UNIT 1

Meaning of Research
Research is a scientific and systematic search for various information about a specific topic.
It is just like a search for truth and knowledge. The English Dictionary meaning of Research
is “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.” information about a subject can be collected by deliberate effort and it is
presented in a new form after analyzing thoroughly in research work.

Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to the unknown, which
may be called a discovery. Different definitions of research are given by the experts.

According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to gain new

knowledge.”

1. Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of things,

concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify
knowledge whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of
an art ”

According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts
and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.”

J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify
knowledge.”

Clifford Woody, defines “Research is a careful enquiry or examination in seeking facts or

principles a diligent investigation to ascertain something.”

Objectives
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful questions through
scientific procedures and systematic attempt. The hidden truths which are not discovered yet
can easily come to light by research.

The main objectives of Research are

1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This is known as

Exploratory or Formularize Research studies.
2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
This is known as Descriptive Research studies.
 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with other things. This is known as Diagnostic Research studies.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such studies are
known as Hypothesis-testing Research studies.

Characteristics of Research

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or experimental evidence.
4. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedures employed.
5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research requires patience and courage. The researcher should courageously face
the unpleasant consequences of his finding if any.
8. Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem which must be solved.
9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Everything must be carefully defined and
described in detail.
10. Research activity is characterized by carefully designed procedures which are to be
analyzed thoroughly.

Research Methods
All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his
research problems are called as Research Methods. Methods of research may be classified
from different points of view.

These are:

1. The fields to which applied-Education, Philosophy, Psychology.

2. Purpose-Description, Prediction. Determination of status and causes.
3. Place where it is to be conducted-in the field or in the laboratory.
4. Application-Pure research or applied research
5. Data gathering devices employed-Testing, rating scales, questionnaires etc.
6. Character of the data collected-Objective, Subjective, Quantitative, and Qualitative.
7. Forms of thinking-Deductive and Inductive.
8. Control of factors-Controlled and Uncontrolled.

Scope of Business Research

Business Research is described as the systematic and objective procedure for producing
information for help in making business decisions. Business research should be objective,
which means that the information found needs to be detached and impersonal instead of
biased. Research facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.
By lowering the uncertainty of decisions, it cuts down on the risk of making incorrect
decisions. Research should be an aid to managerial judgment but not a replacement for it.

Scope of Business Research Includes the Following Areas

(i) Production Management: The research performs an important function in product

development, diversification, introducing a new product, product improvement, process
technologies, choosing a site, new investment etc.

Personnel Management: Research works well for job redesign, organization restructuring,
development of motivational strategies and organizational development.

(ii) Marketing Management: Research performs an important part in choice and size of target
market, the consumer behavior with regards to attitudes, life style, and influences of the target
market. It is the primary tool in determining price policy, selection of channel of distribution
and development of sales strategies, product mix, promotional strategies, etc.

(iii) Financial Management: Research can be useful for portfolio management, distribution of
dividend, capital raising, hedging and looking after fluctuations in foreign currency and
product cycles.

(iv) Materials Management: It is utilized in choosing the supplier, making the decisions
relevant to make or buy as well as in selecting negotiation strategies.

(v) General Management: It contributes greatly in developing the standards, objectives, long-
term goals, and growth strategies.

To perform well in a complex environment, you will have to be equipped with an

understanding of scientific methods and a way of integrating them into decision making. You
will have to understand what good research means and how to conduct it. Since the
complexity of the business environment has amplified, there is a commensurate rise in the
number and power of the instruments to carry out research. There is certainly more
knowledge in all areas of management.

We now have started to develop much better theories. The computer has provided us a
quantum leap in the capability to take care of difficulties. New techniques of quantitative
analysis utilize this power. Communication and measurement techniques have also been
improved. These developments reinforce each other and are having a substantial impact on
business management.
Business research assists decision makers shift from intuitive information gathering to
organized and objective study. Even though researchers in different functional fields may
examine different phenomena, they are comparable to each other simply because they make
use of similar research techniques. Research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and it is a crucial source of providing guidelines for solving various business
issues. Thus, we can say that the scope of business research is enormous.

Purpose of Research – Exploratory, Descriptive,

Explanatory

Purpose of Research

It can be hard to tell the exact purpose of business research. It will always be based on the
situation and the person conducting such study. Generally speaking, a business research’s
purpose is to ensure future success. Whenever a person or a group enters the market, their
aim is to earn considerable profits. Well, almost all businesses want to earn money, right?
Unless yours is a non-profit organization, the primary purpose of researching the market is to
generate more sales and income.

When you conduct a business research, you will be gathering relevant information that you
can use to make your business better. For instance, in a marketing search, you will be
identifying your target market and the needs. You have to offer something that the market
needs or you will not be able sell anything! Never enter into a business unless you have
everything planned out. Running a business can get complicated especially if you lack
knowledge. If you conduct a thorough business research, you can learn the basics and put it
to good use.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions
and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of
research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet.

Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not
intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the
problem. When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change
his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights.
 Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the
research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It has
been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more
conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling
methodology and data collection method”. Exploratory research “tends to tackle new
problems on which little or no previous research has been done”. Unstructured interviews are
the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory studies.

Examples of Exploratory Research Design

2. A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication
channel
3. An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within
hospitality sector in London
4. An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in
pharmaceutical industry in the USA

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research focuses on throwing more light on current issues through a process of
data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population.
In descriptive research, only one variable (anything that has quantity or quality that varies) is
required to conduct a study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing,
explaining and validating the findings. For example, a research conducted to know if top-level
management leaders in the 21st century posses the moral right to receive a huge sum of
money from the company profit.

EXPLANATORY RESEARCH

Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the impact of certain

changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form
of casual research. For example, research conducted to understand the effect of rebranding
on customer loyalty.

Comparative analysis

Exploratory Explanatory
Descriptive Research
Research Research

Research
Unstructured Structured Highly structured
Approach used
 Research
Asking research Asking research By using research
Conducted
questions questions hypotheses.
Through

When is it Early stages of Later stages of

conducted? decision making decision making

Unit of Analysis – Individual, Organization,

Groups, and Data Series

Units of Analysis are the objects of study within a research project. In sociology, the most
common units of analysis are individuals, groups, social interactions, organizations and
institutions, and social and cultural artifacts. In many cases, a research project can require
multiple units of analysis.

Identifying your units of analysis is an important part of the research process. Once you have
identified a research question, you will have to select your units of analysis as part of the
process of deciding on a research method and how you will operationalize that method. Let’s
review the most common units of analysis and why a researcher might choose to study them.

Individuals

Individuals are the most common units of analysis within sociological research. This is the
case because the core problem of sociology is understanding the relationships between
individuals and society, so we routinely turn to studies composed of individual people in order
to refine our understanding of the ties that bind individuals together into a society. Taken
together, information about individuals and their personal experiences can reveal patterns
and trends that are common to a society or particular groups within it, and can provide insight
into social problems and their solutions.

For example, researchers at the University of California-San Francisco found through

interviews with individual women who have had abortions that the vast majority of women do
not ever regret the choice to terminate the pregnancy. Their findings prove that a common
right-wing argument against access to abortion–that women will suffer undue emotional
distress and regret if they have an abortion–is based on myth rather than fact.
Organizations

Organizations differ from groups in that they are considered more formal and, well, organized
ways of collecting people together around specific goals and norms. Organizations take many
forms, including corporations, religious congregations and whole systems like the Catholic
Church, judicial systems, police departments, and social movements, for example.

Social scientists who study organizations might be interested in, for example, how
corporations like Apple, Amazon, and Walmart impact various aspects of social and economic
life, like how we shop and what we shop for, and what work conditions have become normal
and/or problematic within the U.S. labor market. Sociologists who study organizations might
also be interested in comparing different examples of similar organizations to reveal the
nuanced ways in which they operate, and the values and norms that shape those operations.

Groups

Sociologists are keenly interested in social ties and relationships, which means that they often
study groups of people, be they large or small. Groups can be anything from romantic couples
to families, to people who fall into particular racial or gender categories, to friend groups, to
whole generations of people (think Millennials and all the attention they get from social
scientists). By studying groups sociologists can reveal how social structure and forces affect
whole categories of people on the basis of race, class, or gender, for example.

Sociologists have done this in pursuit of understanding a wide range of social phenomena
and problems, like for example this study that proved that living in a racist place leads to Black
people having worse health outcomes than white people; or this study that examined the
gender gap across different nations to find out which are better or worse at advancing and
protecting the rights of women and girls.

Conceptions, Construct, Attribute, Variables,

Hypotheses

Conception

The first step in the measurement process is to define the concepts we are studying.
Researchers generate concepts by generalizing from particular facts. Concepts are based on
our experiences. Concepts can be based on real phenomena and are a generalized idea of
something of meaning. Examples of concepts include common demographic measures:
Income, Age, Eduction Level, Number of SIblings.

We can measure concepts through direct and indirect observations:

5. Direct Observation:We can measure someone’s weight or height. And, we can record the
color of their hair or eyes.
6. Indirect Observation:We can use a questionnaire in which respondents provide answers to
our questions about gender, income, age, attitudes, and behaviors.

Constructs

Constructs are measured with multiple variables. Constructs exist at a higher level of
abstraction than concepts. Justice, Beauty, Happiness, and Health are all constructs.
Constructs are considered latent variable because they cannot be directly observable or
measured. Typical constructs in marketing research include Brand Loyalty, Purchase Intent,
and Customer Satisfaction. Constructs are the basis of working hypotheses.

Brand loyalty is a construct that marketing researchers study often. Brand loyalty can be
measured using a variety of measures:

5. Number of items purchased in the past

6. Monetary value of past purchases
7. Frequency of past purchase occasions
8. The likelihood of future purchases
9. The likelihood of recommending the brand to a friend or family member
10. The likelihood of switching to a competitive brand

An attribute is a single feature or dimension of a construct.

Measurement: Measurement is the assignment of numbers or symbols to phenomena.

Measurement requires a scale. A scale provides a range of values—a yardstick—that
corresponds to the presence of the properties of the concept under investigation. A scale
provides the rules that associate values on the scale to the concept we are studying.

Variables

Variables are measurements that are free to vary. Variable can be divided into Independent
Variables or Dependent Variables. A dependent variable changes in response to changes in
the independent variable or variables.

A variable can be transformed into a constant when the researcher decides to control the
variable by reducing its expression to a single value. Suppose a researcher is conducting a
test of consumers’ taste preference for three brands of frozen pizza. There are a number of
variables in this test:

(1) Respondents’ ratings of the taste of each brand of pizza,

(2) The manner in which is each pizza is presented, the type of the plates and table cloths
used, and

(3) The manner in which each brand is prepared. To get an accurate measure of the first
variable—respondents’ ratings of the taste of the three pizza brands—the researcher will hold
the second and third variables constant. By serving all three pizzas on the same kind of plates
with the table dressed in the same manner, preparing the pizzas in identical ways, and serving
them at identical temperatures, the research controls for these variables. In doing so, the
researcher has removed, or controlled for the affect of the second and third variables on
respondents’ taste preferences.

Hypotheses

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a

hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it.
Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot
satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words
“hypothesis” and “theory” are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the
same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis
proposed for further research, in a process beginning with an educated guess or thought.

A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote the antecedent
of a proposition; thus in the proposition “If P, then Q”, P denotes the hypothesis (or
antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual)
What If question.

The adjective hypothetical, meaning “having the nature of a hypothesis”, or “being assumed
to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis”, can refer to any of these meanings
of the term “hypothesis”.