1. Emf Equation of a DC Generator ( page no: 2.

9)
As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case
of a generator, the emf of rotation is called the Generated
emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a motor,
the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and
represented as Er = Eb.The expression for emf is same for both the
operations. I.e., for Generator as well as for Motor.

Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

Let,

 P – Number of poles of the machine

 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
 Z – Total number of armature conductors.
 N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
 A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is

given as

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will
get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path =

Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the
armature terminals is given by the equation shown below.

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of

conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant. Hence, the equation
(5) can be written as

Where, K is a constant and given as

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be

written as

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the

speed and flux per pole. The polarity of induced emf depends upon
the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If
either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are
reversed the polarity remains unchanged.

This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC

Machines whether they are working as a generator or motor.

If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced

emf is given by the equation shown below.
 Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is

given by the equation shown below.

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts
opposite to the supply voltage.

2) EMF Equation of a Transformer (pg no: 2.151)

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, alternating flux ϕm sets up in the iron core of the
transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and
secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of
change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.

The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below.

Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to –

ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.

By Faraday’s Law

Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ
Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value
of E1 as
Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as

transformation ratio.

The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the
relation

(ϕm = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value
of flux density.

For a sinusoidal wave

3) TORQUE EQN OF INDUCTION MOTOR- PAGE 2.67
4) TORQUE EQN OF INDUCTION MOTOR- PAGE 2.35
5) Construction: Transformer (pg no: 2.144)
6) Construction: DC motor/generator (pg no: 2.1)

Construction of DC Motor

DC motor is an electromagnetic device which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. DC power input is converted into mechanical power at the shaft
motor. This article describes the construction of DC motor.

There is no difference in the construction of DC Motor and Generator. A DC Motor

can also be used as DC generator without any constructional change. Similarly, a
DC generator can also be used as DC Motor. They are broadly termed as DC
machine. Therefore, construction of DC Motor is well applicable for DC Generator.
In this post, construction of DC Machine is detailed.

Construction of DC Machine

A DC machine consists of two main components: Stator and Rotor.

 Stator is the stationary part whereas rotor is the rotating part.

 Stator of DC machine consists of Yoke, Field Winding, Interpoles,

Compensating Winding, Brushes and End Cover.

 Rotor consists of armature core, armature winding, commutator and

shaft. A labeled diagram of DC machine is shown below.
Each Stator components of DC machine is described below in detail.

Yoke: Yoke is the magnetic core of stator. It provides path for the pole flux Ø and
carries half of it. Apart from this, it provides machenical support to the whole
machine. The Yoke of DC machine is not laminated as it carries stationary flux and
hence there is no eddy current. Iron core is used for the construction of Yoke for
small DC machine whereas Steel is used for large DC machine.

Field Poles: Fiedl pole consists of pole core and pole shoe. The pole core is made
from the cast steel. The pole shoe of DC machine is laminated and fixed to the pole
core. These Filed Poles are welded or bolted to the Yoke.

Field Winding or Exciting Winding: The pole is excited by a winding wound

around the pole core. This winding is called the Field Winding or Exciting Winding
and made from copper. The number of turns and cross-sectional of filed winding
depends on the type of DC machine as below:

 Large number of turns of small cross-sectional area is used for DC Shunt machine.
 For DC Series machine, small number of turns of large cross-sectional area is used.
 Both series and shunt field winding is applied for DC Compound machine.

Interpoles: Interpoles are fixed to the Yoke in between the main poles of DC
machine. Theinterpole winding is made of copper and consists of few turns of thick
wire. This winding is connected in series with the armature winding.

Compensating Winding: Theses windings are placed in the slots cut in the pole
faces of DC machine. Compensating winding is also connected in series with the
armature winding.

Brushes: Brushes are housed in the brush holder and connected to the end cover. It
is made up of Carbon for small DC machine. For large DC machine, electrographite
is used to make brushes. A spring keeps the brushes pressed on the commutator
surface.

Rotor components of DC machine are described below:

Armature Core: It is a magnetic core made of laminated silicon steel of thickness

0.30 to 0.50 mm to minimize the iron losses. The main purpose of armature core is
to house the armature conductor in its slot and provide low reluctance path to
magnetic flux Ø/2 as shown in the labeled diagram of DC machine.

Armature Winding: Armature winding is made from copper. It consists of large

number of insulated coils having one or more than one turns. Theses coils are
placed in the armature core slots and connected appropriately in series and parallel
depending on the type of winding. There are basically two types of winding: Lap
Winding and Wave Winding.

Commutator: It is a cylindrical structure made up of wedge shaped segments of

high conductivity hard drawn copper. Hard drawn copper is used to reduce wear and
tear ofcommutator surface. The segments are insulated from each other by 0.8 mm
thick mica sheet.

Shaft: Shaft of DC Motor is coupled to the load to transfer mechanical power. For
DC Generator, shaft is coupled to prime mover to convert mechanical input energy
into electrical output. Armature core, bearing, commutator etc. are mounted on the
Shaft.

Working Principle Of A DC Generator:

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in
a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be
calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed
path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce
an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of
induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever
the direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating
clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half
rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward.
Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at
the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an
armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature
conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional current at the terminals.

Types Of A DC Generator:
DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii)
Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent external
DC source.
(ii) Selfexcited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by the
generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in field poles. The
generated emf causes a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field
flux and thereby increasing emf generation. Self excited dc generators can further be divided
into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding