our students, and its functions, socially and civically, to
maintain and improve a democratic way of life, such complexity, with competing
goals and values, requires strong analytical thinking and understanding so that the
system is operated in a thoughtful and effective way. Therefore the discipline of
education has been designed to prepare scholars who are responsible for both the field
of study of education and the education enterprise.
03
1.3.0 Education as a Discipline
Education is a relatively new discipline that combines aspects of Psychology, history,
philosophy, sociology and some practical studies. Its domain is the whole complex of
process of educating. The discipline of education is nowadays a compulsory subject
used for educating teacher educators. Education is, of course, also a field of research
that aims to understand the process of education. The main problems and questions
education deals with: what content should be taught to pupil and students (the
question of curriculum)? How should the content be taught (the question of teaching
method)? What other educational goals shall be pursued in addition to teaching
knowledge and skills (the question of values)? In other words, education has to
answer the questions of truth, learning and morals. It has to reflect on the higher goals
of education beyond passing on random knowledge and skills. The ‗study of
education‘ would be the reflexive effort of looking at the reality of education and
trying to understand how it is practiced.

This is a serious question that whether education can be called a discipline, and there
are three schools of thought on the subject. The first suggests that since education
borrows from and combines with other, more traditional, disciplines and often focuses
on practice, it should not be called a discipline but a field of study or a second –level
discipline. Using the same rationale (that many areas within education bring together
a traditional discipline within an educational frame), the second school of thought
calls education an ―inter-discipline.‖ In addition, education has its own set of
problems, questions, knowledge bases and approaches to inquiry; a third school of
thought pushes for accepting education as a discipline.

One reason for the lack of consensus around the use of 'discipline‘ for education is that as
a field of study, education may be seen as one of a set of academic program anomalies in
which enterprise itself is primarily an activity. Within universities, this includes schools
and colleges that are considered ―professional schools‖: engineering, nursing, medicine,

law, social work. In the words of Klein 1990,8 ―We could say that education, as a
professional school, is a second-level discipline in that it focuses on a unique activity-
education- by borrowing, considerably, from many traditional

04
disciplines. Looking specifically at areas in education that bring together a traditional
discipline and education, we could use the term inter- discipline to describe education.
Considering education as an inter-discipline suggests that the work of scholarship in
education should focus on bringing together the disciplines as a means of solving
problems and answering questions that cannot be satisfactorily addressed using single
methods or approaches.

At this point, it would be well worth examining education as a discipline. Not only
does education have its own set of problems, questions and knowledge bases, and
approaches to enquiry but also that which is borrowed from other disciplines often
becomes transformed within the study of education. To evaluate education on
different criteria of a discipline, objectives of studying education as a discipline
should be considered first because objectives of study delimit and decide the nature
and scope of any field of study. After that, other disciplinary characteristics of
education will be discussed and analyzed.

1.4.0 Objectives of studying Education

Academic study of any discipline not only purports to develop an understanding of
nature, essential facts, principles and concepts of any discipline, but also intends to
develop discipline specific outlook of its scholars. Each discipline plays a different
role to serve the society. To play this role effectively it develops its scholars with
necessary potential and vision to serve their role as the scholars of the discipline
effectively.

Generally, the main purpose of the study of education is considered to guide the
whole process of formal education that includes teaching - learning and organization
of schools. However, this approach makes the discipline of education of little value. It
limits the scope of the study of education just to solve the problems of immediate
concern. The discipline of education just not relates itself to educating in schools but
also studies the concept of education as whole. The complex concept of education is
not limited to schooling only, as also put by Kneller in the preface of his much-cited
book ‗Foundations of Education‘. In his words, ―the first task of general study of
education is to produce an understanding of education rather than a practical
05
competence in teaching or academic tradition.‖9 Therefore, the aim of study of
education should be to inculcate a general understanding of education that is
applicable to all educational issues and problems of immediate as well as future
concern.

As a process, education has many fold objectives from development of an individual

to the development of the whole society. It has been mentioned earlier that broadly
discipline of education can be defined as the study of the process of education. The
aim of the study of the process of education is the evaluation and the improvement of
this process. To fulfill this broad aim many objectives are framed for the study of
education. The study of education prepares the educators and researchers who
understand the principles, factors and components to guide and control the process of
education. Who understand the importance of process of educating in the
development of individuals as well as the society and thereby produce effective
teachers and researchers to carry on this process well.

There are various programs and levels of academic study of education. The primary focus
of B.Ed. is preparing teachers for secondary schools. It is also seen as an initial
professional degree for those who may wish to pursue further studies and professional
specializations in administration and management of institutions and systems, policy
making and planning, curriculum development, managing examinations, developing
textbooks, guidance and counseling, working in alternative school systems, teacher
education and educational research. The Master of Education (M.Ed.) programme is a
crucial step in the preparation of Educational Researchers, Educational Administrators
and Teacher Educators. The M.Ed. scholars apart from receiving rich grounding in
Educational theory are encouraged to study and research in diverse areas of Education
(such as Special Education, Mental Health Education, Educational Administration,
Science and Social Science Education, Teacher Education, Educational Technology and
Curriculum and Pedagogy). In addition to professional courses of B.Ed. and M.Ed.,
courses of academic study like B.A. and M.A. in Education are also popular in education.
Their course content is almost similar to B.Ed. and M.Ed. with less emphasis of practical
and activity based work. These programmes generally intend to develop personal,
academic and professional competencies in its scholars. A
06
comprehensive study of different programmes of education running in some Indian
universities* generally highlights following objectives to develop these competencies:

1.4.1 Personal Competence

To develop a competent person having qualities of sensitivity, creativity, self-
confidence, and innovative leadership following objectives are suggested:
1. To develop ability to appreciate changing needs of society in this scientific
age.
2. To get acquainted with educational ideas of great thinkers.
3. To develop ability to understand human behaviour and personality, and
capability to apply this knowledge and understanding to guide the learners to
learn efficiently and effectively.
4. To develop social sensitivity, tolerance and broad mindedness, respect of truth
and objectivity and appreciation of human welfare and values.
5. To develop proper attitude towards conservation of environment.

1.4.2 Academic competence

To inculcate desirable knowledge, skill and attitude to pursue study and practice of
education following objectives should be fulfilled:
1. To develop concept and understanding of education as a subject of study.
2. To get acquainted with knowledge of essential facts, understanding of
essential principles, concepts, trends and generalizations of the discipline of
education.
3. To develop specialized knowledge and understanding about the philosophical,
psychological and sociological bases of education and about the other
specialized areas of education.
4. To study the historical development of education.
5. To develop national and international perspective about educational theory
and practice to enable the learners to visualize the inter-linkages and
dependency among different educational systems.

07
1.4.3 Professional competence
To develop professional competencies in teaching, research and publication following
objectives are suggested:
1. To develop positive attitude towards teaching as a profession.
2. To develop an understanding of the objectives of school education.
3. To inculcate appropriate professional behaviour along with knowledge of
existing system of education and education policy.
4. To develop a working knowledge of ICTs and their application in formal and
non-formal systems of education and for teacher empowerment.
5. To develop knowledge, understanding and skills of management,
administration, planning and financing of educational institutions.
6. To develop adequate understanding of educational research methodology and
of the thrust areas in which educational research should be undertaken.

These objectives are not the objectives of any other discipline. Only the discipline of
education has the required knowledge, efficiency and attitude to fulfill these
objectives. In addition to these very own objectives there are many other
characteristics of education on the basis of which status of a distinct and unique
academic discipline can be provided to the ‗study of education‘.

1.5.0 Analysis of education as a discipline on criteria of a

discipline
A new academic discipline should address issues of ongoing concern that are not
adequately addressed by existing disciplines. In spite of sharing content and methods
with other disciplines, it should have its own well-defined objectives, content and
methods. In the previous chapters, meaning and different criteria of a discipline were
discussed. It was found that the meaning of the term discipline is not very clear. The
most commonly accepted meaning of the term is a body of knowledge. Bodies of
knowledge may be of various kinds, such as theoretical or practical, pure or mixed,
old or new, applied and professional. However, it is not very clear that which kind of
knowledge bodies are disciplines and which are not. With all these doubts associated

08
with the concepts and characteristics of a discipline, disciplinary status of education
will be analyzed on the criteria as deduced in the last chapter.

1.5.1 Criterion-1
‘A discipline has a recognizable and significant tradition or an identifiable
history.’
1.5.1.1 Discipline of Education: Historical Perspective
Each discipline has its own evolutionary history on the basis of which origin and
development of a discipline can be traced. Any discipline originates when human beings
face new problems so complex and specialised in nature that their accumulated
experiences and any existing body of knowledge become limited to solve these problems.
In such a situation, they need a different kind of wisdom and thinking, strategies and
methods generally not possessed by any existing body of knowledge. During the search
of these specialities sometimes, an entirely different and new body of knowledge emerged
or sometimes existing bodies of knowledge contribute some of their characteristics to
form a new body of knowledge. In any case, the emerging body of knowledge to a large
extent depends on some pre-existing bodies of knowledge but slowly develops as a
unique and distinct field of knowledge. Evolutionary history of any discipline describes
the need and urgency of emergence of a discipline. It also points out the landmarks which
shape the discipline in its present form.

When we trace the evolutionary history of education, we find that its origin is as old
as the evolution of human beings. Since their evolution, needs and curiosity of human
beings inspired them to explore their surroundings. This exploration resulted in
accumulation of vast amount of knowledge about the various processes of
environment. When human beings invented strategies to transfer this accumulated
knowledge to their progenies, since then the inception of ‗study of education‘ took
place. Human beings searched the methods of production, preservation and transfer of
knowledge. They devised the methods and techniques for other members of their
community to get acquainted with this knowledge. In the other words, they explored
the ways of educating other human beings. However, the disciplined, systematic and
institutional study of education started late. In the past educational studies was seen as

09
a part of education/training of teachers. Teacher education is a program that is related
to the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would enable and
empower the teacher to meet the requirements of the profession and face the
challenges therein. The history of Teacher education is as old as the evolution of
socialization in early human beings. Since the beginning of human existence, each
generation has passed on cultural and social values, traditions, morality, religion and
skills to the next generation. In pre-literate societies, education was given orally and
the people learn informally through observation and imitation from their family and
society. Some forms of traditional knowledge were expressed through stories,
legends, folklore, rituals, and songs, without the need for a writing system.
Settlement, agriculture and metalwork brought new knowledge and skills to be
learned and taught by each generation. As communities grew larger, and the customs
and knowledge of ancient civilizations became more complex, there was more
opportunity for some members to specialize in one skill or activity or another,
becoming priests, artisans, traders, builders or labourers. Many skills would have been
learned from an experienced person on the job, in animal husbandry, agriculture,
fishing, preparation and preservation of food, construction, stone work, metal work,
boat building, making of weapons, military skills and many other occupations.

With the development of writing, it became possible for stories, poetry, knowledge,
beliefs, and customs to be recorded and passed on more accurately to the future
generations. Literacy in preindustrial societies was associated with civil
administration, law, long distance trade or commerce, and religion. A formal
schooling in literacy was often only available to a small part of the population, either
at religious institutions or for the wealthy who could afford to pay for their tutors.
Nowadays, formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training
by professional teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the
development of curricula.

The advent of formal education in an institutional setting required specialized

teachers. Since then the concept of teacher education emerged. Earlier, the program of
teacher preparation was called teacher training. It prepared teachers as mechanics or
technicians. It had narrower goals with its focus being only on skill training. The

10
perspective of teacher education was therefore very narrow and its scope was limited.
Later the term training was replaced by education encompasses teaching skills, sound
pedagogical theory and professional skills.

Teaching has been one of the oldest and respected professions in the world. The role,
functions, competence and preparation of teachers have undergone a dramatic change
from time to time but the need for teachers has been imperative for all times. The
changing times as well as the requirements of the society have necessitated changes in the
ways of teacher preparation. Initially the preparation of teacher education was more or
less practice oriented. At that time, teachers were trained according to the ‗pupil teacher
method‘. In this method, pupil teachers learned how to teach under the supervision of an

experienced teacher (Tibble, 1966).10 They learned various teaching skills and a body of
practical knowledge that derived from a mixture of tradition, maxims, dogma and rules of

thumb (Carr, 2006).11 Later it was felt that a specialized theoretical foundation and
continuous research is also necessary in order to prepare better teachers. In this concern,
Tibble (1966) quotes R. H. Quick (1884), who expressed his dissatisfaction with this
apprenticeship system in the following words,

‗I say boldly that what English Schoolmasters now stand in need of its theory; and
further that the universities have special advantages for meeting this need‘12

Slowly teacher education began to move from training colleges into universities, so
courses in educational theory begin to proliferate. Since then education as a field of
study was emerged. During its infancy, it was nurtured and supported by other well-
established disciplines like philosophy, psychology, sociology and history. These
disciplines have a direct involvement in understanding the various processes of human
life. Therefore, as a study of the process of educating human beings, education had to
take inputs from these disciplines. The massive expansion of colleges of education
and the establishment of new universities greatly increased the number of academic
staff engaged in theoretical study at this time.

The preparation of teachers for the school system is not the same as the preparation of
lawyers, doctors or musicians: the interest of the society in our profession is not the
same as its interest in other professions. It is an old saying that the education of
11
teachers is too important to be left in the hands of educators alone. The words of
Foster Watson (quoted in Tibble, 1966)13 are also relevant to put here,

‘Truth as founded upon knowledge is like a mountain peak accessible from many sides
and he knows the mountain best who has ascended it from many starting points.’

Therefore, education has been developed as a multi-disciplinary study. In addition to

four foundational disciplines, it takes inputs from various other fields of study like
technology, economics, management, anthropology, and political science etc. The
purpose of educational studies is to prepare educators and teacher educators who are
well acquainted with teaching skills, sound pedagogical theory and professional skills.
Who are adequately aware with the concepts and principles of education and
competent enough to conduct research in education.

1.5.1.2 Types of institutions involved in academic study of

education at different times
As it was mentioned earlier that academic study of education was originated in
institutions of teacher education. From these teachers‘ training institutions, education
transferred to departments of education in universities, where it took the shape of a
disciplined study. The first chairs in education were established in Scotland in 1876.
However, it was only from the late 1890s that education departments were founded in
English universities. The study of education in Britain can be periodised into four
stages, but it is in the last of these, from the 1960s, that the subject really ‗took offs,
based on a paradigm originally defined by the new philosophers who applied the
techniques of linguistic analysis to the subject.14 As a result, education has developed
as a multi-disciplinary study and is now much more closely related to the mainstream
of university studies than it ever was in the past.

Establishment of learned societies and publication of new journals of education

strengthened it as a discipline. Teacher Training schools or colleges in different parts
of world may be divided into two categories (i) Public and (ii) Private. The Public
institutions are financed and controlled by the Government while the Private
institutions are run and managed by private organizations. From the point of view of

12
management and organization, there were following four distinct types of teacher
education institutions.15

(1) Normal Schools

Normal School movement gained a lot of momentum during the 19th century. These
were mainly concerned for the training of elementary school teachers. The duration of
the training was about one year. Their curriculum was narrow and limited to the
following (i) The review of common school subjects like languages, Geometry,
Algebra, Arithmetic, Geography etc. (ii) Mental and moral development of children,
and (iii) Principles and methods of Teaching. Presently most of the Normal Schools
have been replaced by Teacher colleges.

(2) Teacher’s Colleges

During the second quarter of 20th century, some Normal Schools were replaced by
Teachers Colleges with more progressive and modern teacher training institutions.
These colleges are exclusively devoted to the training of teachers, offering 4 or 5
years integrated courses, both for elementary and secondary school. They function as
degree granting institutions. A number of these colleges offer courses for Master
Degree in Education, while a few of them even offer Ph.D. in teacher education.
Some of them also undertake training of specialist teachers and offer courses for
colleges and university teachers. The integration of general and professional courses
to provide sufficient grounding in the subject matter as well as the art of teaching is
the main feature of these colleges.

(3) Departments of Education

Departments of Education were created as a part of bigger liberal Arts Colleges and
Universities. A number of Universities opened Departments of Education. The
Iowa University, U.S.A was the first to create a separate department, named,
―Department of Pedagogy, for training teachers in the art of teaching. The main
function of these departments had been to impart all round comprehensive education
for the prospective teachers and provide facilities for further education and research in
pedagogy and methodology of teaching. A Chair of Education was set up in the

13
University of Iowa in 1873. University of Michigan created a Chair of Art and
Science of Teaching in 1879. By the end of 19th century the number of Colleges and
Universities, offering teacher training went up to 24 due to the support of top
educationists including John Dewey, Stanley Hall, Thorndike and Charles Judd.

(4) Schools or Colleges of Education

The establishment of university Departments of Education and liberal arts colleges
started a new movement of creating autonomous Schools of Education in different
universities and colleges of education. The University of Michigan gave a lead by
setting up ―Chairs of Education. Following the example of Michigan University,
many more universities established their own Schools of Education for conducting
research in the theory and practice of pedagogy and for the intensive study of the
problems of Teacher Education. The Schools and Colleges of Education became
popular because of their internal autonomy, independent administration and financial
management. They controlled their budget and granted their own degrees to the
successful candidates. They developed more intensive programme of teacher
education and gave a new dimension to the professional training to the would be
teachers. They produced the most relevant literature in the study of education that had
been lacking in the nineteenth century.

1.5.1.3 Development of Teacher Education and Education in

India

1. In Pre Independence India: 16

i) Ancient Period
In the Vedic India, the teacher enjoyed a special status and position. The selection
and preparation of a teacher was done with much rigour. The teacher must have
passed through the recognized curriculum and have fulfilled all the duties of a
Brahmachari before he was allowed to become a teacher. The scholarly class of
teachers, which later became a caste (Brahmans) became stratified with the passage of
time and lost its original grandeur. Later on teachers came from this caste of

14
Brahmins and it became a hereditary profession. During Buddhist period, the place
of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were two categories
of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. The monitorial system was in vogue during
the medieval times too and was the method of preparing the future teachers. Good
and experienced teachers with a discerning eye identified able students and appointed
them tutors to look after and teach the junior students in their absence. Although a
specialized teacher-training programme did not exist, the teachers had a clear idea of
their role and functions and the methods to be pursued in teaching.

ii) Modern Period

Before the arrival of the Britishers in India, the European Missionaries first started
teacher training institutions. The Danish Missionaries established a normal school for
the training of teachers at Serampur near Calcutta. In Madras Dr. Andrew Bell started
the experiment of Monitorial System which formed the basis of teacher training
programme for the time being. In June 1826, the first normal school was started under
the management and with the finances of the British government in Madras. Initially,
it prepared teachers for the district schools. Later, this normal school developed into
the Presidency College. In 1847, Bombay started a normal school in the Elphinstone
Institution and in 1849, Calcutta too had a normal school.

Wood's Dispatch, 1854

The Wood's Dispatch, an important educational document was released on 19 July
1854. It urged the establishment of training schools in each presidency in India. The
Dispatch suggested the introduction of pupil teacher system (as prevailed in England)
in India and an award/ stipend to the pupil teachers and a small payment to the
masters of the school to which they were attached.

The Indian Education Commission 1882

The Indian Education Commission 1882 (The Hunter Commission) recommended
that an examination in the principles and practice of teaching be instituted, success in
which should hereafter be a condition of permanent employment as a teacher in any
Secondary School, Government or Aided. Thus, by the close of the 19th century,
pedagogical courses had replaced general education, examinations and certificates in

15
teacher training had been instituted and practical aspects in planning and teaching
were emphasized.

Government of India Resolution on Education Policy, 1904

The Resolution enunciated that if Secondary Education was to be improved then the
teachers should be trained in the art of teaching. There were five teacher-training
colleges in all at places like Madras, Kurseong, Allahabad, Lahore and Jabalpur. It
suggested that the training course would comprise knowledge of the principles which
underlie the art of teaching and some degree of technical skill in the practice of the
art, the course would culminate in a university degree or diploma, and there should be
a close link between theory and practice. To implement its suggestions universities
instituted B.T. degree for graduate teachers.

Calcutta University Commission, 1917

This Commission, known as the Sadler Commission, studied all aspects of the
University education and presented its voluminous report in 1919. It suggested that
the training programme should not only make the trainee a competent class-room
teacher but also a good administrator. The commission suggested opening of
postgraduate department of education in Universities, equips each department
with a Professor, a Reader and a number of assistants and institute a post-graduate
degree in Education. It recommended the introduction of Education as an optional
subject at the Graduation and P.G. level. The recommendations of the Sadler
Commission had salutary effect on the institutionalized study of education in India.
Mysore University started a faculty of Education in 1925.

The Hartog Committee, 1929

The work initiated by the Sadler Commission was further carried on by the Hartog
Committee. The Committee was primarily concerned with primary education but it
made far-reaching recommendations for teacher training as well. It suggested that
journals for teacher in the vernacular, refresher courses, conferences and
meetings of teacher associations could do much to brighten the lives of the teachers
and improve their work. For the secondary school teachers too, the committee had the
same suggestions.

16
Working on the recommendations of the Sadler Commission, 13 out of 18 universities
set-up faculties of education. The Lady Irwin College was setup in New Delhi.
Andhra University started a new degree the B.Ed. in 1932. Bombay launched a post-
graduate degree the M.Ed. in 1936. Some other important changes in the field of
education also took place in the thirties. The Central Advisory Board of Education
was revived. Basic Education was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, leading to the
training of teachers for basic schools. In 1938, a Basic Training College was set-up at
Allahabad and the Vidyamandir Training School was started at Wardha in 1938.

In 1941, there were 612 normal schools out of which 376 were for men and 236 for
women. These schools provided one or two years' training. There were 25 training
colleges for graduates which were inadequate to meet the needs of the time. In 1941,
the Vidya Bhawan teacher's College was started in Rajasthan and the Tilak College of
Education in Poona. Bombay took the lead in starting a doctorate degree in
education the same year.

2. Education in Post-Independence India17

After Independence, the emerging socioeconomic and political situations influenced
the national scenario of Teacher Education. The Government of India set-up different
Committees and Commissions for addressing to the specific issues of education in
general and Teacher Education (TE) in particular. In 1948, the Central Institute of
Education was established in Delhi and the Government Training College at
Allahabad was developed into the Central Pedagogical Institute.

The University Education Commission (1948-49)

For improvement of teacher training, it suggested that the teacher educators must look
at the whole course from a different angle, that the theory and practice should
support each other; that the intelligent following of rule of thumb methods should be
made; trainees be recruited from people having a first-hand experience of school
teaching; that courses in the theory of education must be flexible and adaptable to
local circumstances; that original work by professors and lecturers in education
should not suffer from isolation and lack of inter-university planning.

17
The Plan Period in Fifties
In 1950, the first conference of Training Colleges in India was held at Baroda and
exchange of ideas took place. The conference discussed programmes and functions of
the training colleges. In the following year, i.e. 1951, the second All India Conference
was held at Mysore. It discussed the teacher training programme in a broader
perspective and suggested substituting the term "Education" for "Training" and
widened its scope. In the same year, a six-week summer course in education was
organized for college teachers at Mysore. The syllabi in teacher education were
revised, new areas of specialization added, and practical work improved. There was a
spurt of workshops, seminars and conference on teacher education.

The Secondary Education Commission, (1952 -53)

It emphasized that the most important factor in educational reconstruction is the
teacher, his personal qualities, his educational qualifications, his professional training
and the place he occupies in the school as well as in the community. It recommended
training in co-curricular activities, refresher courses and research work for the
M.Ed. degree. It recommended three years' teaching experience for M.Ed.
Admission, after graduation in education.

Major events in the Sixties

The first National Seminar on the Education of Primary Teachers was held in October
1969. It recommended selection of some training institutions as models for developing
primary teacher education on the right lines. It advocated the setting up of State
Institutes of Education. During 1962-63, Extension Training Centers in Primary
Teacher Education Institutions started functioning. The State Institutes of Education
were established by 1964 and a Department of Teacher Education was established at
the National Institute of Education. During this period National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was established in 1961. It was
intended to improve school education to training, research, publication and co-
ordination. The NCERT established four Regional Colleges of Education, one each
at Ajmer, Bhubaneswar, Bhopal and Mysore. A Centre for Advanced Studies in
Education was set-up by the UGC in the Faculty of Education and Psychology in the
M.S. University of Baroda.

18
The Kothari Commission, (1964-66)
It recommended that isolation of teachers' colleges with the universities, and schools
should be removed. For qualitative improvement, it recommended subject orientation
and introduction of integrated courses of general and professional education. It
suggested ways to improve the quality of teacher educators. As a result of the
suggestions of the Education Commission, 1964-66, some changes were introduced in
teacher education. An M.A. degree in Education was introduced in some
universities, such as Aligarh, Kurukshetra, Kanpur and some others.

Landmarks during Seventies

In 1973, Government of India set-up the National Council for Teacher Education
(NCTE) which was to work as a national advisory body for teacher education. The
NCTE drafted a curriculum for preparing teachers for the new 10+2 pattern. The new
curriculum was task-oriented. The framework defined the objectives of teacher
education in very clear terms, developed the relationship with the community,
emphasized and worked out the Socially Useful Productive Work (SUPW), and
defined the role and functions of the teacher in the emerging Indian Society. In 1975
through the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution, Education was brought to the
Concurrent list.

The Period of Eighties

According to National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986, stress was given to the
teacher education programme. Training schools were upgraded to District Institutes of
Education and Training (DIETS) and training colleges were upgraded into Colleges of
Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutes of Advanced Studies in Education
(IASEs). There were provisions for research and innovation in IASEs. The revised
National Policy on Education, 1992 also emphasized the functioning of teacher
education institutions. By the year, 1998-99 there were 45 DIETs, 76 CTEs and 34
lASEs.

Major Events during Nineties

During 1990‘s the NPE was revised by Acharya Ramamurthy Committee and it gave
a humane approach to education emphasizing more on value oriented education. It
19
also saw the emergence of NCTE as a statutory body of the Govt. of India when
NCTE Act of 1993 was passed by parliament. NCTE came into effect on 17th August
1995 for planned and coordinated development of teacher education system across the
country.

Progress in Two Thousands

The first decade of the twenty first century had the privilege of the liberalization
policy introduced in early nineties. The education sector was opened up for private
sector participation and there was Public Private Partnership (PPP). After
universalization of education and flagship programme of Serva Shiksha Abhiyan, now
efforts are made to universalize secondary education through Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA). To achieve the targets of universalization of primary and
secondary education large numbers of qualified trained teachers are needed. As a
result, education as a subject of study has become one of the most popular subjects of
study at higher education level. Almost all the state, central and private universities
and colleges have separate faculties and departments of education. Programmes of
studying education and teacher education like B.Ed., M.Ed., and M.A. in Education
are in demand. Every year the number of students qualifies National Eligibility Test
for lectureship in Education conducted by University Grant Commission is increasing.
The number of students opts for research in education is also increasing every year. It
shows, today education has become a well-known subject of study.

It is evident from the above discussion that education as a subject of study evolved as
a necessity of theoretical foundation for practice of education. The most effective
purpose assigned to its study was preparation of effective teacher educators who are
well versed not only in practice of education but also in theoretical foundations of
education. It was assumed that these teacher educators would effectively control and
organize education of future teachers. Therefore, its establishment and development
as a subject in higher studies occurred simultaneously with the reformation and
development of teacher education at different times. During the passage of time, the
scope of studying education was not limited to guiding teacher education only. It
widened its scope to other significant branches like woman education, special
education, adult education, population education, environmental education and many

20
more. Due to this expansion, the field of study of education became much broader.
Therefore, education not only enriched its subject matter but field of investigation as
well. Slowly, teacher education was reduced as a sub discipline of education like its
many other sub disciplines. However, still the main functions assigned to educational
studies are studying the role of schools and guiding the process of teaching learning in
various fields and at different levels.

In spite of being popular as an important field of study at university level the

disciplinary status of education still faces doubts and disputes, as we have discussed
in earlier chapters. In the remaining part of this chapter, education will be analyzed on
different criteria of a discipline to explore its disciplinary identity.

1.5.2 Criterion-2
A Discipline should have a unique mode of thinking or different cognitive
framework.

Discipline of Education: mode of thinking or cognitive

framework
Tibble (1966), in his popular work ‗An Introduction to the study of Education‘18
insisted,

―It is clear that ‘education’ is a field subject, not a basic discipline; there is no
distinctively ‘educational’ way of thinking; in studying education one is using
psychological or historical or sociological or philosophical ways of thinking to throw
light on some problem in the field of human learning.‖

The argument might be considered relevant during the early phases of evolution of
education as a field of study. During its infancy, aims, curriculum, methods and
process of education were governed by philosophical thinking. After that with the
focus on concepts like ‗child centred education‘ and ‗education as a miniature
society‘, psychological and sociological thinking assisted philosophical thinking for
educational planning and processes. There is no doubt that these forms of thinking
still play an important role in determining policies and processes of education but
somehow education has developed its own mode of thinking during its development
21
as a field of inquiry. This educational mode of thinking involves a perfect blend of not
only four foundational disciplines but also many other disciplines like technology,
management and science in addition to its own experiences. Now, education is
developed as a multidisciplinary study. It takes inputs from many other disciplines but
its cognitive framework is governed by a specific ‗context‘, which is strictly
educational.

For example, while deciding aims for educational process education takes
implications from many philosophies but what should be the aim of education at a
particular time is strictly decided by different thinking process of education like
critical analysis, reasoning, explanation, description, and decision-making. While

describing distinctness of educational thinking Marc Belth19 defines thinking as ‗not

a matter of developing a special capacity, in abstract, and then applying it to the
events of nature. It is, rather, the act of contemplating the process of nature, and, with
the use of data and of knowledge from a reservoir of memory, shifting the process
about, first symbolically and then experimentally, until new forms of the processes
begin to appear. With these new forms new outcomes develop.‘ He mentions three
different modes of thinking or reasoning: mathematical, scientific and philosophical.
According to him, educational thinking probably runs closer to the philosophical
thinking. However, has a quality of its own. Educational thinking is that kind of
thinking whose objective is the improvement of thinking itself. The concern of
philosophical thinking is to understand meanings and commitments that are implicit in
statements or judgements made. Philosophers have long attended to the
epistemological issues raised by the theory and practice of education (along with the
moral, metaphysical, social-political, and mind/ language issues so raised). Now,
education has developed its own cognitive framework which helps in continuous
reflection and action according to changing needs of society. It is what teachers think,
what teachers believe, and what teachers do at the level of the classroom that
ultimately shapes the kind of learning that young people get.

Educational thinking is characterized by rationality with holistic, nonlinear, and

intuitive strategies. Much of what educationists believe about "school" comes from
their own experience as students. The academic study of theory and practice of

22
education and experiences gain during its persuasion refine their cognitive framework
about the nature, purpose and process of education. However, through their own
school experience, they have formed unconscious beliefs about themselves and their
abilities, about the nature of knowledge, and about how knowledge is acquired or
"learned." Teachers base their thinking and behaviour on unconscious values -
personal, professional, and those of the culture in which they live and were raised.
Often, personal values conflict with values of the institution, administrators, and even
with a teacher‘s own values regarding students. Because teachers' thought processes
occur inside their heads, they cannot be measured, quantified, or standardized. They
do not yield the data with which traditional researchers are accustomed to working. In
this concern, Albert Einstein reminds us, "Not everything that can be counted counts

and not everything that counts can be counted." (Quoted in Judy Yero, 2002) 20
Failure to explore the influence of teacher thinking on the educational process cannot
be excused because of its difficulty. Teacher thinking may, in fact, be the most
important variable in the educational equation.

No educational theory or principle can compete with a teacher‘s wisdom applied in

daily classroom situations. Through study and experience as a practitioner of
education, this "conventional wisdom" of education passes from generation to
generation. Anyone can easily recognize the difference between thinking, decision-
making, problem solving, describing, judging, and planning of an educational issue or
event by a scholar of education and an outsider. This unique mode of thinking and
different cognitive framework about educational issues and factors influencing it
provide a distinct identity to discipline of education, not possessed by any other
discipline.

1.5.3 Criterion-3
‘Disciplines have a body of accumulated, structured and well organized,
specialist knowledge referring to their object of research, which is specific to
them and not generally shared with another discipline as a whole’.

23
Discipline of Education: Body of knowledge
The content of the discipline is defined through that which is recognized as the
genuine characteristics of education. The limits of the discipline are marked by
divisions between that which is regarded as educational and that which is seen as non-
educational. Consequently, the mission of the discipline is not only to produce
knowledge about the practices and processes conceived as genuinely educational, but
also to mark the margins to and delimit the discipline from that which is seen as non-
educational. However, it is also true that almost all the accumulated knowledge in the
universe is educational in some sense even that considered as non-educational.

The blame generally education has to face that it does not have a distinct, specialized
and well-structured body of knowledge. It borrows most of its content from other
disciplines. However, the task of a teacher is so complex and expectations of the
society from the education are so high that education has to adopt a far wide range of
experiences to educate the educators. As also said by Peter Renshaw,

‘If a student is ‘to realize himself as a person’ he needs to submit himself to a far wide
range of experiences than can be provided by the academic study of one main
subject.’21

It is not possible by would be teachers/teacher educators to gain knowledge of all the

fields/subject, therefore, education has a perfect blend of almost all the subjects
necessary for the development of a person as a torch bearer to the process of
educating. Learning ‗why to teach‘, ‗what to teach‘ and ‗how to teach‘ involves
developing a critical skill. This skill is guided by a body of theoretical knowledge,
rules and principles, which needs to be acquired through academic study; therefore,
subject matter of education is multidisciplinary in nature. Infect discipline of
education has crossed the boundaries of a discipline and now most appropriately
termed as ‗educational studies‘ encompassing a number of studies necessary for
fulfilling above mentioned objectives. The main criticism disproves education as a
discipline that it draws concepts from other disciplines. However, adopting and
utilizing concepts from other disciplines are no barrier to the development of a

24
discipline. This criticism is not valid because education generates its own meanings to
these concepts.

Any programme of the formal study of education generally includes study of

following areas: (as mentioned in the curriculum of different programmes of
education in different universities)**

• Philosophical and sociological foundations of education

• Educational psychology
• Research methods in education
• Principles and practices of curriculum development
• Measurement, evaluation and testing in education
• Comparative education
• Environmental and population education
• Computer applications in education
• Value education
• Guidance and counselling
• Educational technology
• Management and administration in education
• Teacher education
• Higher education
• Futurology of education
• Pedagogy of a school subject- Mathematics, Science, Social science and
Language etc.
• Practical work

All the forms of knowledge available in education that are formally studied and taught
can be divided into two parts: Formal knowledge and Practical knowledge. Formal
knowledge refers to the knowledge of traditional disciplines, special interest fields
and cross-disciplinary programs. Practical knowledge acquired through teaching and
other field based activities. Different programmes or the accumulated knowledge
available in education can be broadly placed in any one of these categories:

25
 Organization of educational knowledge

Formal knowledge Informal or Incidental knowledge

Knowledge acquired by deliberate Knowledge acquired through self-experiences

and disciplined study of education while studying or practicing education

Theoretical Knowledge - Knowledge of concepts, principles and

theories of education.

Practical Knowledge - Knowledge of professional skills and attitude.

Both the theoretical and the practical knowledge together constitute the actual
knowledge base of the discipline of education. The practical knowledge that is skills
of teaching and organizing classroom activities are mainly the domain of one of its
sub disciplines i.e. teacher education.

1.5.3.1 Theoretical knowledge in education

All the theoretical knowledge available in education may be divided in to different
fields:

1. foundational disciplines in education

2. special interest fields
3. cross disciplinary programs

All the theories, concepts, terms, principles, facts, laws and methods of research are
derived, shared, adapted from or developed in these areas. While foundational
disciplines provides strong theoretical bases to education, special interest fields and
cross disciplinary programs aim to cater needs of diverse groups of learners. Special
interest fields are essentially the areas having their origin in the discipline of
education. Cross-disciplinary programs are mutual collaborations between education
and related disciplines. In addition to these areas, methodology of teaching different
subjects and various methods of research in education are also essential fields of study

26
of education. The total knowledge available in education either developed internally
or borrowed from other disciplines, when perceived as a whole appear as a unique,
specialized and well organized body of knowledge distinct from other disciplines. A
detailed discussion of these different areas is given below:

1.5.3.1.1 Foundations of Education

This area includes philosophical and sociological foundations of education,
educational psychology and history of education. Study of these areas helps in
understanding of educational processes from philosophical, sociological,
psychological and historical points of view. These points of view serve as theoretical
bases to grasp the nature of educational processes. Concepts from all these areas when
used in education become essentially educational in nature. For e.g. a psychologist
may be interested in studying human learning in general, however learning of the
child in classroom conditions is the field of interest of an educationist. Here, the scope
of studying learning is more focused and narrower than the psychology.

1. Philosophical foundations of Education22

Human life cannot properly be understood without philosophy. Life and education are
inseparably connected. One cannot be separated from the other. Hence, life has a
philosophical base and so education also has a philosophical base. Philosophy
furnishes the goals of life and education gives the means to achieve those goals. Man
is the common subject of both philosophy and education. Philosophy and education
are interrelated, interdependent, identical and inseparable from each other. Every
philosopher has an educational outlook and every educator has a philosophy of life.
The truths and principle established by philosophy are applied in the conduct of
education process.

Philosophy exercises tremendous influence on education in all its aspects—aims,

curriculum, methods, teachers, textbooks, administration, discipline, evaluation etc.
There is no aspect of education, which is not influenced and determined by
philosophy. Thus, we find that philosophy affects both the theoretical and practical
aspects of education. One cannot be separated from the other.

27
2. Sociological Foundations of Education23
Education takes place in society constituted of individuals. It is a social process. It has
a social function as well as social relevance. A school is created by the society and the
society is shaped and molded by the school. Thus, education is both a cause and
product of society. It originates in the society and it must fulfill the needs and
aspirations of the society. There is thus an intimate relationship between education
and society. Education helps to solve the multifarious social problems. Education is
not a static phenomenon but a dynamic and ever-changing process. Every society with
its own changing socio-cultural needs will require education to meet those needs.
Since needs change continuously therefore education must also change. The needs of
different societies differ; therefore, education should be dynamic. Educational
sociology analyses and evaluates the groups and institutions in which learning takes
place and the social process involved in learning and teaching. It analyses and
evaluates the social trends and ideologies, which affect education. It helps us to
understand that education is a means of social change. It throws light on human
interaction and relationships within the school and the community. It emphasizes that
learning is a social process. It is the total cultural milieu in which and through which
the learning experience is acquired and organized. Educational sociology plays a vital
role on the modern educational theories and practices. It influences the aims of
education, the principles of curriculum construction, the methods of teaching, the
school organization and administration.

3. Psychological Foundations of Education24

Psychology has greatly influenced the development of modern education. Basic
connections and relationships between psychology and education are manifold.
Educational theory and practice are conditioned by the nature of human behaviour.
Educational Psychology has developed to study scientifically the behaviour of the
students and to help the process of education. Educational psychology discusses
process of development of the students, process of learning, social adjustment of the
students, Individuals differences in physical abilities and mental traits and powers,
Interest and motivation of child and various problems associated with the mental
health of the students. The function of educational psychology is to know the child

28
and his educational process completely. It tries to determine the means of attaining
the educational goals and objectives outlined by educational philosophy. It helps the
teacher, the students as well as the parents. The primary aim of education is the total
development of the child. Modern education is child-centric, that is why psychology
studies the nature and behaviour of the child in different developmental stages. Child
centered education is the direct effect of psychology on education. All the principles
of modern school organization and administration have directly been influenced by
psychology. For example, timetable is framed on the basis of fatigue index of the
students. The modern concept of school discipline is also a psychological product.
Psychology emphasizes the importance of freedom of the child in the maintenance of
discipline in the school.

4. History of Education25
The history of education helps in knowing the early educational thoughts and in
solving different educational problems. The main task of history of education is to
trace the development of education to try to evaluate the functions it has fulfilled at
different stages of social development and so to reach a deeper understanding of the
function it fulfills today. Under this branch, educational organizations of pre-historic,
ancient and modern periods and relation of culture and education, pioneers of
education and educational thoughts of various educationists are studied. The history of
education may suggest causal explanations for changes that punctuate the political and
social timelines of educational development. It helps us to understand the evolution of
the educational system and structures to date. There are key dates and events within
the development of the education system that reflect the significant political and social
issues of the time. While the scope of education has changed radically since the late
nineteenth century, the pastoral, disciplinary and knowledge distribution functions of
schools and other education establishments remain significant in modern western
societies.

1.5.3.1.2 Special interest fields26

This category includes programs that have developed significant scholarly literature
and draw on the disciplinary programs but focus on area of educational practice or a
particular student grouping. These areas include policy studies, teacher education,
29
curriculum, educational administration, higher education, special education, woman
education, environmental education, educational technology and early childhood
education. These areas of knowledge are applied or technical in nature.

1. Teacher Education
Teacher education encompasses teaching skills, sound pedagogical theory and
professional skills. Teacher education is based on the theory that -Teachers are made,
not born in contrary to the assumption, -Teachers are born, not made. Teacher
education prepares teachers for all levels of education, namely Pre-primary, Primary,
Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the Tertiary. Teacher education also
educates teachers of special education and physical education. The needs and
requirements of students and education vary at each level. Hence, level and stage-
specific teacher preparation is essential.

2. Curriculum Development
Curriculum development includes a variety of activities around the creation of
planned curriculum, pedagogy, instruction, and delivery methods for guiding student
learning. Curriculum development is defined as the process of selecting, organizing,
executing and evaluating the learning experiences on the basis of need, ability and
interest of the learner and on the basis of nature of society or community.

3. Educational Administration
In this branch, establishment of schools, their management, supervision and control,
their inspection system, appointment of employees, their salary and allowances, their
working conditions etc. are studied. Educational Administration examines the
administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions
and educators in particular. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration
and management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational
philosophy.

30
4. Comparative Education
The comparative study of education system of other country enables us to know the
differences exist in various systems, equalities and inequalities and the reason thereof
and the impact each is making on the other. Comparative education examines
education in one country (or group of countries) by using data and insights drawn
from the practices and situation in another country, or countries.

In comparative education, analysts are interested in the systems that individual

nations use to educate their citizens. The analysts examine the strengths and
weaknesses of the different systems and might compare and contrast those in two or
more nations. Another area of interest is in creating comparisons within a single
nation over time, looking at how changes in the system have influenced educational
outcomes, as well as examining variations in the systems from region to region.

5. Educational Technology
Educational technology can be regarded, as the application of systematic knowledge
about learning and instruction to teaching and training with the aim of improving their
quality and efficiency. For this reason, a wide range of presentation, control and
feedback devices may be employed such as teaching machines, stimulators and
computers. Educational technology is thus the application of scientific knowledge
about learning and conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness of teaching and
learning.

As a field, educational technology emphasizes communication skills and approaches to

teaching and learning through the judicious use and integration of diverse media. Scholars
in the field examine the uses of innovative media and technologies for education,
examining all aspects from direct student learning to management and impacts on
institutions. As in all forms of applied technology, the field studies how theoretical
knowledge and scientific principles can be applied to problems that arise in a social
context. Practitioners in educational technology seek new and effective ways of
organizing the teaching and learning process through the best possible application of
technological developments. These activities rely upon a body of knowledge for
successful and ethical implementation, rather than routine tasks or isolated technical

31
skills. It encompasses Hardware approach like use of machines and materials,
Software approach like use of methodologies and strategies of teaching learning and
Systems approach that uses the management technology that deals with the systematic
organization of the hardware and the software.

6. Special Education
Special education or special needs education is the education of students with special
needs in a way that addresses the students' individual differences and needs. Ideally,
this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored
arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible
settings, and other interventions designed to help learners with special needs achieve a
higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and community than
would be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom
education. Common special needs include challenges with learning, communication
challenges, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and
developmental disorders. Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to
benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching,
use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or resource room.

7. Environmental Education
The main objective of the study of Environmental education is to enable the student
teacher understand about the concept of environmental education. It also develops in
the student teacher a sense of awareness about the environmental pollution, and
possible hazards and its causes and remedies. It creates a sense of responsibility
towards conservation of environment, bio-diversity and sustainable development. It
develops reasonable understanding about the role of school and education in fostering
the idea of learning to live in harmony with nature. Its study enables the students to
understand about the various measures available to conserve the environment for
sustaining the development.

8. Educational measurement and evaluation

The purpose of the study of this branch is to acquaint the student teacher with the
basic scientific concepts and practices in educational and mental measurement. It
32
enables the student to tabulate and find out some standard meaning from the raw
scores by using statistical procedures. It develops skills and competencies in the
student teacher for the use of the techniques in the field. It helps the student teacher to
interpret the result of educational measurement and enables them understand about
various educational and mental measurement tools.

9. Distance Education
There is no one meaning of the term distance education. It is known by a variety of
names, viz. Correspondence Education, Off-campus Study, Open Learning, Open
education, etc. Distance education is characterized by a non-conformist and non-
traditional approach that, in effect, questions existing norms of traditional education
and seeks to provide a new orientation to educational process.

10. Adult Education

Adult learning, or adult education, is the practice of training and developing skills in
adults. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-
directed learning and e-learning. Adult Education aims at extending educational
options to those adults, who have lost the opportunity and have crossed the age of
formal education, but now feel a need for learning of any type, including, basic
education (literacy), skill development (Vocational Education) and equivalency.

11. Educational Problems and policies

Education policies are the principles as well as the collection of laws and rules that
govern the operation of education systems. This area seeks to answer questions about
the purpose of education, the objectives (societal and personal) that it is designed to
attain, the methods for attaining them and the tools for measuring their success or
failure. This area also discusses problems of process and components of education.
Research intended to inform education policy is carried out in a wide variety of
institutions and in many academic disciplines. Education occurs in many forms for
many purposes through many institutions. Examples include early childhood
education, kindergarten to 12th grade, two and four year colleges or universities,
graduate and professional education, adult education and job training. These all stages

33
suffer from many problems, which hinder the proper functioning of the education at
these stages. Therefore, education policy can directly affect the education people
engage in at all ages. Examples of areas, subject to debate in education policy,
specifically from the field of schools, include school size, class size, school choice,
school privatization, teacher education and certification, teacher pay, teaching
methods, curricular content, school infrastructure investment, and the values that
schools are expected to uphold and model.

12. Early childhood education

It refers to the formal teaching of young children by people outside the family or in
settings outside the home. "Early childhood" is usually defined as before the age of
normal schooling – five years in most nations.‖27 Early childhood education focuses
on children's learning through play, art, and social games. Early childhood education
(ECE) programs include any type of educational program that serves children in the
preschool years and is designed to improve later school performance.

13. Education Futurology

This area is universally conceptualized as the system of predicting future outcomes
and demands/requirements in education through interplay of appropriate technology,
relevant data on socio-economic and cultural variables, the practice itself demands a
clear anticipation of future requirements that must be predicted now, for actualization
in the future. This task demands a lot of foresight, foreknowledge, updatedness and a
great level of pre-vision on the part of the educational planner.

14. Value Education

This term is used to name several things, and there is much academic controversy
surrounding it. Some regard it as all aspects of the process by which teachers (and
other adults) transmit values to pupils. Others see it as a subject area of education
intended to impart moral or ethical knowledge. Values education can take place at
home, as well as in schools, colleges, universities, offender's institutions and
voluntary youth organizations. There are two main approaches to values education,
some see it as inculcating or transmitting a set of values, which often come from

34
societal or religious rules or cultural ethics while others see it as a type of Socratic
dialogue where people are gradually brought to their own realization of what is good
behaviour for themselves and their community.28

1.5.3.1.3 Cross-disciplinary programs29

These programs include social, cultural, comparative and critical studies in education.
With the time these field become well-established field of study and called special
interest fields or finally, traditional disciplines.

1. Guidance and Counseling

The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of possibilities
inherent in the individual. Education fosters all aspects of an individual‘s personality.
Guidance is an integral part of education and helps in achieving the goals of
education. Guidance is quite essential for the development of individual which is the
main objective of education. The Education Commission (1964-66) observes30
―Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of education and not as a special,
psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes. It is
meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm in one direction or
the other.‖ A. J. Jone (1951)31 points out the relationship between guidance and
education, ―All guidance is education but some aspects of education are not
guidance. Their objectives are the same the development of the individual but
methods used in education are by no means the same as those used in guidance.‖

2. Economics of Education
Economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to education,
including the demand for education and the financing and provision of education.
From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes
for individuals, the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover
virtually all areas with linkages to education.

3. ICT in Education
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in education is any hardware and
software technology that contribute in the educational information processing. In the
35
context of present era, ICT mainly comprises of Computer technology with its
hardware, like, Personal computer machine, infrastructure required for setting up
Internet facility and also software like, CD ROM including various programme
packages, E-learning strategies etc. ICT in education is any Information Technology
that focuses on the acquisition, storage, manipulation, management, transmission or
reception of data required for the educational purpose. Uses of Electronic learning
technology like, teleconferencing, power point presentations, CD ROM are
Communication Technologies, which are the part of ICT. Different software packages
for the use in different department of education like library software, administration
software, software related to managing the entire teaching learning process are also
examples of use of ICT in education.

There may be difference in opinions regarding classifying different areas under

special interest fields and cross-disciplinary programs. For example, environmental
education may be placed in both the categories. Therefore, the above categorization of
different areas of study of education should be considered as a convenient
arrangement and not an ultimate classification.

1.5.3.2 Practical knowledge in education

Education is a unique discipline in the sense as it combines both the theory and the
practice. Practical knowledge is gained through formal or informal or incidental
experiences. Teaching, researching, networking with educationists, managing
different activities are some of the methods to gain practical knowledge of education.
Some of these activities are deliberately planned for the learner in the academic study
of education such as practice teaching, action research and other practical work, while
some are learned by self-experience. Practical knowledge is helpful in many of the
activities such as teaching, research, administration, evaluation and maintaining
discipline. Methodology of teaching is an important area includes mathematics
education, science education, language education, and history education etc. This is
an important aspect of curriculum of teacher education. The objective of study of this
area is to make pupil teachers efficient in understanding objectives, principles and
methods of teaching different school subjects. This study makes them able to:

36
1. Understand general and instructional objectives of teaching.

2. Understand the importance and place of teaching subjects in schools.

3. Know various approaches and methods of teaching.

4. Prepare lesson plans properly.

5. Select and organize learning experiences according to content and level of

students.

6. Develop and use various teaching aids.

7. Evaluate the content of textbooks.

8. Develop the skills of diagnostic and remedial teaching.

1.5.3.3 Distinctness of body of knowledge of education from

other disciplines
It can be interpreted from the above discussion that philosophy, psychology and
sociology have a great influence on content of education. In the words of G. Ferree,
―One cannot imagine a body of knowledge about education that is unique and
autonomous in the sense that it contains no statements whatever that could be
considered as appropriate to psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, or
any of various other bodies of knowledge.‖32 He stressed that bodies of knowledge are
not discriminable by the different classes of things, which they discuss, but by the
different sorts of questions, which they are concerned to answer. For e.g., The major
concern of psychology, sociology, and anthropology is to discuss human beings but,
the questions which these bodies of knowledge intend to discuss about human beings
are different. These different questions differentiate different bodies of knowledge
from each other. Similarly, education also discusses those questions about human
beings, generally not discussed by its foundational disciplines.

In spite of the great influence of the foundational disciplines, the claim that most of
the concepts and principles in education are derived from its foundational disciplines
mainly from philosophy, psychology and sociology is not completely true. When
subject matter of education is critically analyzed it is found that most of the content

37
which seemingly adopted from other discipline is uniquely educational own content.
Following points present the clear picture:

1. All of the main foundational disciplines of education in some or other way

revolve around the common object that is ‗man‘. The main concern of the
theories, principles and concepts of these disciplines is making human life better
spiritually, individually and socially.
2. While philosophy prescribes the aim for life, Sociology and psychology transform
these aims into achievable social and individual forms. Thereby, ensuring the
attainment of the aim of life and wellbeing of both the individual and the society.

3. For complete wellbeing of an individual two factors are responsible:

i. The individual himself
ii. Society in which he lives
Philosophy tells us what is desirable for wellbeing of an individual and his
society and how an individual can live a meaningful life. The two offshoots of
philosophy that is psychology and sociology assist the philosophy in this concern.
While psychology explores the individual‘s desires and interests, sociology
determines the extent to which these desires can be fulfilled as a member of
society. In this way, psychology and sociology while assisting to implement
philosophical prescriptions maintain a balance between individual aspirations and
societal expectations from him.
4. Therefore, any discipline or area of study, whose object of interest is human
beings in some or other way, cannot remain untouched from the influence of
philosophy, psychology and sociology. Almost all the social sciences utilize
principles of one or all of these disciplines.
5. Education as a social science is directly related to human beings. Only humans
are the living beings who can be educated, not the animals or plants. The purpose
of educating the human beings is to make their life better spiritually, individually
and socially.
6. Therefore, it is mandatory for education to follow principles, theories and
concepts of philosophy, psychology and sociology. However, whenever
education utilizes principles, concepts and theories of these disciplines it strictly
38
 converts them into educational meaning. Thereby, transforming them into
distinctively intellectual content of education entirely different from their original
disciplines.
7. In comparison to these disciplines, scope of education is more focused and
narrower than its foundational disciplines. While foundational disciplines study
particular aspects of human beings in general, scope of education is limited to
studying process of educating human beings in institutional or social settings.
8. In spite of heavy influence of these disciplines on educational content and
methods, none of these nor a combination of these can replace education as an
alternative. Different disciplinary influences are so uniquely interwoven and
structured in the discipline of education as not possessed by any other discipline
in the academic world. Thereby giving its content a distinct identity.
9. To give recommendations for theory and practice of education is not the Primary
purpose of philosophy, psychology and sociology. Education of human beings is
the primary purpose of discipline of education only. Therefore, education extracts
the implications (and not the concepts and theories as such) for its theory and
practice from different theories of these disciplines resulting in its own body of
knowledge.
10. To draw out meaningful implications from a variety of disciplines and restructure
and interwove them into educational framework is not an easy task. This
cumbersome task is possible only in the discipline of education. The subject
matter of education is so unique that its scholars have a unique vision and
knowledge about almost all the aspects necessary to make an individual a
complete human being.
11. Despite drawing out from its foundational disciplines, education also has some
special interest fields, which are essentially of educational origin. These programs
are also known as sub disciplines of education. Special education, distance
education, woman education, environmental education, school administration and
management are some of the examples of such programs. This programs guide
practicing of education in a particular area of interest.
12. Besides special interest fields, education has some cross-disciplinary programs
like economics of education and ICT in education. In this programs education has

39
 crossed the disciplinary boundaries and shake hands with other disciplines on
common matter of interest.
13. Unfortunately, content of education is unnecessarily overburdened with
foundational disciplines; while educational own content (i.e., special interest
fields and cross-disciplinary studies) is less emphasized. In recent years, these
sub disciplines of education have become so specialized that they are claiming to
be recognized as independent disciplines in their own right.

Above mentioned points make it clear that content of discipline of education, whether
borrowed, shared or adopted has its own uniqueness and structure when seen as a
whole or as a unit, which is distinct from the subject matter of other disciplines.
Therefore, there should not be any hesitation in accepting that education as a
discipline has a body of accumulated, structured and well organized, specialist
knowledge not possessed by any other area of study in the academic world.

1.5.4 Criterion-4
‘Disciplines have theories and concepts that can organize the accumulated
specialist knowledge effectively.’

1.5.4.1 Theories in education

An educational theory can be defined as an organised body of principles and
recommendations directed towards those concerned with educational practice.33 Role
of educational theory is different from that of scientific theory, and the standard for
judging scientific theories is not in all respects appropriate for judging the validity of
educational theories. It is generally believed that being a practical enterprise
educational theory is unnecessary. It is also said that education depends on theoretical
foundations of other discipline and does not have or cannot develop its own theories.
Several arguments are given to exempt education for having any theory or to develop
its own theories.

• Arguments do not support need of theories for education

1. Education is generally understood to exclude ‗indoctrination‘ or
‗conditioning‘. It respects the personal commitment to understanding and
40
 making sense of experience, recognizing that such a commitment will shape
people in different ways- certainly not producing the standardized outcomes
loved by some researchers. If we follow a certain theory in education, it would
not be possible to respect individual differences.
2. In the past, philosophical theories generally prescribed aims for education.
These aims were formulated both in terms of certain types of individuals to be
produced by education and of certain types of society to be realised. The
realisation of an educational aim would involve producing a person equipped
to live in a certain style, to respond in a distinctive way to the world about
him, and this has generally been understood as requiring the initiation of the
pupil into certain kinds of knowledge and skill. However, each child is born
with innate potentials and should not be expected to show a predetermined
behaviour pattern.
3. Human behaviour especially behaviour of a child generally cannot be
explained by any theory. In a classroom, sometimes the conditions become so
strange that a teacher has to use his own experience and wisdom to solve the
problem. No teacher can control the classroom and children activities on the
basis of certain theories.

• Arguments support need of theories for education

On the other hand, there are also some arguments, which suggest that education
should develop its own theories. For example, According to Marc Belth,34
―every institution which exists is grounded in some idea or system of ideas.
From that idea, the institution derives not only the reasons for its existence but the
determinants through which it sees the meanings and values of the events of
experience. A study of institution calls first for an enquiry into theory.‖

The term ‗educational theory‘ is generally used to refer theories of philosophy,

sociology and psychology, which have a bearing of educational practice. However,
efforts are also being done to develop own theories of education. Therefore,
educational theories may be categorised into two: theories for education and theories
of education.

41
1.5.4.1.1 Theories for/about Education
These are theories of foundational discipline applicable in education, broadly derived
from three main foundational disciplines:

i. Philosophical theories
ii. Sociological theories
iii. Psychological theories

i. Philosophical theories
Philosophical theories are the earliest theories of education. The great thinkers like
Plato, Locke, Rousseau, Mill and Dewey have given prescriptions for guiding process
of educating. Their recommendations are generally termed as ‗Theories of
education‘. In the words of T. Moore35, ―We may say that the theories offered by
these writers are ‗general‘ theories of education, theories which try to give
comprehensive, over-arching guidance in the conduct of education and which are
usually associated with a distinctive social and political position.‖

Normative philosophies of education make use of the results of philosophical thought,

factual inquiries about human beings, the psychology of learning, what education
'should be', what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how
and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. A full-fledged theory of
education based on the philosophical normative includes: 1. Basic normative premises
about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world;
3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions
education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the
psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about
such things as the methods that education should use.

At the metaphysical level, there are four broad philosophical schools of thought that
apply to education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and existentialism. Two of these general or world philosophies,
idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and
Aristotle. Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism.

42
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how
we come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one
or more of the general or world philosophies just discussed. These educational
philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms the world over. They are
Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. These
educational philosophies focus heavily on what we should teach, the curriculum
aspect.36

ii. Sociological theories37

There are three main theories of sociology intended for education. The Functionalist
Theory focuses on the ways that universal education serves the needs of society.
Functionalists first see education in its manifest role: conveying basic knowledge and
skills to the next generation. Functionalists point to other latent roles of education
such as transmission of core values and social control. The Conflict Theory sees the
purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of
those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of
education as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to
an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system as
perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.
The Symbolic Interactionist Theory limit their analysis of education to what they
directly observe happening in the classroom. They focus on how teacher expectations
influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes.

iii. Psychological Theories38

Psychological theories are basically theories of learning and motivation. They play a
significant role in guiding teachers during teaching-learning process. Some of the
major psychological theories are Constructivism, Behaviourism, Theory of
Cognitive Development, The Brain-based Learning Theory, The Control Theory
of Motivation, The Social Learning or Observational Learning Theory, and The
Social Cognition Learning Model. All these theories have wide application for
curriculum planning, methods of learning, instruction and assessment, reward or
punish students. Psychological theories promote child-centered education and

43
emphasize that in order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that
students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those
models. These theories also suggest that educators must plan a developmentally
appropriate curriculum that enhances their students' logical and conceptual growth.
According to these theories traditional schooling, often inhibits learning by
discouraging, ignoring, or punishing the brain‘s natural learning processes. Therefore,
Teachers must design learning around student interests and make learning contextual.
Teachers should structure learning around real problems, encouraging students to
learn in settings outside the classroom and the school building.

1.5.4.1.2 Criticism of earlier theories about education

Generally, earlier theories about education are criticised on following points:

1. Each of these theories made certain assumptions, about aims, about human nature
and about knowledge and methods. The theories have considerable point and
value. However, these assumptions depended on social and political climate of
their time.
2. Each theory declared aim of education according to the need and ideology of that
particular time. For e.g. Plato‘s educational aim, then was the production of wise
and good rulers whose wisdom and goodness derived from this special grasp of
reality, which Plato calls knowledge, as opposed to opinion. Similarly, Dewey,
Rousseau, and Mill‘s assumptions of educational aims were entirely different.

However, all of these are products of their time and limited by the knowledge then
available. These are based on assumptions not always defensible and often different
from those we would make today. These assumptions may always be questioned by
appeals to criteria of a scientific, moral, or philosophical kind. In one sense, they may
be said to be out of date or not guiding adequately for current practice. However, each
of them give useful insights into what goes on in schools and into what ought to be
going on there. However, it is also true that Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are
different from that of nineteenth and twentieth. Earlier we did not know much about
psychological and sociological concepts related to education. This reduces their

44
applicability to present day situations, and this would be true of the content of any
such theory of education.

1.5.4.1.3 Need of constructing own theories of education

As discussed above, the term educational theory is generally used to cover writing of
different kinds on education. Various philosophical, sociological and psychological
interpretations of educational issues are included as theories of education. Generally,
these interpretations are influenced by political or social background of a particular
time or place. Sometimes explanations given by these theories do not prove helpful in
actual classroom conditions. These theories now need to be supplemented by insights
gained from new accessions of knowledge and different educational perspectives.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to construct own theories of education. However,
we cannot hope to construct a detailed general theory of education, which will hold
good in all times and in all circumstances. The specific content, assumptions, and
recommendations of a general theory of education must always be regarded as liable
to change but what we called its structure is not.

1.5.4.1.4 Assumptions for developing theory of education

T. W. Moore in his book ‗Educational Theory – An Introduction‘39 describes some
assumptions for developing a general theory of education. On the basis of his
description assumptions for a general theory of education can be suggested as:

1. Educational Aims
Any general theory of education should guide in achieving aims of education.
However, which kind of educational aims are considered for developing a general
theory of education may be a matter of debate due to three reasons i. There is not a
single aim of education. ii. Aims are continuously revising. iii. Aims are influenced
by needs of individual, society, culture and time. Therefore, uniform aims cannot be
formulated for all the individuals, social and cultural setups. In general, aim of
education should be improvement in knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

45
2. The nature of children
The second fundamental assumption about those being taught. However, human
nature in general cannot be said as plastic. But, to some extent it can be assumed that
children are plastic. Children do not only change as a result of what happens to them,
but they change and develop in certain orderly and predictable ways. However, in
spite of their plastic nature, due to individual differences uniform norms cannot be
suggested for all. Therefore, any theory of education must consider individual
differences.

3. Knowledge and Methods

Assumptions about particular areas of knowledge to be learned, skills to be acquired,
and attitude to be adopted would form part of the particular content of the theory, and
would need to be justified in terms of the end they are required to serve. It will be the
individual circumstances of the school, class, child and teacher, which will determine
what methods and what organizations, may be used most effectively. In the words of
Moore, ―All that require to be done here is to point out that the methods
recommended must, in addition to being morally acceptable and allowing pupil
participation, be pedagogically effective, and the assumptions that they are so would
be a component in a general theory of education.‖40

In general, theory of education should give broad recommendations about aims,

nature of the learner, methods and procedures, leaving it to the individual teacher to
adapt and apply these recommendations in practice.

1.5.4.1.5 Framework for a general theory of education

Based on the above assumptions following framework may be suggested to develop a
general theory of education:

1. A general theory of education should aim to achieve educated men, then, on the
basis of what we currently know about children and their development, we should
initiate them into what we can justify as worthwhile knowledge, skill and
attitudes, using such methods as satisfy the canons of morality, pupil-participation
and effectiveness.

46
2. What must be done, for practical purposes, is to fill in this formula with such
specific assumptions of substance as will meet on on-going educational situation.
3. The practicing teachers may within this general framework, give content to their
own theory of education.
4. It provides an overall approach to the enterprise of education. It would also be
particular in that it would depend for its specific content on present day
knowledge and assessments.
5. A general theory of education should be flexible. Any conclusion is open to
challenge and modification. It should give broad recommendations about
methods and procedures, leaving it to the individual teacher to adapt and apply in
practice. It should tell pupil teachers how to deal with specific crises in the
classroom.

In the field of theoretical foundations, discipline of education is still dependent on

theories of other disciplines. However, efforts have been started to develop own
theories of education, which are guided by actual teaching learning situations and not
by some abstract ideas. Recently, some contemporary theories of education41 have
emerged like theories of curriculum aim to "describe, or set norms, for conditions
surrounding many of the concepts and constructs" that define curriculum. Descriptive
theories of education provide descriptions or explanations of the processes of
education. Instructional theories focus on the methods of instruction for teaching
prescribed curricula. However, these theories are still in their infancies and need a lot
of improvement.

1.5.4.2 Concepts in Education

All the concepts we discuss in education revolve round the factors, components and
individuals related to the process of educating. Concepts used in education can be put
in two categories:

i. Concepts of education itself Curriculum, syllabus, teaching,

vocationalisation, examination, work experience, class, textbooks, teaching-aids,
teaching methods, literacy, drop-out, etc.

47
ii. Concepts of foundational disciplines used in education Such as,
intelligence, learning, motivation, instruction, technology, cultural heritage, individual
differences, achievement, aptitude, attitude, instructional strategy, national and
international integration, Software and hardware technology, system approach, social
mobility, guidance and counselling, reward and punishment, environment and peace
and so on.

According to Yadav and Lakshmi (1995),42 ―adopting and utilizing concepts from
other disciplines are not barrier to the development of a discipline.‖ On the criticism
that education borrows it concepts from other disciplines they remark, ―The
criticism would be valid to the extent to which education fails to generate its own
connotations to those concepts.‖ Concepts of other disciplines when used in education
acquire special educational character.

Process of educating an individual does not limited to schools only. In its broad sense,
various factors affect and shape it. We cannot ignore the sociological and the
psychological factors influence this process. Neither can we overlook the
philosophical analysis of purpose of education and nature of learner. Due to heavy
influence of these foundational disciplines on the process of educating, it is very
reasonable to discuss some of the popular concepts of these disciplines in the
discipline of education. However, often these borrowed concepts in education are
used with an adjective ‗educational,‘ which transform them into educational
concepts. Here it is necessary to clear that just adding prefix ‗educational‘ does not
give any concept- an educational meaning instead these concepts are used in special
concern and situations which are strictly educational. Therefore, such concepts take
essentially educational shape and nature.

For e.g. Concept of Learning when used as the ‗learning of children in class room‘ is
not used in the same way as a psychologist would use the term. Psychology as a
science of behaviour has broad meaning of the term learning. Similarly, all concepts
used in education which are seemingly from other discipline, turn at some stage into
educational concepts and acquire newer meanings.

48
Almost, all the disciplines use the concepts of other related disciplines. However,
disciplines may have different implications of the same concepts when used in their
own intellectual territory.

1.5.5 Criterion-5
‘Disciplines have a specified scope of inquiry and a particular object of research,
though the object of research maybe shared with another discipline’.

Discipline of Education: Scope of inquiry and object of

research
The scope of inquiry of education is vast. The main objective of discipline of
education is to educate man. How to improve theory and practice of education is the
main theme of educational enquiry. It investigates all the formal and informal means
and methods that directly or indirectly play an important role in the process of
educating. Its main objects of research are aims of education, curriculum, classroom,
textbooks, teaching methods, examination and evaluation, literacy, policies and
practices of education. Its scope of enquiry includes all the factors which affect
human learning in one or more way. ‗How to make human learning more feasible?‘ is
the matter of concern of an educationist. Education refers to that learning which in
some way transforms how people see and value things, how they understand and
make sense of experience, how they can identify and solve key problems. Such a
characterization of education highlights the kind of enquiry or research needed to
shed light on educational activities and their assessment and evaluation.

The term ―educating‖ has broad meaning. It is not limited to just teaching or to make
somebody learn. It is a complex process of upbringing, nurturing and guiding which
promotes growth and make an individual a complete human being. A complete human
being possesses distinctive capacities of ‗knowing‘, ‗understanding‘, ‗judging‘, and
‗behaving intelligently‘. To bring this perfection or completion education investigates
all the stages, events, areas of an individual‘s life. Therefore, the scope of enquiry of
education starts since the very beginning of life of an individual. No other discipline
has such a wide area of investigation.

49
To investigate each aspect of human learning, an educationist seems to peep into field
of interest of other disciplines. While investigating different fields of human life it has
to share and overlap field of investigation of other disciplines. For example, while
investigating better ways to make a child learn an investigator has to explore not only
the educational aspect associated with learning but behavioural, social and
environmental aspects too. Therefore, researcher has to cross the boundaries of other
disciplines. However, whenever it happens, education uses its own insight, own vision
and own attitude, different from styles of other disciplines. For e.g. learning in rats,
pigeons, chimpanzees, and men will continue to be a part of the discipline of
psychology but learning under the special conditions of boy, book and teacher should
be the special concern of education. Furthermore, school learning should be studied in
close relation to the purposes and goals of organised education. Although, disciplines
differ among themselves their areas of investigation are not completely different from
each other. The focus of all disciplines is same; all of them revolve around man and
its environment.

During recent years, education has focused on some specialised areas of investigation
like woman education, distance education, environmental education, population
education, ICT in education, adult education and peace education etc. Therefore, it
can be said that there is not a single object for research in education and not a single
field of investigation for an educationist. As a field of study, each and every thing is
the field of interest of education which affects process of educating human beings in
one or another way.

1.5.6 Criterion-6
‘Disciplines have developed specific research methods or recognized/ accepted/
suitable set of techniques/tools/ procedures for generating new knowledge and
validating existing knowledge according to their specific research requirements’

Discipline of Education: Research methods

Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge in any kind of discipline.
When it seeks a solution of any educational problem, it leads to educational research.

50
Research is required in any field to come up with new theories or modify, accept, or
nullify the existing theory. One of the important reasons that education has doubtful
disciplinary status is that it borrows and shares research methods with other social
sciences and does not have its own method of knowledge generation and validation.
In addition, it is also said that educational research has not attained the status of
scientific research, its methods are still not flawless, and results are not verifiable. In
this concern, D. W. Miller, (1999) refers Diane Ravitch, who writes,

―…..what if, instead of medical researchers, I were being treated by educational

researchers? ……I had a fantasy of people disagreeing about how you make a
diagnosis… arguing endlessly about whether I was even sick.‖ (Quoted in R. Pring ,
2000)43

Here, Miller shows a general distrust on educational research. The validity of research
findings of education faces many criticisms. Richard Pring, (2000)44 summarized
these criticisms in the following points:

i. Too small -scale and fragmented, constructed on different data bases, such that
it is not possible to draw the ‗big picture‘;
ii. Non-cumulative, failing to progress on the basis of previous research, forever
reinventing the wheel;
iii. Ideologically driven, serving the ‗political purposes‘ of the researcher rather
than the disinterested pursuit of the truth;
iv. Methodologically ‗soft‘ or ‗flawed‘, without the rigour either in the conduct of
the research or in the reporting of it;
v. Inaccessible in esoteric journals and in opaque language.

It can be tried to prove these criticisms wrong or not applied to most of the researches
done in education. However, Pring designates the person ‗a falsificationist‘ who
could try to dare so. Largely, educational researchers may agree with Mr. Pring and
there is no need to bear the tag of ‗a falsificationist‘. It is true that many of these
criticisms should be taken seriously. Just one thing that should be considered to
defend education from such serious criticisms is that nature of educational research is
different from sciences and other social sciences. Such criticisms arise when we
51
compare educational research with scientific research or research in some other more
developed social sciences like psychology. The claim of some educationists to
consider education as science gives birth to such problems. Before, comparing
educational research with scientific research a brief introduction of educational
research is given here:

1.5.6.1 Characteristics of Educational Research

The purpose of educational research is to solve educational problem in systematic and
scientific manner and to understand, explain, predict and control learner behaviour.
Educational research can be characterized as follows:
- It is highly purposeful.

- It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers as well.

- It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of investigation.

- It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at statistical

inferences.

- It discovers new facts in new perspective. i.e. It generates new knowledge.

- It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and experience for its interpretation
and conclusions.

- It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational problem.

- It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in some cases.

- It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education as the laboratory for

conducting researches.

1.5.6.2 Scope of Educational Research

Being scientific study of educational process, it involves individuals (Student,
teachers, educational managers, parents) and institutions (Schools, colleges, research
institutes). It discovers facts and relationship in order to make educational process
more effective. It relates social sciences like education, sociology and psychology. It
includes processes like investigation, planning (design), collecting data, processing of

52
data, their analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences. It covers areas from formal
to non-formal education as well.

1.5.6.3 Is educational research a scientific research?

Sciences are broadly divided into natural (or physical) sciences and social sciences.
Social Sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life, human
behaviour, social groups and social institutions. They consist of Anthropology,
Commerce, Demography, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Law,
Linguistics, Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public Administration,
Sociology, and Social Work. Though these sciences are treated as separate branches
of knowledge for the purpose of study, they are interdependent studies of the different
aspects of the same object, viz., man.

Scientific progress makes education inclining towards a science rather than an art.
Science belongs to precision and exactness. It suffers hardly from any variable. On
the other hand, education as a social science suffers from many variables, so goes
away from exactness. Educational Research tries to make educative process more
scientific. However, education is softening from multivariable, so it cannot be as
exact as physical sciences. Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific
method. The scientific method is a systematic procedure following the logical
processes of reasoning. Scientific method does not belong to any particular body of
knowledge or disciplines of science only, it is universal. However, there are certain
limitation of education and other social sciences that scientific method cannot be
applied here with the same precision as in sciences.

1.5.6.4 Limitations of Social Science Research45

Research in social sciences has certain limitations and problems when compared with
research in physical sciences. They are discussed below:

Scientist - a part of what is studied. The fact that a social scientist is part of the
human society which he studies gives rise to certain limitations.

53
Complexity of the subject matter - The subject matter of research in social sciences,
viz., human society and human behaviour is too complex, varied and changing to
yield to the scientific categorization, measurement, analysis and prediction.
Human Problems
A social scientist faces certain human problems, which the natural scientist is spared.
These problems are varied and include refusal of respondents, improper
understanding of questions by them, their loss of memory, their reluctance to furnish
certain information, etc. All these problems cause biases and invalidate the research
findings and conclusions.
Personal Values
Subjects and clients, as well as investigators, have personal values that are apt to
become involved in the research process. One should not assume that these are freely
exploitable. The investigator must have respect for the client's values.
Wrong decisions
The quality of research findings depends upon the soundness of decisions made by the
social scientist on such crucial stages of his research process as definition of the unit
of study, operationalization of concepts, selection of sampling techniques and
statistical techniques. Any mistake in any of these decisions will vitiate the validity of
his findings.

Education and other social sciences are not exact science like physical sciences, as
they, unlike the latter, deal with human beings. Human nature and man's environment
are so complex that it is more difficult to comprehend and predict human behaviour
than the physical phenomena. No two persons are alike in feelings, drives or
emotions. No one person is consistent from one moment to another. The behaviour of
human beings is influenced by biological, psychological, socio-cultural, temporal and
environmental factors. It is difficult to see the underlying uniformities in the diversity
of complex human behaviour. A controlled experiment, which is sine qua non of an
empirical science, is generally well impossible in education and other social sciences.

According to Best and Khan (2005),46 although the problems of discovering theories
of human behaviour are difficult, it is possible to do so. Behavioural scientists need to
carry on their investigations as carefully and rigorously as have physical scientists.

54
However, one must not overestimate the exactness of the physical sciences, for
theoretical speculations and probability estimates are inherent characteristics.

1.5.6.5 Types of educational research

Since education includes other disciplines such as psychology, sociology,
anthropology, science, and philosophy and refers to work
done in a wide variety of contexts it is proposed that researchers should use "multiple
research approaches and theoretical constructs". Research into educational problems
is conducted by scholars with many disciplinary affiliations. Most of them have a
background in psychology or other behavioural sciences, but quite a few of them have
a humanistic background in philosophy and history. During twentieth century, two
main paradigms were employed in researching educational problems. The one is
modeled on the natural sciences with an emphasis on empirical quantifiable
observations that lend themselves to analyses by means of mathematical tools. The
task of research is to establish causal relationships, to explain. The other paradigm is
derived from the humanities with an emphasis on holistic and qualitative information
and interpretive approaches.

According to Best and Kahn, 2005, 47 ―The methodologies of educational research

are based on research methods in the behavioural and social sciences like psychology,
sociology, and anthropology. Research in these fields emphasizes logical positivism,
which uses experimental and quantitative research methods. Still some research
concern may be addressed more appropriately with a phenomenological, or
qualitative, research approach derived from the humanities, particularly history and
philosophy, or with qualitative methods from the social sciences (e.g., ethnography
from anthropology).‖ Therefore, according to them educational research can be
divided into two broad categories: quantitative research and qualitative research.
They further add that both types of research should be thought of as continuum rather
than a mutually exclusive dichotomy. A good researcher utilizes a variety of these
methods in combination as per requirement.

Educational researchers have also begun to realize that educational practices are not
independent of the cultural and social context in which they operate. Nor they are

55
neutral to educational policies. Thus, the two main paradigms are not exclusive, but
complementary to each other. All research utilizes methodologies that combine
quantitative and qualitative designs to some extent. Research requirements dictate
whether the methodology will be primarily qualitative or quantitative, or a
combination of both. The main kinds of qualitative and quantitative research methods
in education are discussed below:

1.5.6.5.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods were developed in the social sciences to enable
researchers to study social and cultural phenomenon. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. Qualitative approach to research is
concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research
in such a situation is a function of researcher‘s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of
focus group interviews, projective techniques and in-depth interviews are used.48

Qualitative research may be of following types: 49

i. Historical Research - the study of a problem in the past that requires

collecting information from the past, which serves as the data to be interpreted in
the study. It consists of describing what was, rather than what is.

ii. Biographical Research - exploration of the life or activities of an individual.

A form of historical research that focuses on an individual.

iii. Phenomenological Research - understanding the essence of experiences

related to a phenomenon or situation. Often utilizes in-depth interviews with
appropriate subjects to understand the phenomenon being studied.

iv. Grounded Theory - development of a theory (theories) based on data

collected from the field through qualitative methodology. Usually utilizes

56
 multiple interviews to obtain the data that provide the basis for the development
of theory.

v. Ethnographic Research - research consisting of an in-depth, analytical

description of a specific cultural (or educational) situation. Ethnography relies
heavily on observation, description, and qualitative judgments or interpretations
of phenomena occurring in natural settings.

vi. Case Study - in-depth analysis of a single case or a few multiple cases. Case
studies utilize a variety of information sources to obtain an in-depth
understanding of the case under study.

vii. Ethnomethodology – Ethnomethodology is concerned with how people make

sense of their everyday world. More especially, it is directed at the mechanisms
by which participants achieve and sustain interaction in a social encounter – the
assumptions they make, the conventions they utilize and the practices they
adopt.50

1.5.6.5.2 Quantitative Research 51

Quantitative research methods were originally developed in the natural sciences to
study natural phenomena. However, examples of quantitative methods, now well
accepted in the social sciences and education. These are conducted to determine
relationships, effects, and causes. Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity. Following types of quantitative researches are used in education:

i. Experimental Research - research in which at least one variable, the

experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated by the researcher to determine
the effects of the variation.

ii. Quasi-Experimental Research - similar to experimental research except

that intact groups are used as subjects of the research (rather than subjects

57
 randomly assigned to experimental conditions). Also included research where
single subjects are assigned to experimental conditions.

iii. Causal-Comparative Research - research that attempts to establish cause

and effect relationships involving group comparisons. Unlike experimental
research, however, the (alleged) causal variable is not manipulated by the
researcher, it is studied as it occurred at some time in the past. (Also referred to as
Ex post facto research.)

iv. Correlational Research - research that attempts to determine whether, and

to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more variables. The purpose
of correlational research is to establish a relationship (or lack of a relationship) or
use an established relationship to make predictions.

v. Survey Research - research dealing with the incidence, distribution, and

relationships of educational, psychological, and sociological variables. Variables
are studied, as they exist in the situation. Often, survey research describes how
things are.

1.5.6.6 Nature of Educational Research: Inter-disciplinary

Approach
The nature of educational research is analogous with the nature of research itself,
which is systematic, reliable and valid to find the ―truth‖, investigates knowledge,
and solves problems (William Wiersma, 1991)52. Moreover, educational research
process involves steps to collect the information in order to investigate problems and
knowledge. However, the educational research is more complex because it can use
various approaches and strategies to solve problems in educational setting. It also can
involve many disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and history. In
addition, educational research is important because of contributing knowledge
development, practical improvement, and policy information (John W. Creswell,
2005).53 Therefore, educators can use those research findings to improve their
competences and teaching and learning process.

58
Educational research calls for inter-disciplinary approach, human life and his
education cannot be compartmentalized into psychological, social, economic or
political aspects. An isolated study of anyone aspect of man's life would not yield any
meaningful results. A discipline-specific study of an educational problem from an
angle of, say, economics or sociology or political science cannot give a correct and
total view of the problem. For example, the problem of backwardness in class should
be studied as a psychological, social, and educational issue. The approaches and
theories of all these disciplines must be blended to provide a meaningful and valid

approach to the problem. According to Yadav, Menon and Kumar, 1982,54

―Education as a discipline is obliquely concerned with the concepts and
methodologies of various other disciplines, and resultantly has evolved into an
interdisciplinary area of knowledge. Understanding education as a social system
would demand analyzing the various societal determinants that influence the evolution
and functioning of educational system. This, in turn, would call for an understanding
of the philosophical, sociological and other aspects of education.‖

It can be interpreted from the above discussion that research in education is

interdisciplinary in nature. Due to influence of other social sciences on education of
human beings, it shares method of generating knowledge with more developed social
sciences and sciences. However, it modifies any method according to nature and
objective of the problem under research. Therefore, it is clear that education also has
specific research methods and suitable set of techniques, tools and procedures for
generating new knowledge and validating existing knowledge according to their
specific research requirements.

1.5.7 Criterion-7
‘Disciplines use specific terminologies or a specific technical language adjusted to
their research object.’

59
Discipline of Education: Terminologies or Technical
Language
Within all academic disciplines, there are a range of terms and words that are the
language of that academic community. This language has evolved and developed
within disciplines to communicate particular ways of seeing and thinking specific to
that subject. This discipline specific manner of communicating is obviously less
familiar to those outside or attempting to enter this academic community.

Since theories, content and methods of education have a great influence of other
disciplines. Most of the terms in education are adopted with other disciplines.
However, most of the terms are used with a prefix- educational provides an
educational meaning to the term. For e.g. educational technology, educational aims,
academic achievement, educational implications, agencies of education, school
administration, educational guidance. Terms like intelligence, learning, motivation,
instruction, technology, cultural heritage, individual differences, achievement,
aptitude, attitude, instructional strategy, national and international integration,
Software and hardware technology, system approach, social mobility, guidance and
counseling, reward and punishment may be used with or without adding any
educational prefix but strictly with an educational meaning. There are some other
terms which have educational origin such as curriculum, syllabus, teaching,
vocationalisation, examination, work experience, class, textbooks, teaching-aids,
teaching methods, literacy, and dropout etc.

Like other social sciences, education also shared content and research methods with
other disciplines so the technical terminology of educational is also shared with these
disciplines. Even the pure disciplines also use terminology of other disciplines for
e.g., logic and mathematics have to borrow from languages to express themselves.
However, to develop a technical terminology is necessary for any discipline. A well-
developed and specific communication language, specific technical terminology
related to generation of knowledge and specific concepts provide an academic identity
to a discipline. This communication language is generally used by scholars of that
discipline and not by an outsider. Thereby, provides a respectable status to that
discipline.
60
It does not matter that many of the terms and concepts in education are adopted from
other disciplines, because it is a common practice in almost all the disciplines in
academic world. It matters only that the discipline of education also has specific
technical language and terminology, which can be identified in any educational
conference, publication or institution where education is studied or researched.
Anyone can easily recognize speaking an educational personal or his writing as it
contains specific educational terms, idioms, phrases and concepts. We can hope that
with the ongoing efforts of specialization and improvement of content and methods
education would be able to enrich its technical terminology and language soon.

1.5.8 Criterion-8
‘Disciplines have an intimate link with basic human activities and aspirations.’

Discipline of Education: Link with Basic Human Activities

and Aspirations
Transmission, preservation and production of acquired knowledge, skills, culture and
traditions to its progenies have always been basic human tendencies. Education provides
a formal and systematic platform to support these basic human activities. Study of
education develop efficient educators for educating different levels of teachers, it is well
known that only a teacher can shape the future of our nation by imparting right
knowledge, attitude and skills to the children. These children as excellent professionals
can fulfil the needs and aspirations of the people in different fields. Thus, education has a
direct link with expectation and aspirations of the people.

In addition to, transmission of knowledge and skills about the process of educating,
the discipline also has a huge contribution in the form of research and published work.
Study and research of education influence various aspects and components of society
to a large extent. Its field of investigation includes studying problems of educating
special groups for specific issues like teacher education, special education, woman
education, adult education, environmental education, peace education and population
education. This is the most important function of education to effectively investigate
almost all the fields of human life and draw out educationally significant inputs to
make their lives better through educating them. Educators not only shape the future of

61
any society by educating our children but also act as a leader to motivate and guide
the people to bring desirable changes in the society.

In addition to its social significance, study of education has a great professional

importance too, especially in the modern, complex industrialised societies. To meet
the aspirations and needs of all learners in an era of rapidly increasing racial, ethnic
and linguistic diversity and technological change education prepares efficient
educators, researchers and other professionals, who develop the policies, curriculum,
learning materials and methods to fulfill the needs of learners of different groups.

1.5.9 Criterion-9
‘Disciplines must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects
taught at universities or colleges, respective academic departments, community
of scholars or professional associations connected to it.’

As an academic discipline, education has gaining much popularity and importance.

Besides the university departments of education and their affiliated colleges, Several
government and private institutions at state, national and international levels,
community of scholars and professional associations are also working in the field of
theory and practice of education.

Broadly, any discipline is mainly concerned with three fields:

1. Teaching (Transmission of knowledge)
2. Research (Production of knowledge)
3. Publication (Preservation of knowledge)
There are concerned institutes, departments, professional bodies and community of
scholars for the persuasion of teaching, research and publication in a discipline.
Education as a discipline is concerned with all the three fields and has significant
contribution in all the three fields. At different levels, there are many professional
associations and institutions to extend and monitor the teaching, research and
publication in education.

62
1.5.8.1 Institutional Study of Education
The discipline of education is also unique in its academic study. Perhaps this is the
only subject which is taught both as liberal and professional courses at different
levels. In our country, study of education in academic settings is started from 10+2
level as a subject in some states boards under arts stream. At university and college
level, the subject is taught both academically (B.A. in Education and M. A. in
Education) and professionally (B. Ed and M.Ed.). Programs of teacher education are
also available in diversified form, suitable for the need of different levels of
education. There are different programs of teacher education for primary, secondary
and higher education stage. Different institutes also provide education to in-service
teachers and special education teachers.

In recent years, education has become one of the most popular subjects opted by
students in higher education. In today‘s information economy, education has become
the engine driving the future of the country and of our children. To obtain a decent job
and support a family, children need higher levels of skill and knowledge than ever
before. To compete in a global marketplace and sustain a democratic society, our
country requires the most educated population in history. For these reasons, the future
is in the hands of the nation‘s teachers. The quality of tomorrow will be no better than
the quality of our teacher force. Several schemes of Government related to expansion
of education in our country also necessitated to appoint a large number of qualified
teachers at different levels. To raise the quality and quantity of this teacher force
‗study of education‘ is gaining tremendous important as a subject at university and
college level. Most of the universities have separate faculty and department of
education. However, in some of the universities, for e.g., Allahabad University, it is
still taught as a subject under arts faculty. There are also many independent colleges
of teacher education. Even some engineering and technical colleges have established
departments of education. Education especially Teacher‘s education and education for
teacher educators is the main concern of the mushrooming colleges around the
country. India has one of the largest systems of teacher education in the world.
Besides the university departments of education and their affiliated colleges,
Government and Government aided institutions; private and self-financing colleges
and open universities are also engaged in teacher education. The study of education as
63
a subject has been gaining importance at undergraduate and postgraduate to research
levels.

1.5.8.2 Research in education

The nature and process of education of any country is always determined by the
sociopolitical conditions of that country. Study and research in education always gain
socio-political importance. Due to the urgent need of expansion of education in the
country, research in education is attracting many governmental and non-governmental
agencies to raise funds and facilities in this direction. Although, educational research
is still far beyond than the popularity and significance as the research in sciences,
however, it has become one of the most popular fields of research in many social
sciences. At present research in education is being conducted by universities‘
departments of education in the form of professional research courses like M. Phil.,
Ph.D. and Post-doctoral programs. Faculty members of university education
department are also involved in several major and minor research projects of
government and private agencies. Besides universities, National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), State Council of Educational Research
and Training (SCERT), National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA), and Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)
are the prominent institutions in India involved in exploring innovative processes and
practices of education. Some private organizations like Ajim Premji Foundation and
Tata Memorial Institute of social sciences are also promoting educational research by
providing funds and facilities to the researchers. In addition to Education Departments
and institutions, many other disciplines like psychology, philosophy, sociology,
economics, management, and anthropology etc. also conduct educationally relevant
research.

However, it is distressing to observe that researches in our universities and institutes

are largely conducted for obtaining a degree and most of the researches are repetitive
and incapable of improving theory and practice of education. Unfortunately, most of
the researches are based on some practical and daily life affairs who hardly contribute
to enrich study of education as a subject.

64
1.5.9.3 Publications and professional associations in
Education
Educational literature in the form of books, journal, and magazines is available easily.
There are many national and international print and online journals and surveys in
education, who publish articles, research papers, and abstracts of thesis etc. For e.g.,
American Journal of Education, British Journal of Research in Education, Harvard
Educational Review, Indian Educational Abstract, Indian Educational Review,
Journal of Indian Education, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration,
Survey of Research in Education, Aadhunik Bhartiya Shiksha, Indian Journal of
Special Education, and University News.

Professional Organizations and associations for Educators

There is a long list of professional associations engaged in organizing academic
activities on education like conferences, seminars, symposium, and workshops. The
prominent organizations and professional associations of educationists are:

American Association of School Administrators (AASA), Council for Exceptional

Education (CEC), American Educational Research Association (AERA), Association
for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), and American Federation
of Teachers (AFT). In India the popular organizations are: National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), State Council of Educational Research
and Training (SCERT), National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA), Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
National Council For Teacher Education (NCTE), All India Association of
Educational Research (AIAER), and Indian Association of Teacher Educators (IATE)

etc. 55

The list of national and international academic associations and publication on

education is so long that it is not possible to mention all of them. This long list shows
the popularity of this discipline as a subject of study and research around the world.
Therefore, education as a discipline has a significant contribution in transmission,
production and preservation of knowledge.

65
1.6.0 Conclusion
As a field of study, education has come a mile apart. As a process, it is as old as the
evolution of the human beings. Since the origin of human beings, they started
understanding and experiencing their environment by various formal and informal
means. As a field of study, it was originated when early human explored and evolved
different techniques to make their progeny learn the knowledge, skills and attitudes
accumulated by him. However, its history as an academic subject of study and
research in institutions is not very old. At present, discipline of education is
expanding its horizons in every aspect of human life.

Due to studying influence of various social, philosophical, psychological, political,

environmental, anthropological, historical, scientific, economical and commercial
factors on the process of education it has developed as a multidisciplinary field of
study. Therefore, it is natural to have influence of concepts, theories and research
methods of these disciplines on content and methods of education.

In spite of adopting and sharing concepts, theories and methods with other disciplines,
it has its own well-defined territory and distinct objectives of study and research.
After, critically analyzing education on different characteristics of a discipline it can
be said that education in not only a discipline but also a field of study, which uses
expertize of different disciplines to study process of educating human beings but in its
own distinct way. Therefore, it can be said that discipline of education follows an
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach in its study and research like other
social sciences.

No other discipline can replace the discipline of education as the studying and
researching process of educating is a complex task and only the discipline of
education possess the required knowledge, skills and attitude for operating on it. To
fulfill this complex and specialized task discipline of education has:

• A recognizable and significant tradition or an identifiable history.

• A unique mode of thinking or different cognitive framework.
• A specified scope of inquiry and a particular object of research.
66
 • A body of accumulated, structured and well organized, specialist knowledge.
• Theories and concepts that can organize the accumulated specialist knowledge
effectively;
• Specific terminologies or a specific technical language.
• Specific research methods or recognized/ accepted/ suitable set of
techniques/tools/ procedures for generating new knowledge and validating
existing knowledge.
• An intimate link with basic human activities and aspirations.
• Institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught at universities or
colleges, respective academic departments, community of scholars or
professional associations connected to it.

However, still there is a great need to refine its concepts, theories and methods in
order to make its study and research more significant in the academic world. In
addition, to provide it a legitimate academic status, there is also an urgent need to
discuss and solve various controversies associated with its disciplinary status. In the
next chapter, such controversies will be discussed in detail with an analysis of nature
and future of education as a subject of study.

67
References
*, ** Prospectus and syllabi as available on the websites of following universities
were consulted to study the objectives and curricula of different programmes of
education running at higher education level:
• University of Delhi. http://www.du.ac.in
• University of Hyderabad. http://www.uohyd.ac.in
• Jawaharlal Nehru University. http://www.jnu.ac.in
• Banaras Hindu University. http://www.bhu.ac.in
• University of Mumbai. http://www.mu.ac.in
• Osmania University. http://www.osmania.ac.in
• Aligarh Muslim University. http://www.amu.ac.in
• Jamia Milia Islamia University. http://www.jmi.ac.in
• Pondicherry University. http://www.pondiuni.edu.in
• Visva Bharti University. http://www.visvabharti.ac.in
• M.S. University, Baroda. http://www.msubaroda.ac.in
• University of Lucknow. http://www.lkouniv.ac.in

1. R. Peters (1966). Philosophy of Education. In J. W. Tibble (Ed.), The study of

education, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 273.
2. P.H. Hirst (1966). Educational theory. In J. W. Tibble (Ed.) The study of
education, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. 29-58.
3. R.F. Dearden (1972). Philosophy and the curriculum. In R.G. Woods, (Ed.),
Education and its Disciplines, Unibooks, University of London Press Ltd. pp. 9-
10.
4. N.R.S. Saxena & S. Chaturvedi (2005). Education in emerging Indian society.
Meerut: Surya Pub. p. 2
5. G.S.D. Tyagi & P.D. Pathak (2009). Shiksha ke samanya sidhanta. Agra:
Agrawal Publications, pp. 8-9.
6. The American Heritage Dictionary of English Language, (1996). 3rd Ed, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, p. 586.
7. W.K. Frankena (1973). Education, In P. P. Weiner (Ed), Dictionary of the
History of Ideas. Vol. 2, New York: Scribner, p.72.
68
8. J.T. Klein (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, theory and practice. Detroit:
Wayne State University, p. 196.
9. G.F. Kneller (1971). (Ed.) Foundations of Education. London: John Wiley &
Sons Inc. p.vi.
10. J.W. Tibble (Ed.) (1966). The Study of Education. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, pp.1-28.
11. W. Carr (June 2006). Education without Theory, British Journal of Educational
Studies, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp.136-159.
12. Tibble, J.W., The Study of Education, op.cit. pp. 4-5.
13. ibid p. 98.
14. Studies in Higher Education, (1983) Volume 8, Issue 1, Retrieved August 08,
2010 from:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03075078312331379071
15. History of Teacher education in world, Retrieved January 12, 2013 from:
http://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/M.A.%20Edu.%20Teachereducatio
n.pdf.
16. Teacher education in pre independence India, Retrieved January 12, 2013 from:
http://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/M.A.%20Edu.%20Teachereducatio
n.pdf.
17. Teacher education in post-independence India, Retrieved January 12, 2013 from:
http://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/M.A.%20Edu.%20Teachereducatio
n.pdf.
18. J.W. Tibble (1966). The development of the study of education. In J.W. Tibble
(Ed.), The study of education, op.cit. p.16.
19. M. Belth (1965). Education as a Discipline: A study of role of models in teaching,
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 9-10.
20. Judy Yero, How Teacher Thinking Shapes Education, (2002). Retrieved May 05,
2013 from: http://www.teachersmind.com.
21. P. Renshaw (1971). The objectives and structures of the college curriculum, In
J.W. Tibble, (Ed.) The future of teacher education. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul. p. 56.
22. R.S. Peters (1966), The philosophy of education, In J.W. Tibble (Ed.), The study
of education, op.cit. pp. 59-89
69
23. W. Taylor (1966). The sociology of education, In J.W. Tibble (Ed.), The study of
education, op.cit. pp. 179-213
24. B. Morris (1966). The contribution of psychology to the study of education, In
J.W. Tibble (Ed.), The study of education, op.cit. pp. 133-178.
25. B. Simon (1966). The History of Education, In J.W. Tibble (Ed.), The study of
education, op.cit. pp. 91-131.
26. Branches of Education, Retrieved June 06, 2013 from:
http://www.wikipeadia.org/wiki/branchesofeducation
27. Early Childhood Education- Definition, Retrieved June 06, 2013 from:
http://www.wikipeadia.org/wiki/earlychildhoodeducation
28. Value Education - Definition, Retrieved June 06, 2013 from:
http://www.wikipeadia.org/wiki/valueeducation
29. Branches of Education, Retrieved June 06, 2013 from:
http://www.wikipeadia.org/wiki/branchesofeducation
30. R. Agrawal (2006). Educational, Vocational Guidance and Counselling, New
Delhi: Shipra Publication.
31. A.J. Jones (1951). Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work, New York:
McGraw Hill.
32. G. Ferree (1966). Philosophy and the body of knowledge unique to the profession
of education, In The Body of knowledge unique to the profession of education, A
report of the First Pi Lambda Theta Catena, Washington, D.C., p.12.
33. T.W. Moore (1982). Educational Theory- An Introduction, London: Roultedge &
Kegan Paul Ltd. p. 11
34. M. Belth (1965). Education as a Discipline: A study of role of models in teaching
op. cit. p. 28.
35. T.W. Moore (1982). Educational Theory- An Introduction op. cit. p.8.
36. Philosophical Theories of education, Retrieved June 05, 2013 from:
http://en.wikipeadia.org/wiki/philosophical_theories_of_education.
37. Theories of education, Retrieved June 05, 2013 from:
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/education/theories-of-education
38. Theories of education, Retrieved June 05, 2013 from:
http://crescentok.com/staff/jaskew/isr/education/theories.htm.
39. T.W. Moore (1982). Educational Theory- An Introduction op. cit., pp. 84-90
70
40. Ibid. p.90.
41. Theories of education, Retrieved June 05, 2013 from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_theory.
42. M.S. Yadav & T.K.S. Lakshmi (May 1995). Education: Its Disciplinary Identity,
Journal of Indian Education, pp. 6-7.
43. Pring, R., (2000), Philosophy of Educational Research, London: Continuum p.
156.
44. Loc. Cit.
45. Limitations of social science research, Retrieved June 18, 2011 from:
http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/MarketingResearch/index.htm/basis of scientific
method MarketingResearch/index.htm/Limitations of social science research.
46. J.W. Best & J.V. Kahn (2005). Research in Education (7th Ed) New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Ltd. pp. 20-2.
47. ibid, p. 89.
48. Research Methodology: An Introduction, Retrieved June 06, 2013 from:
http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/000896.pdf
49. R.C. Bogdan & S.K. Biklen (2011). Qualitative Research For Education- An
Inroduction to theories and methods, (5th Ed.) New Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt Ltd.
pp. 1-297.
50. L. Cohen, L. Manion & K. Morrison s(2007). Research Methods in Education.
New York: Routledge, p. 22.
51. J.W. Best & J.V. Kahn (2005). Research in Education, op. cit. pp. 128-206
52. W. William (1991). The nature of educational research, Retrieved September 09,
2013 from: http://pendidikansains.wordpress.com/2008/04/12/the-nature-and-
characteristics-of-educational-research.
53. J.W. Creswell (2005). The nature of educational research, Retrieved September
09, 2013 from: http://pendidikansains.wordpress.com/2008/04/12/the-nature-and-
characteristics-of-educational-research.
54. M.S. Yadav, S.B. Menon & P. A. Kumar (July-Sept, 1982). Educational Research
as an Interdisciplinary Endeavour, New Frontiers in Education, Vol. 12, No. 3,
p. 16.
55. ProfessionalAssociations,RetrievedOctober092013,from:
http://www.educationoasis.com/resources/Professional_development/proforg.htm
71