CHAPTER-7

WEAR STUDIES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Wear is the progressive loss of material due to relative motion between a surface and
the contacting substance or substances [1]. The wear damage may be in the form of
micro-cracks or localized plastic deformation. Wear may be classified as adhesive
wear, abrasion wear, surface fatigue wear and tribo-chemical, fretting, erosion and
cavitation wear. Wear is a complex phenomenon in which real contact area between
two solid surfaces compared with the apparent area of contact is invariably very
small, being limiting to the points of contact between surface asperities. The load
applied to the surfaces will be transferred through these points of contact and the
localized forces can be very large. The material intrinsic surface properties, the
surface finish, load, speed and temperature and properties of the opposing surfaces
are important in determining the wear rate. Wear, the progressive loss of substance
from the operating surfaces of the mechanically interacting element of a tribo-system
may be measured in terms of weight loss or volume loss. Commonly available test
apparatus for measuring sliding friction and wear characteristics in which, sample
geometry, applied load, sliding velocity, temperature and humidity can be controlled
are Pin-on-Disc, Pin-on-Flat, Pin-on-Cylinder, Thrust washers, Pin- into-Bushing,
Rectangular Flats on a Rotating Cylinder and such others. In laboratories, wear
tests are conducted at ambient temperature by varying loads and speeds under varying
environments and frictional force, wear height loss and temperature are monitored.

7.2 TYPES OF WEAR

A fundamental scheme to classify wear was first outlined by Burwell and Strang [2].
Later Burwell [3] modified the classification to include five distinct types of wear,
namely (1) Abrasive (2) Adhesive (3) Erosive (4) Surface fatigue (5) Corrosive

7.2.1 Abrasive Wear

Abrasive wear can be defined as wear that occurs when a hard surface slides against
and cuts groove from a softer surface. It can be account for most failures in practice.
Hard particles or asperities that cut or groove one of the rubbing surfaces produce
abrasive wear. This hard material may be originated from one of the two rubbing

ϭϯϱ

surfaces. In sliding mechanisms, abrasion can arise from the existing asperities on one
surface (if it is harder than the other), from the generation of wear fragments which
are repeatedly deformed and hence get work hardened for oxidized until they became
harder than either or both of the sliding surfaces, or from the adventitious entry of
hard particles, such as dirt from outside the system.

Fig. 7.1 Schematic representations of the abrasion wear mechanism

Two body abrasive wear occurs when one surface (usually harder than the second)
cuts material away from the second, although this mechanism very often changes to
three body abrasion as the wear debris then acts as an abrasive between the two
surfaces. Abrasives can act as in grinding where the abrasive is fixed relative to one
surface or as in lapping where the abrasive tumbles producing a series of indentations
as opposed to a scratch.

7.2.2 Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear can be defined as wear due to localized bonding between contacting
solid surfaces leading to material transfer between the two surfaces or the loss from
either surface. For adhesive wear to occur it is necessary for the surfaces to be in
intimate contact with each other. Surfaces, which are held apart by lubricating films,
oxide films etc. reduce the tendency for adhesion to occur.

Fig .7.2 Schematic representations of the adhesive wear mechanism

7.2.3 Erosive Wear

Erosive wear can be defined as the process of metal removal due to impingement of
solid particles on a surface. Erosion is caused by a gas or a liquid, which may or may
not carry, entrained solid particles, impinging on a surface. When the angle of
impingement is small, the wear produced is closely analogous to abrasion. When the

ϭϯϲ

angle of impingement is normal to the surface, material is displaced by plastic flow or
is dislodged by brittle failure

Fig. 7.3 Schematic representations of the erosive wear mechanism

7.2.4 Surface Fatigue Wear

Wear of a solid surface caused by fracture arising from material fatigue. The term
‘fatigue’ is broadly applied to the failure phenomenon where a solid is subjected to
cyclic loading involving tension and compression above a certain critical stress.
Repeated loading causes the generation of micro cracks, usually below the surface, at
the site of a pre-existing point of weakness. On subsequent loading and unloading, the
micro crack propagates. Once the crack reaches the critical size, it changes its
direction to emerge at the surface, and thus flat sheet like particles is detached during
wearing. The number of stress cycles required to cause such failure decreases as the
corresponding magnitude of stress increases. Vibration is a common cause of fatigue
wear.

Fig. 7.4 Schematic representations of the surface fatigue wear mechanism

7.2.5 Corrosive Wear

Most metals are thermodynamically unstable in air and react with oxygen to form an
oxide, which usually develop layer or scales on the surface of metal or alloys when
their interfacial bonds are poor. Corrosion wear is the gradual eating away or
deterioration of unprotected metal surfaces by the effects of the atmosphere, acids,
gases, alkalis, etc. This type of wear creates pits and perforations and may eventually
dissolve metal parts.

ϭϯϳ

The expeditious advancement of technology in the past decades has resulted in the
need for new multifunctional materials which possess characteristics not obtainable
from any individual material. Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMCs) possess
much higher specific strength and stiffness, higher wear resistance and lower thermal
expansion coefficient in comparison to their base alloy matrices due to the
incorporation of suitable particles or fibers into the metal matrix [4, 5]. Wear
properties of aluminum alloys can be improved by the addition of a second ceramic
phase provided there is good interface bonding between the ceramic and metal
phases [6]

One third of our global energy consumption is consumed wastefully in friction. In

addition to this primary saving of energy, very significant additional economics can
be made by the reduction of the cost involved in the manufacture and replacement of
prematurely worn out components. The dissipation of energy by wear impairs
strongly the national economy and the life style of most of people. So, the effective
decrease and control of wear of metals are always desired [7].

The current study provides a new insight into the wear and friction properties of an
A356 /HSA(P) composite.

7.3: LITERATURE REVIEW

Considerable amounts of research on the dry sliding wear behaviour of aluminum

metal matrix composites (AMMCs) have been carried out. The comprehensive
reviews of this research were done by P. K. Rohatgi, A.P. Sannino, R.L. Deuis [8–
10].

P.K. Rohatgi et.al [11] reported the abrasive wear resistance of Aluminum alloy
(A356) containing fly-ash particles. Their results show that the wear resistance of
specimen containing fly ash is comparable to that of alumina fiber-reinforced alloy
and superior to that of base A356 alloy.

Dry sliding wear behavior of silicon particles-reinforced aluminum matrix composites

was reported by Sun Zhiqiang, et.al [12]. In their work, a ring on rock wear testing
machine was used to study the wear properties of powder metallurgy aluminum
matrix composites 9Si/Al-Cu-Mg. Quartz (SiO2p) reinforced chilled metal matrix
composites for automotive applications were developed by Joel Hemanth [13].

ϭϯϴ

Dry sliding wear behavior of aluminum syntactic foam was discussed by D. P.
Mondal et.al. [14], K.M.Shorowordi et.al [15] studied the effect of velocity on the
wear, friction and tribochemistry of aluminum MMC sliding against phenolic brake
pad. Their results show that higher sliding velocity leads to lower wear rate and lower
friction coefficient for Al-B4C and Al-SiC metal matrix composites

I.M. Hutching [16] studied the tribological properties of metal matrix composites and
has the opinion that under certain conditions MMCs show high wear resistance but
this is not the case always and is some time depended on the wear mechanism.

Axen et.al [17] studied the friction and wear behaviour of an Al-Si, Mg-Mn aluminum
alloy reinforced with 10%, 15%, and 30% volume of alumina fibers. Their results
shows that fiber reinforcement increases the wear resistance in milder abrasion
situations and the coefficient of friction decreases with increasing fiber content and
matrix hardness of composites. Wear of metals depends on many variables, so wear
research programs must be planned systematically. Therefore researchers have
normalized some of the data to make them more useful.

Several investigators have proposed that wear resistance of a material depends on

its hardness, strength, ductility, toughness, the kind of reinforcement, its volume
fraction (Vf) and the particle size [18-26]. The particle reinforcements are the most
effective in improving the wear resistance of MMCs [27] provided that good
interfacial bonding between the reinforcement and the matrix exists.

The wear resistance of the composites is improved by preventing direct metallic

contacts that induce subsurface deformation [28]. The addition of hard ceramic
particles improves the resistance to seizure at elevated temperatures.

Barwell and Strang [29] in 1952: Archard [30] in 1953: developed the adhesion
theory of wear and proposed a theoretical equation identical in structure with Holm’s
equation. In 1957, Kragelski developed the fatigue theory of wear. Because of the
Asperities in real bodies their interactions on sliding is discrete and contact occurs at
individual locations, when taken together, form the real contact area. Under normal
force the asperities penetrate into each other or are flattened out and in the region of
real contact points Corresponding stress and strain rise. In sliding, a fixed volume of
material is subjected to the many times repeated action, which weakens the material

ϭϯϵ

and leads finally to rupture. Though all the theories are based on different
mechanisms of wear, the basic consideration is the frictional work. Hence friction is
the prime consideration

Kirit J. Bhansali and Robert Mehrabian [31] have studied the abrasive wear resistance
of aluminum matrix composites containing Al2O3 and SiC using a dry sand/rubber
wheel abrasion tester. Their results show that composites containing Al2O3 were
found to be superior to those containing SiC.

G.Wang and I.M. Hutching [32] reported the investigations of the response of
alumina fiber- aluminum metal matrix composites systems to wear by two-body
abrasion. Their results show that wear resistance of the composites was found to range
from almost two to six times that of the unreinforced matrix alloy.

A.T. Alpas and J.Zhang [33] studied the dry sliding wear of aluminum matrix
composites and determined how the micro structural parameters such as volume
fraction of particulate and particulate size affect the wear resistance of these materials.

V.Constantin et.al [34] investigated the sliding wear behaviour of Aluminum Silicon
Carbide metal matrix composites reinforced with different volume fraction of
particulate against a stainless steel slider. Their results show that addition of
reinforced particles increases the resistance of the composites to sliding wear under
dry conditions, even for small volume fraction of particles.

T.Miyajima and Y.Iwai [35] studied the effect of reinforcements on sliding wear
behaviour of aluminum matrix composites. Their results show that the degree of
improvement of wear resistance of metal matrix composites (MMC) is strongly
dependent on the kind of reinforcement as well as its volume fraction. Aluminum
metal matrix composites are emerging as promising friction materials. One of the
important applications that are being considered for MMCs is as rotor (disc/drum)
material in automotive brake system.

Liang.Y.N et.al [36] studied the effect of particle size on the wear behaviour of SiC
particulate reinforced 2024 Al composites investigated using three tests, sliding wear
test, impact abrasion test, and erosion test. Their results show that the wear behavior
of particulate reinforced aluminum composite is significantly affected by particle size.

ϭϰϬ

Composites contain large particles exhibited excellent wear under sliding wear
conditions with steady applied load.

Yoshiro.Iwai et.al [37] studied the wear properties of Sic whisker reinforced 2024 Al
alloy with volume fraction of whiskers ranging from 0 to 16% produced by Powder
Metallurgy technique. Their results show that SiC whisker reinforcement can improve
the wear resistance of aluminum alloy for both severe and mild wear.

D. Huda et.al. [38, 39] reported that a particular fabrication technique depends on the
type of the proper matrix and reinforcement materials to form the MMC.

Sannino and Rack [40] however showed that the effect of the shape of reinforcement
depends on the sliding velocity. It is difficult to deduce the effects of reinforcement
from the literature because in the reported studies experimental conditions such as
contact load and sliding velocity spread over very wide ranges and these studies
employ different kinds of test apparatus. The effects of sliding velocity on the
frictional and wear behavior of aluminum MMC sliding against ferrous counter body
have been studied by a number of researchers [41-42]. Their studies revealed that the
frictional and wear characteristics of aluminum MMC depend on the sliding speed in
a complicated way. Depending upon the sliding velocity range, both increase and
decrease in wear rate with sliding velocity were reported.

M.K. Surappa et.al [43] studied the tribological behaviour of stir-cast Al–Si/ SiCp
composites against automobile brake pad material was studied using Pin-on-Disc
tribotester. The Al-metal matrix composite (Al-MMC) material was used as disc,
whereas the brake pad material forms the pin. It has been found that both wear rate
and friction coefficient vary with both applied normal load and sliding speed. With
increase in the applied normal load, the wear rate was observed to increase whereas
the friction coefficient decreases. However, both the wear rate and friction
coefficients were observed to vary proportionally with the sliding speed. During the
wear tests, formation of a tribolayer was observed, presence of which can affect
the wear behavior, apart from acting as a source of wear debris. Tribolayer formed
over the worn disc surfaces was found to be heterogeneous in nature. It has also
investigated the morphology and topography of worn surfaces and debris were studied
using scanning electron microscope (SEM).

ϭϰϭ

7.4: EXPERIMENTAL WORK

In the present work, studies have been carried out to assess the wear behaviour of
A356/HSA(P) composites under controlled laboratory conditions. A comprehensive
picture of wear under different working conditions has been presented by conducting
laboratory tests in pure sliding mode using a pin-on-disc machine; and further
characterization was carried out by using scanning electron microscopy to know the
wear mechanism

7.4.1 Dry Sliding Wear Tests

Dry sliding wear tests have been carried out on a pin- on- disc apparatus (Model:
Ducom TR- 20 LE) by sliding a cylindrical pin against the surface of hardened steel
disc (with a hardness value of HRC 62) under ambient condition, as shown in Figure
7.5. The disc was ground to a smooth surface finish and renewed for each test. The
wear test specimens were prepared by wire cut EDM from the composite castings in
the dimensions of 8 mm diameter and 30 mm length, figure 7.6. The samples were
placed on the wear disc and the sliding wear tests were carried out at various loads,
time and sliding distance. The wear rate (K) was defined as the volume loss (V),
divided by the sliding distance (L). Hence, the volumetric from the weight loss
measurement and expressed wear rate (K). The friction force (F) was continuously
monitored during the wear test for determining the coefficient of friction (µ).

The friction force was measured for each pass and then averaged over the total
number of passes for each wear test. The average value of coefficient of fricition (µ)
of composite was calculated from the following expression.

µ=Ff/Fn

where: Ff is the average fricition force and Fn is applied load

ϭϰϮ

 Figure 7.5 Experimental setup of wear machine

Figure 7.6 Wear samples, by wire cut EDM

In the present experimental, the parameter speed is kept constant by varying time
and load throughout for all the experiments. These Parameters are given in the
following Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Parameter taken during sliding wear test

Load 4.9, 9.8 and 14.7 N

Speed (V) 2.345 m/s

Total Time 15, 30 and 45 min

ϭϰϯ

7.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 7.7 shows the sliding wear behavior of A356 alloy and the composites. The
normal loads applied were 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 Kgf. Wear test was conducted for a period
of 45 min at a sliding speed of 640 rpm on a steel disc with 70 mm track diameter and
the track velocity was 2.34 m/sec. In all the cases it was evident that the resistance to
wear increases with increasing reinforcement content. Alloy exhibits higher wear, and
the composite with 15% wt HSA(P) fraction showed lower wear.

Kamalpreet Kaur and O. P. Pandey [44] have reported, the wear behaviour of Al–
Si/zircon sand composite and base Al–Si alloy at various applied loads and constant
sliding velocity of 1.6 m/s (zircon sand as reinforcement and Al–Si alloy as a base
material). The wear rate and volume loss showed the two stages of wear for all the
applied loads. At the initial stage run-in wear occur up to 1 km sliding distance and in
later stage wear approaches a steady state. The results confirmed that spray formed
Al–Si/zircon sand composite is clearly superior to base Al–Si alloy in delaying the
transition to severe wear at higher loads as well as showing greater resistance to wear
at lower loads also.

J.Babu Rao et.al, [45], has studied the dry sliding wear behaviour of Fly-Ash as a
reinforcement and A2024 alloy as a base material. In all the results it was evident that
the resistances to wear increases with increasing fly ash content. With increasing fly
ash content, the amount of particle present strengthens the matrix and hence more
wear resistance was observed.

All the composites exhibit better wear resistance compared to the alloy. Presence of
reinforcement strengthens the matrix, resulting in increased wear resistance.

ϭϰϰ

 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 7.7: Comparative graphs of A356 alloy and A 356 alloy-HSA(P) composites
showing the amount of wear as a function of sliding times for an applied load of 0.5,
1.0 and 1.5 kg (Process parameters: Speed: 640rpm, Time: 45min, Track dia: 70mm.).

ϭϰϱ

7.5.1 Effect of Load on Coefficient of Friction (µ)

Figure 7.8 shows the change in the friction coefficient (µ) with varying loads for the
alloy and composites. For both alloy and the composites, µ found to be decreasing
with increasing applied load. Also µ decreases with increasing reinforcement content.

Figure 7.8 Variation of coefficient of friction (µ) as a function of load (a) 0.5 Kgf
(b) 1.0 Kgf (c) 1.5 Kgf

M. Ramachandra et al [46] reported similar behaviour of decrease in coefficient

friction with increasing reinforcement content and also at higher applied loads. The
decrease of coefficient of friction with increase of the load was attributed to
increasing amounts of wear debris particles coming out from the wear surface and
filling in the empty spaces between fly ash particles. An addition TiC in A356 alloy
exhibited the lowest wear rate and an increase in the load at which the transition from
low wear rate to high wear rate and also the coefficient of friction is reduced [47].

M.K.Surappa, et al. [48] has reported similar trend in their study on dry sliding wear
of fly ash particle reinforced with A356. Coefficient of friction varies from 0.45 to
0.14 in this study, the higher coefficients of friction in case of composites containing hard
particles was due to the formation of tribofilm at the interface between pin and disc.

ϭϰϲ

7.5.2 Effect of Load on Wear Rate

The variation of wear rate of alloy and the composites with loads of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5
Kgf was shown in figure 7.9. It was observed that the wear rate increases with
increase in loads.

Figure 7.9 wear rate of alloy and composites with load (Sliding distance=2.1km)

Kapoor et.al [49], reported that, as the load increases, the proportion of metallic wear
debris was also increased and the size of the delamination increased for the
composite resulting in increase of wear rate. At the highest load, the worn surface of
the materials could be described as classical rachetting wear.

Ferhat Gul, et.al [50] reported, that the wear rate increases with increased applied
loads, because the oxidation of aluminium plays a significant role in formation of the
wear debris and hence the tribolayer. At higher applied loads, high wear rates are
observed. The wearing surface is characterized by a significant transfer of material
between the sliding surfaces; a delamination wear mechanism has been inferred for
this wear regime, where the tribolayer is removed by sub-surface plastic deformation
and fragmentation of the silicon particles.

Alpas and zhang et.al [51], investigated the effect of SiC particle reinforcement on
the dry sliding wear of an A356 alloy under different applied loads, the wear
behaviour of an A356 alloy reinforced with SiC 20 vol% was compared to that of
unreinforced alloy, and found the increase in wear rate due to the SiC particles acted
as a load bearing phase.

ϭϰϳ

7.5.3 Effect of Sliding Distance on Wear Rate

Figure 7.10, shows the effect of sliding distance on wear rate of the alloy and
composites. Wear rate decreases with increasing in sliding distance, at all loads.

(a)

(b)

ϭϰϴ

 (c)

Figure 7.10 Variation of wear rate as a function of sliding distances of A356 alloy and
HSA(p) composites at normal load of (a) 0.5 Kgf (b) 1.0 Kgf (c) 1.5 Kgf

S. Basvarajappa, G. Chandra Mohan et.al, [52], reported, that the wear rate of the
A356/25SiCp composites is less than the matrix alloy for all loads. The wear rate of
composites with coarse fly ash particles exhibits better wear resistance than
composites with fine particles. This may be due to the fact that smaller particles tend
to get ploughed away from the surface of the matrix easily, thus increasing the wear.
In composites with coarse particles, the particles get fragmented into small particles
and continue to restrict the particle removal, thereby decreasing the wear.

Presence of reinforcement enhances the wear resistance of the resultant composite.

And the wear resistance increases with increase in reinforcement contents. It is self-
explanatory that, presence of particulate material not only strengthens the matrix
(mechanisms discussed in chapter 4 page no. 53), for also reinforce the matrix. A
good interface between the matrix and reinforcement causes effective transfer of load
to the reinforcement resulting in increased wear rate due to the presence of hard
reinforcements.

At initial stages of testing, both matrix and the reinforcement were in contact with the
disc resulting high wear rate and high coefficient of friction values. The wear rate
decreases with increase in time / sliding distance, shows that matrix has worned out
and particulates were taking the load, resulting in decreased contact area (decrease in
µ) and offering increased wear resistance

ϭϰϵ

This phenomenon is much truer with decreased µ values at increasing reinforcement
contents. Figure shows the banding nature of the reinforcement reflecting continuous
supply of reinforcements to the contact area, even when the particulate which was in
contact with the rotating disc, either worn out or pulled off. This discussion further
holds good, at decreased wear rate due to increased area of reinforcement at the
contact area. The same explanation holds good with increasing sliding distance, as
well.

7.5.4 Microstructure Studies

Figure 7.11 shows the wear track photographs of the alloy and composites. Alloy
shows a rough and worn surface with coarser and deeper grooves. Composites exhibit
a smoothened worn surface.

Varun Sethi [53], reported, that by incorporating ceramic particles in A356 matrix
results in weakening of the interfacial bonding and eventually resulting in the pull-out
of the SiC particle, because of the lattice straining in the surrounding areas of the
particles, there will be a reduction in the extent of plastic deformation that these areas
can undergo, which will make them more susceptible to cracking. These cracks will
result in the removal of the matrix from adjacent areas of the particles, thereby
decreasing the strength of interfacial bond. Some of the particles also underwent
fracture. These fractured particles must also become detached from the matrix. In
both the above cases, the strength of the bond between the matrix and the particle is
expected to play a critical role in determining wear.

With reference to dry sliding wear of A356 reinforced with SiCp Pramila Bai
[54] observed that with increasing applied loads the wear behavior of the
unreinforced alloy was dominated by extensive plastic flow of the alloy surface and
significant wear debris formation.

It was also observed that at higher loads the wear loss in composites was less as
compared to the matrix alloy. And it is evident from the microstructures that no
particle was cracked or pulled out from the matrix. This is due to good interfacial
bond between the alloy and the matrix. These findings suggest that a metal-metal
composite system gives better and wear resistant properties, compared to metal-
ceramic composite system.

ϭϱϬ

 Figure 7.11: SEM image of worn surface at 1.5 kgf applied load and 2.7 km sliding
distance (a) A356 alloy

Figure 7.12: SEM image of worn surface at 1.5 kgf applied load and 2.7 km sliding
distance (a) A356/5% wt HSA(P) composite

ϭϱϭ

 Figure 7.13: SEM image of worn surface at 1.5 kgf applied load and 2.7 km sliding
distance (a) A356/10% wt. HSA(P) composite

Figure 7.14: SEM image of worn surface at 1.5 kgf applied load and 2.7 km sliding
distance (a) A356/15% wt. HSA(P) composite

ϭϱϮ

7.5 CONCLUSIONS

1. Dispersion of HSA(P) in A356 matrix improves the wear resistance of the resultant
composites.

2. Wear resistance increases with increasing reinforcement content.

3. Composites exhibit decreased coefficient of friction compared to that of alloy.

4. Coefficient of friction decreases with increase in reinforcement content.

5. No particle pullout or cracking during test was observed with the composite,
reflecting, good bonding between the matrix and reinforcement.

ϭϱϯ

REFERENCES

1. Peter J, Blau, “Fifty years of research on the wear of metals”, Tribology

International, 2007, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 321-331.
2. Burwell J T and Strang C D “Metallic wear” Proc. Soc. (London), 212A May
1953, pp 470-477.
3. Burwell J T “Survey of possible wear mechanism”, Wear 1 1957-58, pp 119-141.
4. Rohatgi P.K., In: Invited silver anniversary lecture by American Foundry Society,
AFS Transactions, 01-133 (2001), p.633.
5. Rohatgi P.K., Gupta N and Daoud A., ASM handbook; Casting: vol. 15; ASM
International; 2008, pp.1149-1164.
6. Dwivedi. R “Development of Advanced Reinforced Aluminum Brake
Rotors”, SAE Technical Paper Series, 950264, Warrendale, PA, USA, 1995, 8 p.
7. M. B. Peterson, “Advanced in tribo-materials I Achievements in Tribology”,
American, Soc, Mech. Eng., Vol.1; 1990: pp. 91-109.
8. Rohatgi P.K., Liu Y and Ray S., ASM handbook. Friction, lubrication, and wear
technology, vol. 18. ASM International; 1992 pp.801-811.
9. Sannino A.P and Rack H.J., Wear, 189 (1995), p.1.
10. Deuis R.L., Subramanina C and Yellup J.M., Compos Sci Technol., 57 (1997),
p.415.
11. Rohatgi. P.K., Guo. R.Q., Huang. P and Ray .S. “Friction and Abrasion
Resistance of Cast Aluminum Alloy- Flyash Composites”, Metal. Mater. Trans.
A, Vol. 28A, 1997, pp. 245-250.
12. Sun Zhiqiang, Di Zhang and Li Guobin, Materials and Design, 26 (2005), p.454.
13. Hemanth J, Materials and Design, 30 (2009), p.323.
14. Mondal D.P., Das S and Nidhi Jha, 30 (2009), p.2563.
15. K.M. Shorowordi, A.S.M.A. Haseeb and J.P.Ceils,“Velocity Effect on Wear,
Friction and Tribochemistry of Aluminum MMC sliding against Phenolic Brake
Pad”. Journal of wear, 2003.
16. Hutching I.M “Tribological properties of Metal Matrix Composites”. Journal of
Material Science and Technology. Vol 10, (6), 1994, pp. 513 -517.
17. N. Axen, A.Alahelisten and S.Jacobson“Abrasive wear of alumina fibre
reinforced aluminum.” Journal of wear Vol.173, Issue 1-2, 1994, pp.95–104.

ϭϱϰ

18. E. Hornbogen, “The role of fracture toughness in the wear of metals”, Wear 33
(1975) 251–259.
19. Das, “The influence of matrix microstructure and particle reinforcement on the
two- body abrasive wear of cast Al–Si-alloy composites”, J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 16
(1997) 1757–1760.
20. S. Das, S. Gupta, D.P. Mondal and B.K. Prasad, “Influence of load and abrasive
size on the two body abrasive wear of Al–SiC composites”, Aluminum Trans. 2
(2000) pp.27–36.
21. S. Das, D.P. Mondal and G. Dixit, “Mechanical properties of pressure die cast Al
hard part composite”, Metall. Mater. Trans. 33A (2001) pp.633–642.
22. G.Y. Lee, C.K.H. Dharan and R.O. Ritchie, “A physically based abrasive wear
model for composite materials”, Wear 252 (3–4) (2002) pp.322–331.
23. A.A. Torrance, “The effect of grit size and asperity blunting on abrasive wear”,
Wear 253 (2002) 813–819.
24. A.A. Torrance, “The effect of grit size and asperity blunting on abrasive wear”,
Wear 253 (2002) 813–819.
25. H.L. Lee, W.H. Lu and S. Chan, “Abrasive wear of powder metallurgy Al alloy
6061–SiC particle composites”, Wear 159 (1992) 223–231.
26. L. Ceschini, G.S. Daehn h, G.L. Garagnani and C. Martini, “Friction and wear
behavior of C4 AI203/AI composites under dry sliding conditions”, Wear
216(1998) pp.229-238.
27. Feng Tang, Xiaoling Wu, Shirong Gec, Jichun Ye, Hua Zhu, Masuo Hagiwara,
Julie and M. Schoenung, “Dry sliding friction and wear properties of B4C
particulate-reinforced Al-5083 matrix composites”, Wear, Volume 264, Issues 7-
8, 15 March 2008, pp. 555-561.
28. O.P. Modi, B.K. Prasad, A.H. Yegneswaran and M.L.Vaidya, “Dry sliding wear
behaviour of squeeze cast al-alloy–silicon carbide composites”, Mater. Sci. Eng.
A 151 (1992) pp.235–245.
29. F. T. Barwell, and C. D. Strang, “Metallic Wear”, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, Vol. 212
(III); 1952: pp 470-477.
30. J.F. Archard., “Contact Rubbing of flat Surfaces”, J. Appl, Phys, Vol. 24; 1953:
pp. 981-988.
31. J. Kirit, Bhansali and Robert Mehrabian, “Abrasive wear of Aluminium-Matrix
Composites”, Journal of Metals, September 1982: pp. 30-34.
ϭϱϱ

32. A.G. Wang and I.M.Hutchings, “Wear of Alumina Fiber-Aluminium Metal
Matrix Composites by two body abrasion”, Mater. of Science and Tech., Vol 5;
1989: pp. 71-75.
33. T. Alpas and J. Zhang, “Effect of microstructure (particulate size and volume
fraction) and counter face material on the sliding wear resistance of particulate-
reinforced aluminum matrix composites”, Metall. Mater.Trans. A, Vol. 25; 1994:
pp. 969-983.
34. V. Constantin, L. Scheed and J. Masounava, Journal of Tribology, Transactions of
the ASME, Vol. 121; 1999, pp.788.
35. T. Miyajima and Y. Iwai., “Effect of Reinforcements on Sliding Wear Behaviour
of Aluminum Matrix Composites” Journal of Wear, Vol. 255; 2003: pp. 606- 616.
36. Y.N. Liang., Z.Y Ma., S Li and J. Bi., “Effect of particle size on wear behaviour
of SiC particulate reinforced aluminum alloy composite” Journal of Material
science, Vol 14; 1995: pp. 114-116.
37. Yoshiro. Iwai, Hidetomo. Yonede, and Tomomi. Honda “Sliding wear behaviour
of SiC whisker reinforced aluminum composite”. Journal of wear, Vol. 181-183;
1995: pp 594-602.
38. D. Huda, M. A. El Baradie, and M. J. S. Hashmi, “Metal Matrix Composites:
Manufacturing aspects. Part I”, Journal of Material processing technology, Vol.
37; 1993: pp. 513-528.
39. D. Huda, M. A. El Baradie and M.J.S. Hashmi, “Metal Matrix Composites:
Materials aspects, Part II Journal of material processing technology, Vol.37; 1993:
pp. 528-541.
40. A. P. Sannino and H. J. Rack, “Dry sliding wear of discontinuously reinforced
aluminum composite: review and discussion”, Wear, Vol.189; 1995: pp 1-19.
41. A. Sato and R. Meharabian, Metall. Transition, Vol. 73; 1976: pp 443.
42. C. S. Lee, Y. H. Kim, K. S. Han and T. Lim, “Wear behaviour of aluminum
matrix composite materials”, Journal of Material Science, Vol. 27(3); 1992: pp
793-800.
43. M.K. Surappa, R.K. Uyyuru and S. Brusethaug, “ Tribological behavior of
Al–Si–SiCp composites/automobile brake pad system under dry sliding
conditions”, Tribology International 40 (2007), pp. 365- 373, April 2006.
44. Kamalpreet Kaur and O. P. Pandey, “Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Zircon
Sand Reinforced Al–Si Alloy”, pp. 377- 387, May 2010.
ϭϱϲ

45. J Babu Rao, D.Venkat Rao, K.Siva Prasad and N.R.M.R.Bhargava. “Dry sliding
wear behaviour of Fly Ash particles reinforced AA2024 composites” International
journal of Material science-Poland- Vol.30, No. 3, 2012, pp. 204-211.
46. M. Ramachandra and K. Radhakrishna, “Synthesis-microstructure-mechanical
properties wear and corrosion behavior of Al-Si (12%) Fly ash metal matrix
composite”, J. Mat. Sci. Vol. 40; 2005: pp. 5989–5997.
47. S. Das, “The influence of matrix microstructure and particle reinforcement on the
two- body abrasive wear of cast Al–Si-alloy composites”, J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 16
(1997) 1757–1760.
48. Sudarshan and M.K. Surappa, 2008. “Synthesis of fly ash particle reinforced
A356 Al composites and their characterization”, Materials Science and
Engineering A 480, pp. 117-124.
49. Kapoor R and Vecchio KS. Deformation behavior and failure mechanisms in
particulate reinforced 6061 Al metal matrix composites. Mater Sci Engg 1995;
A202:63–75.
50. Ferhat Gul and Mehmet Acilar, “Effect of the reinforcement volume fraction
on the dry sliding wear behaviour of Al–10Si/SiCp composites produced by
vacuum infiltration technique”, Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004)
pp.1959–1970.
51. Alpas and zhang “Effect of SiC particulate reinforcement on the dry sliding wear
behaviour of aluminium silicon alloys (A356). Wear, 1992, 155, pp.83-104.
52. S.Basvarajappa and Chandramohan R, “Dry sliding wear behaviour of Al
2219/SiC metal matrix composites”, 2006, Materials Science-Poland p.24.
53. Varun Sethi, “Effect of Aging on Abrasive Wear Resistance of Silicon Carbide
Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composite” M.S Thesis 2007.
54. Pramila Bai, B.S Ramnaresh, and M.K. Surappa, Dry sliding wear of A356-Al-
SiCp Composites, J. Mater. Sci., 1995, Vol 30. Pp. 5999-6004.

ϭϱϳ

 AUTHOR’S PROFILES

GOPI KRISHNA MALLARAPU was born on 24th November 1980. He had

completed his graduation in Mechanical Engineering from Nagarjuna University,
Andhra Pradesh in the year 2002. He received post graduate degree in Computer
Aided Design, from Anna University, Chennai in the year 2004. He started the career
as Lecturer in KL college of Engineering Vijayawada in 2005, also worked as
Lecturer in RVR & JC College of Engineering Guntur from 2006 to 2009. Presently
he is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University College of Engineering and Technology, Acharya Nagarjuna University
Guntur, since 2009. Between 2004 and 2005, he worked as Project Assistant at
BHEL (R&D), Hyderabad in Fracture Mechanics Lab.

Publications of the author with regard to the present thesis:

(i) International Journal Papers

1. J Babu Rao, M.Gopi Krishna, K.Praveen Kumar and NRMR Bhargava

“Microstructure and Mechanical properties of Al-20%Cu-10%Mg alloy
particles reinforced AA 2024 Composites – International Journal of Materials
and Design (Elsevier publication, ISSN. 0261-3069) –Under review. (Impact
factor: 2.2)

(ii) National /International Conferences

1. Gopi Krishna M, K.Praveen Kumar, Babu Rao J, and NRM Bhargava, “Fabrication
and Characterization of CuMgAl2/A356 Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites, at
National Symposium on M A T E R I A U X - 2 0 1 2 held a t Andhra University,
Vishakhapatnam.(Secured best paper award)
2. Gopi Krishna M, K.Praveen Kumar, Babu Rao J, and NRM Bhargava, “Synthesis
and Characterization of CuMgAl2/AA2024 Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites.”
at National Symposium on M A T E R I A U X - 2 0 1 2 held a t Andhra University,
24-25 Febraury2012 Vishakhapatnam.
3. Gopi Krishna M, K.Praveen Kumar, Krishna Kishore, Babu Rao J, and NRM
Bhargava, “Studies on machinability properties of Aluminium based composites.”
at National Symposium on M A T E R I A U X - 2 0 1 2 held a t Andhra University,
Vishakhapatnam
4. Gopi Krishna M, K.Praveen Kumar, J.Babu Rao, and NRM Bhargava, Structure
Property Relations of Al-Cu-Mg Ternary Alloys National Symposium on N C A M E
held a t National Institute of Technology Surat, Gujarat.