3.

1 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

 The Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) has a series capacitor in parallel to a
thyristor controlled reactor.
 Protective equipments are installed with the series capacitor in the TCSC module.
 The protective equipment includes a nonlinear resistor, a Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)
connected across the series capacitor. The resistor prevents high capacitor over voltages.
It also allows the capacitor in the circuit during the fault condition and thereby improves
the transient stability.

 A circuit breaker (CB) is also installed to control the insertion in the line. The circuit
breaker bypasses the capacitor when severe fault or event occurs.
 An inductor is included to restrict the magnitude and frequency of capacitor current
when the capacitor is bye-passed.
 The Ultra High Speed Contact (UHSC) is connected across the valve to minimize the
conduction losses. The conduction loss occurs when the TCSCs are operated for long
duration.
Advantages of TCSC:

i. To mitigate the SSR

ii. Protection against over voltages.
iii. Less cost
iv. Boost the capacitor voltage due to the discontinuous conduction of the TCR.
v. Rapid continous control of series line compensation.
vi. Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines.
vii. Supress subsynchronous oscillation.
viii. Decrease dc-offset voltage.
ix. Reduces short circuit current
x. Supports voltages

3.2 Operation of the TCSC

 TCSC is a controlled series capacitor which controls the power on the ac line over a range.
 The variable series compensation increases the fundamental frequency voltage across a fixed
capacitor.
 The compensation is done by varying the firing angle α.
 The voltage which is varied changes the effective series capacitive reactance.
 Consider a variable inductor connected across the fixed capacitor,

− 𝑋 𝐶 .𝑋 𝐿 𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐶 1
 The equivalent impedance, 𝑒𝑞 = (𝑋 𝐿 −𝑋 𝐶 )
=− 𝑋 =− 1 =− 1
1− 𝐶 1−
𝜔𝐶 .𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐶 −
𝜔𝐿
𝑋𝐿

−
 The impedance of the fixed capacitor is 𝜔𝐶 .
1 1
 If 𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿 > 0, i.e 𝜔𝐿 > 𝜔𝐶 , the reactance of the fixed capacitor is less than the parallel
connected variable reactor. The configuration provides a variable capacitive reactance.The
inductor increases the equivalent capacitive reactance of the LC combination above the fixed
capacitor.
1
 If 𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿 = 0, then it leads to infinite capacitive impedance due to the resonance. The
condition is unacceptable.
1
 If 𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿 < 0, the combination provides inductance above the value of the fixed inductor.
The mode is inductive vernier mode of the TCSC.
 In the variable capacitance mode of the TCSC, the inductive reactance is of the inductor is
increased, whereas the capacitive reactance is gradually decreased.
 The minimum equivalent-capacitive reactance is obtained for extremely large inductive
reactance or when the variable inductor is open-circuited.
3.3 Different modes of operation

3.3.1 Mode 1: Bypassed thyristor mode (Thyistor Switched Reactor (TSR) mode)

 In this mode, thyristors conduct with a conduction angle of 1800.

 Gate pulses are applied when the vcoltage across the thyristors reaches zero and becomes
positive.
 The TCSC acts as a parallel capacitor-inductor combination.
 When the susceptanceof the reactor is greater than the capacitor, the net current through the
module is inductive.
 This mode is used for control and to initiate certain protective functions.
 A finite time delay is reinserted when the line current fall below the specified limit, whnever
a TCSC module is bypassed from the violation of the current limit
3.3.2 Mode 2: Blocked thyristor mode (Waiting mode)

 In this mode, the firing pulses to the thyristor valves are blocked.
 When the thyristors are conducting and a blocking command is given, the thyristor will turn
off as soon as the current through them reaches a zero crossing.
 Now the TCSC module is a fixed capacitor and the net reactance will be capacitive.
 The dc-offset voltage of the capacitors is monitored and quickly discharges without harming
the transformer.

3.3.3 Mode 3: Partially conducting thyristor or vernier mode:

 In this mode the TCSC will behave as continously controllable capacitive reactance or
inductive reactance, which is achieved by varying the thyristor pair within an appropriate
range.
 A smooth variation cannot be obtained due to the resonant region between the modes.
 This mode be capacitive vernier mode or Inductive vernier mode.

3.3.3.1 Capacitive vernier mode

 In this mode the firing of the thyristor is done when the capacitive voltage and capacitive
current are of opposite polarity.
 This condition leads to the opposite flow of TCR current
  It also leads to a loop current flow which increases the voltage across the FC, effectively
enhancing the equivalent-capacitive reactance and the series-compensation level for the
same value of line current.
 To preclude resonance, the firing angle of the forward-facing thyristor , as measured from
the positive reaching a zero crossing of the capacitor voltage, is constrained in the range
αmin and 1800.
 The maximum TCSC reactance is two and a half to three times of the capacitor reactance at
fundamental frequency.

3.3.3.2 Mode 4: Inductive vernier mode

 In this mode the TCSC is operated by having a high level of thyristor conduction.
 In this mode the direction of the circulating current is reversed and the controller provides a
net inductive impedance.

3.3.4 Variants of the TCSC

The TCSC has tw variants based on the three modes of operation. They are:
i. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC), which permits a discrete control of the
capacitive reactance.
ii. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC), which offers a continuous control of
capacitive or inductive reactance.

3.4 Capability Characteristics of TCSC

The operation limits of the TCSC are determined based on the characteristics of different
components of it. The limits are:
i. Voltage limit
The voltage limit is based on the insulation level of the equipment. But the
voltage constriant will vary based on the duration of voltage application.
ii. Current limit
The current in the thyristor valve,fised capacitor and surge inductor have the limit
based on the overheating of the component. Harmonics also causes overheating which
has an influence in the operation of the TCSC.
iii. Firing angle limit of the thyristor
The firing angle of the TCSC should be resticted inorder to avoid entering into the
resonant region.
3.4.1 Single module TCSC

 The capability curve of a single module TCSC is shown in fig.

Voltage
in p.u
Capacitive

Current in p.u
Capacitive

 In both the capacitive and inductive zones, the operation is generally constrained between
maximum and minimum reactance limit. The maximum reactance of TCSC is 2-3 p.u and
the minimum limit is 1 p.u.

Capacitive
Reactance in p.u

Current in p.u
Inductive

 In the inductive reactance zone, the maximum reactance limit is selected to prevent the
TCSC from operating in the resonant region. Maximum inductive reactance is 2 p.u. The
minimum inductive reactance is reached when the thyristors are fully conducting when  =
 900. The increase in line currents makes the reactors and thyristors heated and the peak
voltage closure to the limit of the capacitor and MOV.
 The TCSC capability is provided in a reactance–line-current plane in Fig . The dynamic
range of the TCSC reactance is reduced with increasing line current.
 A smooth transition from the inductive to capacitive region is not possible.
 The TCSC operates in the first quadrant of both the V-I and X-I characteristics.

3.4.2 Multi-module TCSC

 In various power system applications a smooth variation in line reactance is desirable. So
inorder to acheieve it a single TCSC is splitted into multiple modules.
 The spliited modules are operated seperately in inductive mode and capacitive mode.
 When the TCSC is spllitted into two modules, each with half MVA rating.
 Similar operation of both modules in inductive mode or capacitive mode leads to
capacbility curve same as single module TCSC.
 Dissimilar operation leads to the intermediate characterisitcs.
 It makes continous transition from capacitive to the inductive domain feasible.

Voltage in p.u
Capactive

Current in p.u
Inductive

 When the number of TCSC module increases, the control range of the TCSC for the same
MVA rating increases.
 The modules are switched on and off if the desired reactance is less than the capacitive
reactance of the bank.
 V-I capability characteristics of multimodule TCSC
Reactance in p.u on Xc

Current in p.u on rating

X-I capability characteristics for a multimodule TCSC

3.4.3 Impedance- Delay angle characteristics

 X C X L (α)
 The impedance of the TCSC is given XTCSC = X L α −X C
π
Where XL α , variable inductive impedance = XL π−2α−sin α , XL < XL α < ∞
α is the ddelay angle measured from the crest of the capacitor voltage.
 The TCSC is a tunable parallel LC circuit to the line current that is substantially a constant
alternating current source.
 As the impedance of the controlled reactor, XL(α), is varied from its maximum (∞) toward
its minimum (ωL), the TCSC increases its minimum capacitive impedance, XTCSCmin until
parallel resonance at Xc = XL(α) is established and XTCSCmax, theoretically becomes infinite.
 Decreasing XL(α) further, the impedance of the TCSC, XTCSC(α) becomes inductive,
XC XL
reaching its minimum value of X at α = 0, where the capacitor is in effect bypassed by
L −X C
the TCR. Therefore, with the usual TCSC arrangement in which the impedance of the TCR
reactor, XL, is smaller than that of the capacitor, XC.
 There are two operating ranges of TCSC around its internal circuit resonance: one is the
αClim≤α ≤ π/2 range, where XTCSC(α) is capacitive, and the other is the 0≤α≤ αLlim range,
where XTCSC(α)is inductive. In the inductive mode, TCSC can control the power flow and
can increase the impedance where as in the capacitive mode, the power flow rises and the
impedance falls.
 In the bypassed mode the value of the firing angle α is taken as 0 degree, so the series
capacitor bypassed and the whole TCSC works as a pure inductor.
  In the blocking mode of operation, the value of the firing angle α is chosen π/2 degree, so
that the anti parallel combination of the thyristor are in blocking mode and the whole
circuit works as a fixed capacitor.

3.5 Modeling of TCSC – Variable Reactance model

 Variable reluctance model is a quasi-static approximation model which is widely used for
transient and oscillatory stability studies because of its simplicity.
 This model is used for inter area mode analysis.
 In the model the TCSC dynamics during power swing frequencies are modeled by a variable
reactance at fundamental frequency.
 The model provides high accuracy when the reactance boost factor is less than 1.5.
𝑋 𝐶 𝐶
Reactance boost factor = 𝑋𝐶
.
 Assumptions:
i. The variation of the TCSC response with various firing angles is neglected.
ii. The transmission line system operates in a sinusoidal steady state with the only dynamic
associated with generator and PSS.
iii. Continuous reactance range is available
 In single module TCSC there is a discontinuity between the inductive and capacitive region
of the reactance capability curve. But the gap is avoided by using multi-module TCSC.
Xaux Xfixed
Xaux
IL Xref Xmax 𝟏 −𝟏
VTCSC 𝟏+𝐗 𝐂 𝐂 XTCSC Xtotal 𝒔𝒆 Xtotal (p.u)
Xmod Xmin

Xmax
 The reference signal Xref is generated from a power scheduling controller based on the
power flow specification of the transmission line.
 The reference point is set by manual control and its represents the initial operating point of
the TCSC.
 The reference value is modified by signal Xmod from a modulation controller for enhancing
the damping.
 Xaux is an input signal from an external power flow controller.
 The desired value of x is obtained from a finite time delay caused by the firing controller
and the natural response of TCSC. The valus of delay is 12-20 seconds.
 The output of the log is subjected to variable limits based on the TCSC reactance capability
curve.
 Xtotal is the reactance of the installation of the DC component. Xtotal=XTCSC+Xfixed.
  The TCSC model assigns a positive value to Xc. So Xtotal is multiplied by a negative sign to
ensure consistency with the convention used in load flow and stability studies.
 The initial operating point of the TCSC is Xref = Xtotal - Xfixed.

3.5.1 Transient stability model

 The reactance capability curve for the multimodal TCSC is

 The curve is obtained by approximating the multimodal TCSC. The curve is acceptable
for the TCSC variable reactance model and it includes the effect of TCSC transient
overload levels.
 When over current occurs, some TCSC module moves into the bypass mode. It causes the
line currents to decrease and makes the remaining module into the bypass mode.
 In the capacitive region, the different reactance in the module is due to:
i. Limit of firing angle, which is given by Xmax0
ii. Limit of the TCSC voltage VCtran. The reactance constraint of it is
IL rated
XmaxVC = VCtran
I line
iii. The limit of the line current beyond which the TCSC moves into a
protective bypass mode.
Xmax Iine = ∞ for Iline < 𝐼Ltran ILrated
Xmax Iine = Xbypass for Iline > 𝐼Ltran ILrated

The effective capacitive reactance limit is obtained as a minimum of following

limits: Xmaxlimit= min{ Xmax0, Xmax Vc, XmaxIline}
 In the inductive region, the TCSC operation is restricted by:
i. Limit of firing angle, which is given by Xmax0
ii. The harmonic impoed limit represesnted by a constant TCSC voltage
limit VLtran.
ILrated
XmaxVL = VLtran
Iline
iii. The limit of the fundamental component of the current that is permitted to
flow through the thyristor in the bypass thyristor mode during transient.
The total effective reactance is obtained as a maximum of the foregoing constraints
 Xmin limit =max(Xmin 0, Xmin VL, Xmin ILT)
 If the TCSC is not operating at the inductive vernier mode, then the maximum reactance
limit is Xbypass

3.5.2 Long term stability model of TCSC

 The capability curve depends on the duration of voltage and current operating condition.
 There are two time limited region in TCSC operation: They are transient overload region
and temporary overload region. The transient overload region persists for 3-10 secs and the
temporary overload region for 30 mins. They are followed by the continuous region.
 The X-I capability characteristics of a multimodule TCSC indicating time dependant
overload limits is:
XTCSC
XC ILrated
VCrated
𝑋 𝑥0
Iline
ILrated
VCtemp
Iline
𝑋 𝑥 ILrated
VCtran
Iline
XC = 1 p. u

Xbypass Iline
ILtran ILrated
ILrated ILtemp
ILrated
VLtran
ILrated Iline
VLtemp
Iline
𝑋 0
ILrated
VLrated
Iline

 In long-term dynamic simulations, an overload-management function is added to the

control system. The function tracks the TCSC variables and their duration of application.
It determines the appropriate TCSC overload range, and modifies Xmax limit and Xmin limit.
Then it applies the same modifications to the controller.
 The variable-reactance model does not account for the inherent dependence of TCSC
response time on the operating conduction angle. Due to which incorrect results may be
obtained for the high-conduction-angle operation of the TCSC or for whenever the
power-swing frequency is high
 Uses of the model:
i. Commercial stability programs
ii. System planning studies
iii. Initial investigations of the effect of the TCSC in damping power oscillations
 TCSC/TSSC CONTROL SCHEME

➢ The main consideration for the structure of the internal control operating the power circuit of
the TCSC is to ensure immunity to sub synchronous resonance
➢ One is to operate the basic phase locked- loop (PLL) from the fundamental component of the
line current.
➢ In order to achieve this, it is necessary to provide substantial filtering to remove the super- and
in particular, the sub synchronous components from the line current and, at the same time,
maintain correct phase relationship for proper synchronization.
➢ The conventional technique of converting the demanded TCR current into the corresponding
delay angle, which is measured from the peak (or, with a fixed 90-degree shift from the zero
crossing) of the fundamental line current, is used.
➢ The reference for the demanded TCR current is usually provided by a regulation loop of the
external control, which compares the actual capacitive impedance or compensating voltage to
the reference given for the desired system operation.
➢ The second approach also employs a PLL, synchronized to the line current, for
the generation of the basic timing reference.
➢ However, in this method the actual zero crossing of the capacitor voltage is estimated from
the prevailing capacitor voltage and line current by an angle correction circuit.
➢ The delay angle is then determined from the desired angle and the estimated correction angle
so as to make the TCR conduction symmetrical with respect to the expected zero crossing.
➢ The desired delay angle in this scheme can be adjusted by a closed-loop controlled phase shift
of the basic time reference provided by the PLL circuit back.
➢ The delay angle of the TCR, and thus the compensating capacitive voltage, as in the previous
case, is controlled overall by a regulation loop of the external control in order to meet system
operating requirements.
➢ This regulation loop is relatively slow, with a bandwidth just sufficient to meet compensation
requirements (power flow adjustment, power oscillation damping, etc.)
➢ Thus, from the standpoint of the angle correction circuit, which by comparison is very fast
(correction takes place in each half cycle), the output of the phase shifter is almost a steady
state reference.
➢ Although control circuit performances are usually heavily dependent on the actual
implementation, the second approach is theoretically more likely to provide faster response
for those applications requiring such response.
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM-STABILITY LIMIT 321

I line

PT
L L
Va,b,c
Ia,b,c
rms Value
Calculation Main
Secondary
and Control Loop
Control Loop Filtering and
Scaling
Scaling
b Vpu
a a
Pref b
sKd
Linearization Waiting TSR Synchronization
1 Signal
Block Mode Mode
1+sTv Kp a
− − +
Firing-
PI Y a Operation Mode
Σ Σ Kg Pulse
Iref + Regulator Y Selector
+ Generator Firing
KI Pulse
s

Figure 8.8 An enhanced TCSC power-control structure.

improved TCSC power controller that combines the beneficial influences of

both power control and current control is depicted in Fig. 8.8 [2], [6]. It con-
sists of two control loops—a fast, inner-current control loop and a slow, outer-
power control loop. The power controller provides the current-reference signal
for the current controller. Such a controller allows a fast TCSC response to sys-
tem faults, yet it also allows a desired slow response to the electromechanical
oscillations.

8.3.6 Firing Schemes and Synchronization

An equidistant firing scheme is most commonly employed in TCSC control.
However, in some special situations in which the damping of the electrical self-
excitation modes is needed, individual firing control is shown to be advanta-
geous [2]. The TCSC firing controls are most effective when they are synchro-
nized with line-current zero crossings primarily because the line current con-
stitutes an almost sinusoidal signal. Synchronization with TCSC-voltage zero
crossings may lead to erroneous results, as this voltage is beset with substantial
harmonics and spurious noise signals.

8.4 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM-STABILITY LIMIT

During the outage of a critical line in a meshed system, a large volume of power
tends to flow in parallel transmission paths, which may become severely over-
322 TCSC APPLICATIONS

loaded. Providing fixed-series compensation on the parallel path to augment the

power-transfer capability appears to be a feasible solution, but it may increase
the total system losses. Therefore, it is advantageous to install a TCSC in key
transmission paths, which can adapt its series-compensation level to the instan-
taneous system requirements and provide a lower loss alternative to fixed-series
compensation.
The series compensation provided by the TCSC can be adjusted rapidly to
ensure specified magnitudes of power flow along designated transmission lines.
This condition is evident from the TCSC’s efficiency, that is, ability to change
its power flow as a function of its capacitive-reactance setting:

V 1V 2
P12 c sin d (8.3)
(X L − X C )

where P12 c the power flow from bus 1 to bus 2

V 1 , V 2 c the voltage magnitudes of buses 1 and 2, respectively
X L c the line-inductive reactance
X C c the controlled TCSC reactance combined with fixed-series-
capacitor reactance
d c the difference in the voltage angles of buses 1 and 2

This change in transmitted power is further accomplished with minimal

influnece on the voltage of interconnecting buses, as it introduces voltage in
quadrature. In contrast, the SVC improves power transfer by substantially mod-
ifying the interconnecting bus voltage, which may change the power into any
connected passive loads. The freedom to locate a TCSC almost anywhere in a
line is a significant advantage.
Power-flow control does not necessitate the high-speed operation of power-
flow control devices. Hence discrete control through a TSSC may also be ade-
quate in certain situations. However, the TCSC cannot reverse the power flow
in a line, unlike HVDC controllers and phase shifters.

8.5 ENHANCEMENT OF SYSTEM DAMPING

The TCSC can be made to vary the series-compensation level dynamically

in response to controller-input signals so that the resulting changes in the
power flow enhance the system damping [7]–[13]. The power modulation
results in a corresponding variation in the torques of the connected synchronous
generators—particularly if the generators operate on constant torque and if pas-
sive bus loads are not installed [14].
The damping control of a TCSC or any other FACTS controller should gen-
erally do the following:
 ENHANCEMENT OF SYSTEM DAMPING 323

1. stabilize both postdisturbance oscillations and spontaneously growing

oscillations during normal operation;
2. obviate the adverse interaction with high-frequency phenomena in power
systems, such as network resonances; and
3. preclude local instabilities within the controller bandwidth.

In addition, the damping control should

1. be robust in that it imparts the desired damping over a wide range of

system operating conditions, and
2. be reliable.

8.5.1 Principle of Damping

The concept of damping enhancement by line-power modulation can be illus-
trated with the two-machine system depicted in Fig. 8.9 [14]. The machine
SM1 supplies power to the other machine, SM2 , over a lossless transmission
line. Let the speed and rotor angle of machine SM1 be denoted by h 1 and J 1 ,
respectively; of machine SM2 , denoted by h 2 and J 2 , respectively.
During a power swing, the machines oscillate at a relative angle DJ (c
J 2 − J 1 ). If the line power is modulated by the TCSC to create an additional
machine torque that is opposite in sign to the derivative of the rotor-angle devi-
ation, the oscillations will get damped. This control strategy translates into the

∆j = j2 – j1

SM 1 P SM 2

h1j1 h2j2
∆h = h2 – h1 t

0
t1 t2 t3 t

∆Pmod

Figure 8.9 The TCSC line-power modulation for damping enhancement.

324 TCSC APPLICATIONS

following actions: When the receiving end–machine speed is lower than the
sending end–machine speed, that is, Dh (c h 2 − h 1 ) is negative, the TCSC should
increase power flow in the line. In other words, while the sending-end machine
accelerates, the TCSC control should attempt to draw more power from the
machine, thereby reducing the kinetic energy responsible for its acceleration.
On the other hand, when Dh is positive, the TCSC must decrease the power
transmission in the line. This damping control strategy is depicted in Fig. 8.9
through plots of the relative machine angle DJ, the relative machine speed Dh ,
and the incremental power variation DPmod . It may be recalled from Chapter 6
that the damping-control action of the SVC is also similar to that described in
the preceding text.
The incremental variation of the line-power flow DP, given in megawatts
(MW), with respect to DQTCSC , given in MVAR, is as follows [14]:

冢 冣
DP 1 I
c (8.5)
DQTCSC 2 tan d / 2 IN

where d c the angular difference between the line-terminal voltages

I c the operating-point steady-state current
I N c the rated current of the TCSC

Thus the TCSC action is based on the variation of line-current magnitude and is
irrespective of its location. Typically, the change in line-power transfer caused
by the introduction of the full TCSC is in the range of 1–2, corresponding to
an angular difference (d) of 308 –408 across the line.
The influence of any bus load on the torque/ power control of the syn-
chronous generator is derived for the case of a resistive load and completely
inductive generator impedance [14]. The ratio of change in generator power to
the ratio of change in the power injected from the line into the generator bus
is expressed as
DPm cos(d / 2 ± a)
c (8.6)
DP cos(d / 2)

where the + sign corresponds to the sending end; the − sign, the receiving end.
Also,

where DPm c the variation in generator power

DP c the variation in power injected from the transmission line
into the machine bus
a c tan − 1 (X source / Rload ) (it is assumed that Rload >> X source )

The effect of all practical passive loads is generally moderate, and the sign of
generator power is not changed. In the absence of any bus load, DPm c DP.
 ENHANCEMENT OF SYSTEM DAMPING 325

It is not necessary to make the entire series compensation in a line control-

lable; in fact, the effectiveness of a TCSC is shown to increase in presence of
fixed series compensation. The required series compensation in a line is there-
fore usually split into a fixed-capacitor component and a controllable TCSC
component. The controlled-to-fixed ratio of capacitive reactance in most appli-
cations is in the 0.05–0.2 range, the exact value determined by the requirements
of the specific application.

8.5.2 Bang-Bang Control

Bang-bang control is a discrete control form in which the thyristors are either
fully switched on (a c 908 ) or fully switched off (a c 1808 ). Thus the TCSC
alternates between a fixed inductor and a fixed capacitor, respectively, and it is
advantageous that such control is used not only for minimizing first swings but
for damping any subsequent swings as well. Bang-bang control is employed in
face of large disturbances to improve the transient stability [3].

8.5.3 Auxiliary Signals for TCSC Modulation

The supplementary signals that could be employed for modulating TCSC
impedance are listed in the text that follows and are discussed in refs. [14]–[16],
[8]–[12].

8.5.3.1 Local Signals These signals constitute the following:

1. the line current,

2. the real-power flow,
3. the bus voltage, and
4. the local bus frequency.

8.5.3.2 Remote Signals These signals constitute the following:

1. the rotor-angle/ speed deviation of a remote generator,

2. the rotor-angle/ speed (frequency) difference across the system, and
3. the real-power flow on adjacent lines.

The angular difference between remote voltages can be synthesized by using

local voltages at the two terminals of the TCSC and through the line current
[15]. Alternatively, a recent approach [16] may be adopted wherein the phase
angles of remote areas can be measured directly by using synchronized phasor-
measurement units.
Adjacent-line real-power flow can be measured remotely and transmitted to
the TCSC control system through telecommunication. Despite telecommunica-
tion delays, this signal can be used satisfactorily and economically for line-
power scheduling, which itself is a slow control.