 It will help yo to know how important to take care of your body.

 Helps you to learn skills to enjoy physical activities.

 It will tell us about our body function and how it works.
 You will learn the practice and efforts equal’s success.
 You will learn new activities.
 You will get proper knowledge about exercise, which help you to stay healthy.
 You will be taught about team work.
 It will help you to learn activities, which will makes you feel stron.
 You will learn disciple.
 You will learn skills to be better at sports.
 Regular Fitness Activity
Physical fitness is an important component to leading a healthy lifestyle. The inclusion of regular
fitness activity helps students maintain fitness, develop muscular strength and improve
cardiovascular health. A regular fitness activity improves the absorption of nutrients by the body,
improves digestive processes and increases physiological processes.
 Builds Self-Confidence
The participation in physical education in high school provides a positive influence on a student's
personality, character and self-esteem. In addition, the team-building process enhances
communication skills, and the skills required to get along and cooperate with students of varying
ethnic backgrounds and personalities.
 Develops Motor Skills
Physical education in high school is essential to the development of motor skills and the
enhancement of reflexes. Hand-eye coordination is improved, as well as good body movements,
which helps in the development of a healthy body posture.
 Health and Nutrition
Physical education teaches students the importance of physical health. High school is an age
where students misinterpret the meaning of "overweight" and eating disorders prevail. Physical
health and education informs students on sound eating practices and the essential guidelines for
nutrition.
 Relieves Stress
High school students have substantial amounts of stress due to curriculum, homework, families
and peer pressures. Involvement in sports, recreational activities or other forms of physical fitness
offer a method of stress relief.
 Considerations
Special considerations may be necessary regarding physical activities for some students with
health issues, and those students should proceed under the direction of a doctor

Many schools are now motivating students to maintain a balance

between their school work and physical education. Physical education
is an essential part of healthy living for people of all age groups,
especially those going to school. This is because school life is full of
stress and anxiety at every stage. Several Researches have proved
the importance of physical activities of students in a school
environment. Thus, many schools are now encouraging students to
take part in physical education. Scientifically these activities have
been proved to be as important as doing school work.
Related Article: Does Increasing Physical Activity in School Lead to
Improvements in Academic Achievement and Behavior?

Physical education teaches the students to improve the quality of their

life. Focusing only on school work can make their life boring and
stagnant which in turn can cause depression and failure. Such
activities and exercises boost their stamina which can make them fall
in love with their intelligence and abilities.
Top 5 Reasons Why Physical Education is as Important as School
Work:

1. Enhances an individual’s ability to concentrate and maintain

focus:
Several studies show that performing physical activities helps in
enlarging the basal ganglia of the brain. The Basal Ganglia is a part of
the brain which is responsible to maintain an individual’s capability to
focus. In this current era students have several diversions in the form
of technologies (Television, tablets, PCs, Mobile phones), therefore, it
is difficult for them to maintain focus. By promoting physical education,
school teachers can help them improve their concentration. Schools
often arrange physical games and exercises which require
concentration. Thus, students are promoted to take part in such
activities along with their school work, so this will help in maintaining
their healthy body and minds.

Related Article: Exercise Ideas to Support Children with Autism and

ADHD

2. Important for healthy growth and development:

In today’s world, many school children eat unhealthy foods. These
may include the fries, soft drinks, pizzas and burgers. Consuming
these on a regular basis can lead to childhood obesity.

Physical education at school helps in preventing obesity and high

blood pressure. Physical exercise and activities will help them burn off
their extra calories. If these calories are not burned off they will be
stored as fat. By doing physical exercises individuals use their extra
calories to gain energy.

Plus, such activities play an important role in the healthy growth and
development of bones and cartilages. Bone strengthening exercises
such as jumping are particularly important for school children as such
activities produce a force onto the bone that helps enhance its
strength and growth. While muscle strengthening exercises make
muscles larger and stronger, they also help children carry more weight
and aid in protecting joints against injuries.
Being physically active makes the students energetic and strong
which motivates them to take interest in classroom activities.
Exercises which help strengthen muscles include:

 Climbing Trees.
 Monkey bar exercises.
 Bike Riding.
 Push ups.
 Hula hooping.

A physically active student will also have a healthy heart. Any exercise
which provides oxygen to the muscles is called as an aerobic
exercise. Such exercises are essential for a healthy heart. Research
shows that kids who perform aerobic exercises, two to three times a
week for at least twenty minutes, have a healthier heart as compared
to those who don’t take part in physical education. Some of the
healthy aerobic exercises are:

 Playing Basketball.
 Playing Soccer.
 Jumping rope.

3. Prevents sleep deprivation:

A complete night’s sleep is an essential component of a happy and
healthy life. Those students who take part in physical activities and
exercise regularly have a tired and exhausted body which craves a
good night’s sleep.

Complete sleep makes kids more upright and attentive during lectures
in classroom. Being attentive will help prevent them from performing
careless mistakes and will provide them energy to be helpful towards
teachers and their fellow students.

4. Helps in relieving stress and anxiety:

School life is hectic for every individual. Therefore, taking part in
physical activities and education allows students to relieve their
academic stress and anxiety. Stress might be due to a fight with a
friend or a low grade despite of hard work. Stressed students are not
able to concentrate and focus on their academic performance if they
are not allowed time to de-stress.

Physical activities give them an environment to breathe out their

stress. By exercising and breathing deeply, we provide extra air to our
lungs which in turn provides more oxygen to the brain, this makes the
brain feel relaxed and stress free.

A physically active individual is more likely to be happy and healthy,

which makes them a better student in the classroom. They often feel
proud and happy about themselves and are good towards their fellow
students.

5. Physical education makes an individual flexible and happy:

Balancing exercise and stretching, helps improve physical balance
which decreases the chances of injuries. Those students who make
physical education as important as their school work become more
flexible in their routine life. Such activities make the body elastic and
flexible. It allows an individual to manage both a physical and mental
workload. Scientific research reveals the fact that physical education
in school helps in improving the connections between neurons of the
brain. Healthy and well-connected neurons help improve the over-all
thinking ability of students. Thus, making them better students in
classroom.

Many schools have made physical education an essential component

of school curriculum and students are promoted to maintain a healthy
balance between their education and exercise. This is due to the fact
that those students who take part in physical activities have proved to
be happier and healthier than those students who spend all their time
doing school education work. Such activities help develop the blood
circulation in an individual’s body. This helps in providing more oxygen
to the heart and brain and allows the body to maintain a balance
between physical and mental health.
 Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is
segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boulesand shuffleboard. Two teams,
each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across
the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice.[2] Each team has eight
stones, with each player throwing two. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game;
points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of
each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually
consists of eight or ten ends.
The curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides, and the path of
the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms, who accompany it as it slides
down the sheet and sweep the ice in front of the stone. "Sweeping a rock" decreases the friction,
which makes the stone travel a straighter path (with less "curl") and a longer distance. A great deal
of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each
situation, and the skills of the curlers determine the degree to which the stone will achieve the
desired result. This gives curling its nickname of "chess on ice".[3][4]

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Olympic curling
 2Equipment
o 2.1Curling sheet
o 2.2Curling stone
o 2.3Curling broom
o 2.4Shoes
o 2.5Other equipment
 3Gameplay
o 3.1Delivery
o 3.2Sweeping
o 3.3Burning a stone
o 3.4Types of shots
o 3.5Free guard zone
o 3.6Hammer
o 3.7Strategy
o 3.8Conceding a game
o 3.9Dispute resolution
 4Scoring
 5Curling culture
o 5.1Good sportsmanship
o 5.2Accessibility in curling
 6Terminology
 7Champions and major championships
 8Notable curling clubs
 9Transport
 10In popular culture
 11See also
 12Notes
 13Further reading
 14External links

History[edit]
Detail from a reproduction of Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap (Bruegel, 1565)

Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed
with the date 1511 uncovered (along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was
drained at Dunblane, Scotland.[5] The world's oldest curling stone and the world's oldest football are
now kept in the same museum (the Stirling Smith Art Gallery and Museum) in Stirling.[6] The first
written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley
Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541.[7] Two paintings, "Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap" and
"The Hunters in the Snow" (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the
Elder depict Flemish peasants curling, albeit without brooms; Scotland and the Low Countries had
strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf.[8]

A curling match at Eglinton Castle, Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860. The curling house is located to the left of the
picture.

The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a
poem by Henry Adamson.[9][10] The sport was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like
southern New Zealand) also known as "the roaring game" because of the sound the stones make
while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface).[11] The verbal
noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl,[12] which describes the motion of the
stone.

Group of people curling on a lake in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, c. 1897

Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in
1716;[13] it is still in existence today.[14]Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the
world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 by 250 metres (330 by
820 ft) in size. The International Olympic Committee recognises the Royal Caledonian Curling
Club (founded as the Grand Caledonian Curling Club in 1838) as developing the first official rules for
the sport.[15]
Men curling in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 1909

In the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed stones from rivers or
fields, which lacked a handle and were of inconsistent size, shape and smoothness.[16][17] Some early
stones had holes for a finger and the thumb, akin to ten-pin bowling balls.[18]Unlike today, the thrower
had little control over the 'curl' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill and
strategy. The sport was often played on frozen rivers although purpose-built ponds were later
created in many Scottish towns.[19] For example, the Scottish poet David Gray describes whisky-
drinking curlers on the Luggie Water at Kirkintilloch.[20][21]

Curling on Lake of Menteith from 2010. The last official Grand Matchwas held here in 1979.[22]

In Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone
weights from the looms' warp beams, fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife
would keep her husband's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the
next time it was needed.[23] Central Canadian curlers often used 'irons' rather than stones until the
early 1900s; Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with
wood or ice-filled tins.[24]
Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the
climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing
body for curling, the World Curling Federation in Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal
Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling.
Today, the sport is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish
emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North
America,[25] was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in
1830, and the sport was introduced to Switzerland and Swedenbefore the end of the 19th century,
also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, China, and Korea.[26]
The first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held
in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team
from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls
the shots; see below.)
Curling was one of the first sports that was popular with women and girls.[27]

Olympic curling[edit]

Curling at Youth Olympic Games 2012

Main article: Curling at the Winter Olympics

Curling pictogram

Curling has been a medal sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It
currently includes men's, women's and mixed doublestournaments (the mixed doubles event was
held for the first time in 2018).[28]
In February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling
competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or
International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be
considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was
played outdoors, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great
Britain, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was
also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams
from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4.[29][30]
Since the 1998 Olympics, Canada has dominated the sport with their men's teams winning gold
in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women's team won gold in 1998
and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006. The mixed doubles team won gold
in 2018.

Equipment[edit]
The playing area in curling is shown here. Stones must land between the hog line (bottom of photo) and
the back line (behind the rings) and may not contact boards or out lines (on the sides) at any time during travel.

Curling sheet[edit]

Detail of the curling sheet. The 12-foot circle covers the backline.

The playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling.[31] It
is a rectangular area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, 146 to 150 feet (45
to 46 m) in length by 14.5 to 16.5 feet (4.4 to 5.0 m) in width. The shorter borders of the sheet are
called the backboards. Because of the elongated shape, several sheets may be laid out side by side
in the same arena, allowing multiple games to be played simultaneously.
A target, the house, is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the
centre of the sheet and the tee line, drawn 16 feet (4.9 m) from, and parallel to, the backboard.
These lines divide the house into quarters. The house consists of a centre circle (the button) and
three concentric rings, of diameters 4, 8 and 12 feet, formed by painting or laying
coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. A stone must at least
touch the outer ring in order to score (see Scoring below); otherwise the rings are merely a visual aid
for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button. Two hog lines are drawn 37 feet (11 m)
from, and parallel to, the backboard.
The hacks, which give the thrower something to push against when making the throw, are fixed 12
feet (3.7 m) behind each button. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined
holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than 3 inches (76 mm) from
the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used.
The ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through
numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an
ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance
is extremely important. Large events, such as the Brier or other national/international
championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must
constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a
consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in
order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor
humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). The
surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 °F (−5 °C).[32]
A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice,
which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone
moves on top of the pebbled ice.[33] As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone
causes it to curl to the inside or outside. The amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl)
can change during a game as the pebble wears; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to
scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game.[34]

A curling sheet, with dimensions in feet (1' = 1 ft = 0.3 m).

CL: Centreline • HOL: Hogline • TL: Teeline • BL: Backline • HA: Hackline with Hacks • FGZ: Free Guard Zone

Curling stone[edit]
The curling stone (also sometimes called a rock in North America) is made of granite and is
specified by the World Curling Federation, which requires a weight between 38 and 44 pounds
(17.24 and 19.96 kg), a maximum circumference of 36 inches (914.4 mm) and a minimum height of
4.5 inches (114.3 mm).[31] The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface, a
narrow, flat annulus or ring, 0.25 to 0.50 inches (6.4 to 12.7 mm) wide and about 5 inches (130 mm)
in diameter; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is
hollowed concave to clear the ice. This concave bottom was first proposed by J. S. Russell of
Toronto, Ontario, Canada sometime after 1870, and was subsequently adopted by Scottish stone
manufacturer Andrew Kay.[24]

The curling stone or rock is made of granite

An old-style curling stone

The granite for the stones comes from two sources: Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast of
Scotland, and the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales.
Ailsa Craig is the traditional source and produces two types of granite, Blue Hone and Ailsa Craig
Common Green. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of repeatedly
freezing water from eroding the stone.[35] Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite
than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone but the island is now a
wildlife reserve and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting.
Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones in Mauchline, Ayrshire, since 1851 and has the
exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has
owned the island since 1560. According to the 1881 Census, Andrew Kay employed 30 people in his
curling stone factory in Mauchline.[36] The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in
2013, after a hiatus of 11 years; 2,000 tons were harvested, sufficient to fill anticipated orders
through at least 2020. Kays have been involved in providing curling stones for the Winter Olympics
since Chamonix in 1924 and has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics
since the 2006 Winter Olympics.[37][38]
Trefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north
coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd, Wales and has produced granite since 1850. Trefor granite
comes in shades of pink, blue and grey.[39] The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to
the Canadian, Canada Curling Stone Co., which has been producing stones since 1992 and
supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics.
A handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle
allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice the rotation will
bend (curl) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning,
especially as the stone slows. Handles are coloured to identify each team, two popular colours in
major tournaments being red and yellow. In competition, an electronic handle known as the eye on
the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations. This electronically detects whether the thrower's
hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the
base of the handle. The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It
is mandatory in high-level national and international competition, but its cost, around US$650 each,
currently puts it beyond the reach of most club curling.

Curling broom[edit]
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Curling broom

The curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone
(see sweeping) and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone.
Prior to the 1950s, most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household
brooms of the day. In 1958, Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of
the broom. This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack.[40]
Artificial brooms made from man-made fabrics rather than corn, such as the Rink Rat, also became
common later during this time period. Prior to the late sixties, Scottish curling brushes were used
primarily by some of the Scots, as well as by recreational and elderly curlers, as a substitute for corn
brooms, since the technique was easier to learn. In the late sixties, competitive curlers
from Calgary, Alberta, such as John Mayer, Bruce Stewart, and, later, the world junior championship
teams skipped by Paul Gowsell, proved that the curling brush could be just as (or more) effective
without all the blisters common to corn broom use.[40] During that time period, there was much debate
in competitive curling circles as to which sweeping device was more effective: brush or broom.
Eventually, the brush won out with the majority of curlers making the switch to the less costly and
more efficient brush. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling;
it is rare now to see a curler using a corn broom on a regular basis.
Curling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Modern curling brush handles are
usually hollow tubes made of fibreglass or carbon fibre instead of a solid length of wooden dowel.
These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles, allowing faster sweeping
and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex.
New, "directional fabric" brooms, which players are worried will alter the fundamentals of the sport by
reducing the level of skill required, have been accused of giving players an unfair advantage.[41] The
new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada[42] for the
2015–2016 season. The new brooms give sweepers unprecedented control over the direction the
stone goes.[43]

Shoes[edit]
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Curling shoes, showing a slider sole

Curling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles; the slider
shoe (usually known as a "slider") is designed for the sliding foot and the "gripper shoe" (usually
known as a gripper) for the hack foot.
The slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during
delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or
otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel was once common for slider soles, and
"red brick" sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available. Most shoes have a full-
sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and
other enhancements with the full-sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front
and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for
curlers playing with tuck deliveries.[44] When a player is not throwing, the player's slider shoe can be
temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be
converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape
directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning
players.
The gripper is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip the ice. It
may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a
thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised
coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as
it drags on the ice behind the thrower.

Other equipment[edit]
Other types of equipment include:

 Curling pants, made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery.

 A stopwatch to time the stones over a fixed distance to calculate their speed. Stopwatches can
be attached either to clothing or the broom.
 Curling gloves and mittens, to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom.

Gameplay[edit]

At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Mark Nichols from Team Canada delivers a stone while his teammates look on,
ready to begin sweeping. The curler uses his broom to help keep his balance during delivery.

The purpose of a game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house centre, or the
"button", than the other team's stones.[45] Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the
far side of the sheet. An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered, a
total of sixteen stones. If the teams are tied at the end of the game, play continues for as many ends
as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have
been completed (see Scoring below). A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable.
International competitive games are generally ten ends, so most of the national championships that
send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there
is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends.[46] Most tournaments
on that tour are eight ends, as are the vast majority of recreational games.
In international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is
also allowed two minute-long timeouts per 10-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is
allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for
each extra end. However, the "thinking time" system, in which the delivering team's game timer
stops as soon as the shooter's rock crosses the t-line during the delivery, is becoming more popular,
especially in Canada. This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends, or 30 minutes per 8
ends, to make strategic and tactical decisions, with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra
ends.[47] The "thinking time" system was implemented after it was recognized that teams playing
aggressively (using draws and other low-weight shots which take more time for the stones to come
to rest) were essentially being penalized in terms of the time they had available compared to teams
which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot.

Delivery[edit]
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The process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery.
The skip, or the captain of the team, will usually determine the required weight, turn, and line of the
stone. These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking out,
blocking or tapping another stone.

 The weight of the stone is its velocity, which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than
the arm.
 The turn or curl is the rotation of the stone, which gives it a curved trajectory.
 The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn.
The skip may communicate the weight, turn, line, and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on
the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard, or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved.
Before delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept
with the broom if necessary, because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the
trajectory and ruin the shot. Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick-up or pick.

Players must push out of the hackto deliver their stones. 95% of hacks in use around the world are Marco
Hacks, which were invented in the 1980s by Marco Ferraro.[48]
Outdoor curling on Stormont Loch.[49] The stone is delivered from an iron crampit[50] rather than the hack used
indoors

The thrower throws from the hack. Another player, usually the skip, is stationed behind the button to
determine the tactics, weight, turn, and line, and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to
influence the trajectory (see Sweeping, below). The players, with the exception of the skip, take
turns throwing and sweeping; when one player (e.g., the lead) throws, the players not throwing
(the second and third) sweep. When the skip throws, the third, or vice-skip, takes his or her role.
The thrower's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a
right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left-hander. The
thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip's broom at the far end
for line.
The stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack, the thrower
pulls the stone back (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement)
then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in
front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and
hence the distance the stone will travel. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the stone while
sliding out from the hack. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of
the broom down so that it slides. One older writer suggests the player keep "a basilisk glance" at the
mark.[51]
There are two current types of delivery, the common flat-foot deliver as well as the Manitoba
tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of his foot.[52]
The stone is released as the thrower approaches the hog line, at which point the turn is imparted by
a slight clockwise or counter-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position
to the twelve o'clock on release. A typical rate of turn is about 2 1⁄2 rotations before coming to a rest.
The stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line, and it must clear the far
hog line or else be removed from play (hogged); an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest
beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line. The release rule
is rarely enforced in club play unless abuse is suspected. However, in major tournaments it is strictly
enforced; the "eye on the hog" sensor in the stone will indicate whether the stone has been legally
thrown or not. The lights on the stone handle will either light up green, indicating that the stone has
been legally thrown, or red, in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from
play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest.

Sweeping[edit]
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The skip of Team Sweden joins the front end in sweeping a stone into the house at the 2010 Winter
Olympics in Vancouver

After the stone is delivered, its trajectory is still influenced by the two sweepers under instruction
from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to reduce friction underneath the stone, to
decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone's path.[53] The stones curl more as
they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the
path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. When
sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly increasing the layer of moisture
that builds up under the stone.
One of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the
stone is swept, a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the
two alterations in path is not desirable. For example, a stone may have too much weight, but require
sweeping to prevent curling into a guard. The team must decide which is better: getting by the guard
but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.
Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot and the
sweepers calling the weight. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to
sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for
judging the weight of the stone, ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the
weight of the stone back to the skip. Some teams use stopwatch timing, from back line to the
nearest hog line as a sweeping aid. Many teams use the Number System to communicate in which
of 10 playable zones it is estimated the stone will stop.
Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone's path, although depending on
which side the sweepers' strengths lie this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital
to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (non-brush
end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom.
The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the
ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing ("just cleaning" - to
ensure debris will not alter the stone's path) to maximum-pressure scrubbing.
Sweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the tee line, as long as it is only for one's own team
stones. Once the leading edge of a team stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it.
Additionally, when a stone crosses the tee line, one player from the other team is allowed to sweep
it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international
rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the
third.

Burning a stone[edit]
Occasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a body part. This is often
referred to as burning a stone. Players touching a stone in such a manner are expected to call their
own infraction as a matter of good sportsmanship. Touching a stationary stone when no stones are
in motion (there is no delivery in progress) is not an infraction (unless the stationary stone is struck in
such a manner that its position is altered), and is a common way for the skip to indicate a stone that
is to be taken out.
When a stone is touched when stones are in play, the remedies vary[31][54] between placing the stones
as they end up after the touch, replacing the stones as they would have been if no stone were
touched, or removal of the touched stone from play. In non-officiated league play, the skip of the
non-offending team has the final say on where the stones are placed after the infraction.

Types of shots[edit]

Two ways to get the button with the last stone: a draw on the left (outturn for right-handed delivery), and a hit
and roll on the right.

Many different types of shots are used to carefully place stones for strategic or tactical reasons; they
fall into three fundamental categories as follows:
Guards are thrown in front of the house in the free guard zone, usually to protect the shot-rock (the
stone closest to the button at the time) or to make the opposing team's shot difficult. Guard shots
include the centre-guard, on the centreline and the corner-guards to the left or right sides of the
centre line. See Free Guard Zone below.
Draws are thrown only to reach the house. Draw shots include raise and angle-raise, come-around,
and freeze shots.
Takeouts are intended to remove stones from play and include the peel, hit-and-
roll and double shots.
For a more complete listing, see Glossary of curling terms.

Free guard zone[edit]

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Until five stones have been played (three from the side without hammer, and two from the side with
hammer), stones in the free guard zone (stones left in the area between the hog and tee lines,
excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone, although they can be moved as
long as they are not taken out of play. These are known as guard rocks. If a guard rock is removed
under this rule, it is placed back in the positions it was in before the shot was thrown, and the
opponent's stone is removed from play and cannot be replayed. This rule is known as the five-rock
rule or the free guard zone rule (previous versions of the free guard zone rule only limited removing
guards from play in the first three or four rocks, known as the "three-rock rule" and "four-rock rule"
respectively).
This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of "peeling"
opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to
also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). A team in the lead would often employ this
strategy during the game. By knocking all stones out, the opponents could at best score one point (if
they had the hammer). Alternatively, the team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which
would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed
(mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and the
adoption of brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an
unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game
faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin
flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game. The
1990 Brierwas considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling
and the quick adoption of the Free Guard Zone the following year reflected how disliked this aspect
of the game had become.
The free guard zone was originally called the Modified Moncton Rule and was developed from a
suggestion made by Russ Howard for the Moncton 100 cashspiel (with the richest prize ever
awarded at the time in a tournament) in Moncton, New Brunswick, in January 1990. "Howard's Rule"
(later known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team
used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time
during the end. This method of play was altered by restricting the area in which a stone was
protected to the free guard zone only for the first four rocks thrown and adopted as a Four-rock Free
Guard Zone for international competition shortly after. Canada kept to the traditional rules until a
three-rock Free Guard Zone rule was adopted for the 1993–94 season. After several years of having
the three-rock rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to
the four-rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the four-
rock Free Guard Zone in the 2002–2003 season.
One strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the Free Guard Zone (Kevin
Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the "tick" game, where a shot is made attempting
to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use but still
remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identical to peeling
the guard but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play)
results in its being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in its still being tactically
useful for the opposition. There is also a greater chance that the shot will miss the guard entirely
because of the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Because of the difficulty of making this
type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way
the peel formerly did. Steve Gould from Manitoba popularized ticks played across the face. These
are easier to make because they impart less speed on the object stone, therefore increasing the
chance that it remains in play even if a bigger chunk of it is hit.
With the tick shot reducing the effectiveness of the four-rock rule, the Grand Slam of Curling series
of bonspiels adopted a five-rock rule in 2014.[55] In 2017, the five-rock rule was adopted by the World
Curling Federation and member organizations for official play, beginning in the 2018-19 season.[56][57]

Hammer[edit]
Last-rock or last-stone advantage in an end is called the hammer. Before the game, teams typically
decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss), by a "draw-to-
the-button" contest, where a representative of each team shoots to see who gets closer to the centre
of the rings, or, particularly in tournament settings like the Winter Olympics, by a comparison of each
team's win-loss record. In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in
the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team.
Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with
the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will
often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more
points may lie. This is called a blank end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to
as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult.

Strategy[edit]

Diagram of the play area in curling, showing the four-foot zone, corner guard, and centre line guard

Curling is a game of strategy, tactics and skill. The strategy depends on the team's skill, the
opponent's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain and
whether the team has last-stone advantage (the hammer). A team may play an end aggressively or
defensively. Aggressive playing will put a lot of stones in play by throwing mostly draws; this makes
for an exciting game and is very risky but the reward can be very great. Defensive playing will throw
a lot of hits preventing a lot of stones in play; this tends to be less exciting and less risky. A good
drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play
defensively.
If a team does not have the hammer in an end, it will opt to try to clog up the four-foot zone in the
house to deny the opposing team access to the button. This can be done by throwing "centre line"
guards in front of the house on the centre line, which can be tapped into the house later or drawn
around. If a team has the hammer, they will try to keep this four-foot zone free so that they have
access to the button area at all times. A team with the hammer may throw a corner guard as their
first stone of an end placed in front of the house but outside the four-foot zone to utilize the free
guard zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either
draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team's shot to remove it more
difficult.
Ideally, the strategy in an end for a team with the hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring
one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last-rock advantage for the next end. If
a team cannot score two points, they will often attempt to "blank an end" by removing any leftover
opposition rocks and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition rocks, just throwing the rock through
the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next
end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without the hammer would want to either force
the team with the hammer to only one point (so that they can get the hammer back) or "steal" the
end by scoring one or more points of their own.[58]
Generally, the larger the lead a team will have in a game, the more defensively they should play. By
hitting all of the opponent's stones, it removes opportunities for their getting multiple points, therefore
defending the lead. If the leading team is quite comfortable, leaving their own stones in play can also
be dangerous. Guards can be drawn around by the other team, and stones in the house can be
tapped back (if they are in front of the tee line) or frozen onto (if they are behind the tee line). A
frozen stone is difficult to remove, because it is "frozen" (in front of and touching) to the opponents
stone. At this point, a team will opt for "peels", meaning that the stones they throw will be to not only
hit their opposition stones, but to roll out of play as well. Peels are hits that are thrown with the most
amount of power.

Conceding a game[edit]
It is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are
completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Competitive games end once
the losing team has "run out of rocks"—that is, once it has fewer stones in play and available for play
than the number of points needed to tie the game.

Dispute resolution[edit]

Measuring which stone is closest to the centre of the house

Most decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be
left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the vice skip. No players other than
the vice skip from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament
play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the
vice skip is the failure of the vice skips to agree on which stone is closest to the button. An
independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the
distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the centre of the button. When no
independent officials are available, the vice skips measure the distances.

Scoring[edit]

A typical curling scoreboard used at clubs, which use a method of scoring different from the ones used on
television

The winner is the team having the highest number of accumulated points at the completion of ten
ends. Points are scored at the conclusion of each of these ends as follows: when each team has
thrown its eight stones, the team with the stone closest to the button wins that end; the winning team
is then awarded one point for each of its own stones lying closer to the button than the opponent's
closest stone.
Only stones that are in the house are considered in the scoring. A stone is in the house if it lies
within the 12-foot (3.7 m) zone or any portion of its edge lies over the edge of the ring. Since the
bottom of the stone is rounded, a stone just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with
the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of stone is
known as a biter.
It may not be obvious to the eye which of two rocks is closer to the button (centre) or if a rock is
actually biting or not. There are specialized devices to make these determinations, but these cannot
be brought out until after an end is completed. Therefore, a team may make strategic decisions
during an end based on assumptions of rock position that turn out to be incorrect.
The score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types; the baseball type and the club
scoreboard.
The baseball-style scoreboard was created for televised games for audiences not familiar with the
club scoreboard. The ends are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra
end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team,
containing the team's score for that end and their total score in the right hand column.
The club scoreboard is traditional and used in most curling clubs. Scoring on this board only
requires the use of (up to) 11 digit cards, whereas with baseball-type scoring an unknown number of
multiples of the digits (especially low digits like 1) may be needed. The numbered centre row
represents all possible accumulated scores, and the numbers placed in the team rows represent the
end in which that team achieved that cumulative score. If the red team scores three points in the first
end (called a three-ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red
row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row,
indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one
team can get points in an end. However, some confusion may arise if neither team scores points in
an end, this is called a blank end. The blank end numbers are usually listed in the farthest column on
the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for
blank ends.

low.

list ordered byall votersmenwomenageregion rank your versionathletes

1
24974

Kevin Martinage 52
Kevin Martin, nicknamed "The Old Bear" and
"K-Mart", is a retired Canadian curler from
Edmonton. He is considered by many
commentators and former and current curlers
to be ...more

2
12550

Sebastian Alonso Mesones Florian

added Jennifer Jonesage 44
Jennifer Judith Jones is a Canadian curler. She
won an Olympic gold medal as skip of the
Canadian team at the 2014 Sochi Games. She
is the first female skip to go through the Games
undefeated. ...more

3
11857

Marc Kennedyage 36
Marc Kennedy is a Canadian curler, and
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic gold medalist
from St. Albert, Alberta. Kennedy currently
plays third for Kevin Koe.

4
324
unwiseplane added Brad Gushueage 38
Bradley Raymond "Brad" Gushue, ONL is a
Canadian curler from St. John's, Newfoundland
and Labrador. Gushue, along with teammates
Russ Howard, Mark Nichols, Jamie Korab and
Mike Adam, ...more

5
6328

Ben Hebertage 35
Ben Hebert is a Canadian curler, a Vancouver
2010 Winter Olympic gold medalist, 2008
World Champion and two time Brier Champion
from Calgary, Alberta.

6
9352

John Morrisage 40
John Morris is a Canadian curler, and
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic gold medalist
from Chestermere, Alberta. Morris played third
for the Kevin Martin team until 24 April 2013.
Morris, author of ...more

winners & losers

#7. Vikings is rising on The Best Current Action TV Series

#10. The Blacklist is falling on Current TV Shows with the Best Writing

#2. Saturday Night Live is falling on The Best Current NBC Comedy Shows

7
8154

Cheryl Bernardage 52
Cheryl Bernard is a retired Canadian curler
from Calgary. She represented Team Canada
at the 2010 Winter Olympics as the team's
skip, winning the silver medal in women's
curling after falling to ...more

8
5941

Eve Muirheadage 28
Eve Muirhead is a Scottish curler. She won a
bronze medal at the 2014 Winter Olympics in
Sochi as part of Team GB and is the 2013
World Champion. As skip of the Scotland team,
Muirhead won the ...more

9
5545

Anette Norbergage 52
Anette Norberg is a retired Swedish curler from
Härnösand. She and her team were the
Olympic women's curling champions in 2006
and 2010. After winning the 2006 Women's
Curling ...more

10
2111

KenyonKirksey added keven koe

 Swimming is an individual or team sport that requires the use of one's entire body to move through
water. The sport takes place in pools or open water (e.g., in a sea or lake). Competitive swimming is
one of the most popular Olympic sports,[1] with varied distance events
in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. In addition to these individual
events, four swimmers can take part in either a freestyle or medley relay. A medley relay consists of
four swimmers who will each swim a different stroke. The order for a medley relay is: backstroke,
breaststroke, butterfly, and freestyle. Swimming each stroke requires a set of specific techniques; in
competition, there are distinct regulations concerning the acceptable form for each individual
stroke.[2] There are also regulations on what types of swimsuits, caps, jewelry and injury tape that are
allowed at competitions.[3] Although it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur several injuries
from the sport, such as tendinitis in the shoulders or knees, there are also multiple health benefits
associated with the sport.

Contents

 1History
 2Competitive swimming
o 2.1Open water
o 2.2Swim styles
o 2.3Dolphin kick
 3Competition pools
 4Seasons
 5Officials
 6Swimwear
o 6.1Common Swimwear
 6.1.1Men
 6.1.2Women
 6.1.3Use of drag wear
 7Elite and international swimming
o 7.1Professionalism
 8Open-water swimming
 9Changes to the sport
 10Records
o 10.1Historical breakthroughs
 11Health benefits
 12Common injuries
 13See also
 14References
 15External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of swimming
Leander swimming across the Hellespont. Detail from a painting by Bernard Picart.

Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence
dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC,
with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey,
the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss professor of
languages, wrote the first book about swimming, The Swimmer or A Dialogue on the Art of
Swimming (Der Schwimmer oder ein Zweigespräch über die Schwimmkunst).
Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first
indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths was opened to the public.[4] By 1837, the National
Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built
around London. The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national
governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were already over 300
regional clubs in operation across the country.[5]

The routes taken by Webb and T.W. Burgess across the English Channel, in 1875 and 1911, respectively.

In 1844 two Native American participants at a swimming competition in London introduced the front
crawl to a European audience. Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the hand-over stroke from some
South American natives and successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873, winning a local
competition in England. His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today.[6]
Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel (between England and
France), in 1875. Using the breaststroke technique, he swam the channel 21.26 miles (34.21 km) in
21 hours and 45 minutes. His feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until T.W.
Burgess made the crossing in 1911.
Other European countries also established swimming federations; Germany in 1882, France in 1890
and Hungary in 1896. The first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna.
The world's first women's swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892.[7]
Men's swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. In 1902, the
Australian Richmond Cavill introduced freestyle to the Western world. In 1908, the world swimming
association, Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), was formed. Women's swimming was
introduced into the Olympics in 1912; the first international swim meet for women outside the
Olympics was the 1922 Women's Olympiad. Butterfly was developed in the 1930s and was at first a
variant of breaststroke, until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952.

Competitive swimming[edit]
See also: List of swimming competitions

Katie Ledecky set the Olympic records in 2016 for the 400m and 800m freestyle.

Competitive swimming became popular in the 19th century. The goal of high level competitive
swimming is to break personal or world records while beating competitors in any given event.
Swimming in competition should create the least resistance in order to obtain maximum speed.
However, some professional swimmers who do not hold a national or world ranking are considered
the best in regard to their technical skills. Typically, an athlete goes through a cycle of training in
which the body is overloaded with work in the beginning and middle segments of the cycle, and then
the workload is decreased in the final stage as the swimmer approaches competition.
The practice of reducing exercise in the days just before an important competition is called tapering.
Tapering is used to give the swimmer's body some rest without stopping exercise completely. A final
stage is often referred to as "shave and taper": the swimmer shaves off all exposed hair for the sake
of reducing drag and having a sleeker and more hydrodynamic feel in the water.[8] Additionally, the
"shave and taper" method refers to the removal of the top layer of "dead skin", which exposes the
newer and richer skin underneath. This also helps to "shave" off mere milliseconds on your time.[9]

World record holder and Olympic gold medalist Michael Phelps in the 400 IM.

Swimming is an event at the Summer Olympic Games, where male and female athletes compete in
16 of the recognized events each. Olympic events are held in a 50-meter pool, called a long course
pool.
There are forty officially recognized individual swimming events in the pool; however
the International Olympic Committee only recognizes 32 of them. The international governing body
for competitive swimming is the Fédération Internationale de Natation ("International Swimming
Federation"), better known as FINA.
Open water[edit]
In open water swimming, where the events are swum in a body of open water (lake or sea), there
are also 5 km, 10 km and 25 km events for men and women. However, only the 10 km event is
included in the Olympic schedule, again for both men and women. Open-water competitions are
typically separate to other swimming competitions with the exception of the World Championships
and the Olympics.

Swim styles[edit]
In competitive swimming, four major styles have been established. These have been relatively stable
over the last 30–40 years with minor improvements. They are:

 Butterfly
 Backstroke
 Breaststroke
 Freestyle
In competition, only one of these styles may be used except in the case of the individual medley, or
IM, which consists of all four. In this latter event, swimmers swim equal distances of butterfly, then
backstroke, breaststroke, and finally, freestyle.[10] In Olympic competition, this event is swum in two
distances – 200 and 400 meters. Some short course competitions also include the 100-yard or 100-
meter IM – particularly, for younger or newer swimmers (typically under 14 years) involved in club
swimming, or masters swimming (over 18).

Dolphin kick[edit]
Since the 1990s, the most drastic change in swimming has been the addition of the underwater
dolphin kick. This is used to maximize the speed at the start and after the turns in all styles. The first
successful use of it was by David Berkoff. At the 1988 Olympics, he swam most of the 100 m
backstroke race underwater and broke the world record in the distance during the preliminaries.
Another swimmer to use the technique was Denis Pankratov at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where
he completed almost half of the 100 m butterfly underwater to win the gold medal. In the past
decade, American competitive swimmers have shown the most use of the underwater dolphin kick to
gain advantage, most notably Olympic and World medal winners Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte;
however currently swimmers are not allowed to go any further than fifteen metres underwater due to
rule changes by FINA.[11] In addition, FINA announced in 2014 that a single dolphin kick can be
added to the breaststroke pullout prior to the first breaststroke kick.[12]
While the dolphin kick is mostly seen in middle-distance freestyle events and in all distances of
backstroke and butterfly, it is not usually used to the same effect in freestyle sprinting. That changed
with the addition of the so-called "technical" suits around the European Short Course
Championships in Rijeka, Croatia in December 2008. There, Amaury Leveaux set new world records
of 44.94 seconds in the 100 m freestyle, 20.48 seconds in the 50 m freestyle and 22.18 in the 50 m
butterfly. Unlike the rest of the competitors in these events, he spent at least half of each race
submerged using the dolphin kick.[13]

Competition pools[edit]
A simplified diagram of the FINA long course swimming pool standard, used at the World
Championships and Summer Olympics

World Championship pools must be 50 metres (160 ft) (long course) long and 25 metres (82 ft) wide,
with ten lanes labelled zero to nine (or one to ten in some pools; zero and nine (or one and ten) are
usually left empty in semi-finals and finals); the lanes must be at least 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) wide. They
will be equipped with starting blocks at both ends of the pool and most will have Automatic
Officiating Equipment, including touch pads to record times and sensors to ensure the legality
of relay takeovers. The pool must have a minimum depth of two metres.[14]
Other pools which host events under FINA regulations are required to meet some but not all of these
requirements. Many of these pools have eight, or even six, instead of ten lanes and some will be 25
metres (82 ft) long, making them Short course. World records that are set in short course pools are
kept separate from those set in long course pools because it may be an advantage or disadvantage
to swimmers to have more or less turns in a race.

Seasons[edit]
Competitive swimming, from the club through to international level, tends to have an autumn and
winter season competing in short course (25 metres or yards) pools and a spring and summer
season competing in long course (50 metre) pools and in open water.
In international competition and in club swimming in Europe, the short course (25m) season lasts
from September to December, and the long course (50m) season from January to August with open
water in the summer months. These regulations are slowly being brought to competition in North
America.
As of right now, in club, school, and college swimming in the United States and Canada, the short
course (25 yards) season is much longer, from September to March. The long-course season takes
place in 50-meter pools and lasts from April to the end of August with open water in the summer
months.
In club swimming in Australasia, the short course (25m) season lasts from April to September, and
the long course (50m) season from October to March with open water in the summer months.
Outside the United States, meters is the standard in both short and long course swimming, with the
same distances swum in all events. In the American short course season, the 500 yard, 1000 yard,
and 1650-yard freestyle events are swum as a yard is much shorter than a meter (100 yards equals
91.44 meters), while during the American long course season the 400 meter, 800 meter, and 1500-
meter freestyle events are swum instead.
Beginning each swimming season racing in short course allows for shorter distance races for novice
swimmers. For example, in the short course season if a swimmer wanted to compete in a stroke
they had just learned, a 25-yard/meter race is available to them, opposed to the long course season
when they would need to be able to swim at least 50 meters of that new stroke in order to compete.

Officials[edit]
There are several types of officials,[15] which are needed to manage the competition.[16]
Referee: The referee has full control and authority over all officials. The referee will enforce all rules
and decisions of FINA and shall have the final answer to all questions relating to the actual conduct
of anything regarding the meet, as well as the final settlement of which is not otherwise covered by
the rules. The referee takes overall responsibility for running the meet and makes the final decisions
as to who wins each race. Referees call swimmers to the blocks with short blasts of his or her
whistle. This is the signal for the swimmers to stand next to their blocks. Then the referee will blow a
long whistle that will tell the swimmers to step on the block. For backstroke events, the long whistle
is the signal for the swimmers to jump into the water. The referee will then blow another long whistle,
signalling the swimmers to grab the gutter or the provided block handle. Finally the referee will hand
over the rest to the starter by directing his or her hand to the starter.
Starter: The starter has full control of the swimmers from the time the referee turns the swimmers
over to him/her until the race commences. A starter begins the race by saying, "Take your mark." At
this point, the swimmers will get into stationary positions in which they would like to start their race.
After all swimmers have assumed their stationary position, the starter will push a button on the
starting system, signaling the start of a race with a loud noise (usually a beep or a horn) and flash
from a strobe light. A starter sends the swimmers off the blocks and may call a false start if a
swimmer leaves the block before the starter sends them. A starter may also choose to recall the
race after the start for any reason or request the swimmers to "stand", "relax" or "step down" if he or
she believes that (a) particular swimmer(s) has gotten an unfair advantage at the start.
Clerk of course: The clerk of course (also called the "bullpen") assembles swimmers prior to each
event, and is responsible for organizing ("seeding") swimmers into heats based on their times. Heats
are generally seeded from slowest to fastest, where swimmers with no previous time for an event
are assumed to be the slowest. The clerk of the course is also responsible for recording and
reporting swimmers who have chosen to "scratch" (not swim) their events after they have signed up
or qualified to a semifinal or final. The clerk is also responsible for enforcing rules of the swim meet if
a swimmer chooses to not show up ("No show" - NS) his or her events.
Timekeepers: Each timekeeper takes the time of the swimmers in the lane assigned to him/her.
Unless a video backup system is used, it may be necessary to use the full complement of
timekeepers even when automatic officiating equipment is used. A chief timekeeper assigns the
seating positions for all timekeepers and the lanes for which they are responsible. In most
competitions there will be one or more timekeepers per lane. In international competitions where full
automatic timing and video placing equipment is in use timekeepers may not be required.
Inspectors of turns: One inspector of turns is assigned to one or more lanes at each end of the
pool. Each inspector of turns ensures that swimmers comply with the relevant rules for turning, as
well as the relevant rules for start and finish of the race. Inspectors of turns shall report any violation
on disqualification reports detailing the event, lane number, and the infringement delivered to the
chief inspector of turns who will immediately convey the report to the referee.
Judges of Stroke: Judges of stroke are located on each side of the pool. They follow the swimmers
during their swim back and forth across the pool. They ensure that the rules related to the style of
swimming designated for the event are being observed, and observe the turns and the finishes to
assist the inspectors of turns.
Finish judges: Finish judges determine the order of finish and make sure the swimmers finish in
accordance with the rules (two hands simultaneously for breaststroke and butterfly, on the back for
backstroke, etc.)
If an official observes a swimmer breaking a rule concerning the stroke he or she is swimming, the
official will report what they have seen to the referee. The referee can disqualify (or DQ) any
swimmer for any violation of the rules that he/she personally observes or for any violation reported to
them by other authorised officials. All disqualifications are subject to the decision and discretion of
the referee.
Those who are disqualified may choose to protest their disqualification . Protests are reviewed by a
panel of officials instead of the deck referee or stroke judges who may have made the initial
disqualification report.

Swimwear[edit]
Main article: Competitive swimwear

Australian Swim Team in their swimsuits, 1996

Swimsuit
Competitive swimwear seeks to improve upon bare skin for a speed advantage and
coverage. In 2009, FINA rules and regulations were altered and suits made with
polyurethane were banned because they made athletes more buoyant. These rules also
banned suits which go above the navel or below the knee for men and suits which extend
past the shoulders or cover the neck for women.[17]
Swim cap
A swim cap (a.k.a. cap) keeps the swimmer's hair out of the way to reduce drag. Caps may
be made of latex, silicone, spandex or lycra.
Goggles
Goggles keep water and chlorine out of swimmers' eyes. Goggles may be tinted to
counteract glare at outdoor pools. Prescription goggles may be used by swimmers who wear
corrective lenses.
Swim Fins
Rubber fins are used to help kick faster and build strength and technique, but are illegal in a
race. They also improve technique by keeping the feet in the proper position while kicking.
Drag suit
Swimmers use drag suits in training to increase resistance. This allows a swimmer to be
challenged even more when practicing and let the swimmer feel less resistance when racing.
Drag suits are not used in competitive races.
Hand paddles
Swimmers use these plastic devices to build arm and shoulder strength while refining hand-
pulling technique. Hand paddles attach to the hand with rubber tubing or elastic material.
They come in many different shapes and sizes, depending on swimmer preference and hand
size.
Kickboard
A kickboard is a foam board that swimmers use to support the weight of the upper body
while they focus on kicking. Kicking is the movement of the legs only which helps to increase
leg muscle for future strength.
Pull buoy
Often used at the same time as hand paddles, pull buoys support swimmers' legs (and
prevent them from kicking) while they focus on pulling. Pull buoys are made of foam so they
float in the water. Swimmers hold them in between the thighs. They can also be used as a
kickboard to make kicking a little harder.
Ankle bands
Improving balance will minimize the need for this kick to provide an upward, instead of a
forward vector, and in some cases completely corrects the kick. Using an ankle band will
have the immediate effect of turning off your kick, which then forces you to make efforts to
correct your balance. If you are successful in discovering these, then the ankle band has
done part of its job.[18]
Snorkel
A snorkel is a plastic device that helps swimmers breathe while swimming. This piece of
equipment helps the swimmer practice keeping their head in one position, along with training
them for the proper breathing technique of breathing in through the mouth and out the nose.
This technique is the opposite of a common runner's breathing pattern, which is in the nose
and out the mouth.[19][20]
Tempo trainer
A beeping clock attached to a swimmers cap or goggles helps maintain a certain arm tempo
or speed. As each beep is heard, the next stroke, or cycles of strokes, should be taken.
Zoomers
A type of rubber swimming fins, zoomers are cut off fins with the holes in the bottom. They
help make the swimmer kick faster, but at the cost of working harder.
Common Swimwear[edit]
Brands such as Arena, Speedo, Nike,
and Adidas are popular regular swimwear brands.
The most durable material for regular swimming is
Polyester. The main difference between
competition and regular swimwear is that
competition swimwear is tighter and compresses
the muscles of the swimmers. Regular swimwear
is easier to put on and more comfortable for leisure
activities.
Men[edit]
 Olympic gold medalist Tyler Clary of U.S. walks
wearing men's swim briefs, while Hayley
Palmer sports a racerback one-piece swimsuit, 2012

The most used practice swimwear for men

includes briefs and jammers. Males generally
swim barechested.
There was controversy after the Beijing Olympic
Games in 2008 when many Olympic swimmers
broke records an unprecedented number of times
using revolutionary swimsuits that covered their
entire legs. To highlight the issue, in 2008, 70
world records were broken in one year, and 66
Olympic records were broken in one Olympic
Games (there were races in Beijing where the first
five finishers were swimming faster than the old
world record).
As of January 1, 2010, men are only allowed to
wear suits from the waist to the knees.[21] They are
also only permitted to wear one piece of
swimwear; they cannot wear briefs underneath
jammers. This rule was enacted after the
controversy in the Beijing Olympics and Rome
World Championships.
Women[edit]
Women wear one-piece suits with thicker and
higher backs for competition, though two-piece
suits can also be worn during practice. Backs vary
mainly in strap thickness and geometric design.
Most common styles include: racerback, axel back,
corset, diamondback, and butterfly-back/Fly-Back.
There are also different style lengths: three-quarter
length (reaches the knees), regular length
(shoulders to hips), and bikini style (two-piece). As
of January 1, 2010, in competition, women must
wear suits that do not go past the shoulders or
knees.
Use of drag wear[edit]
Drag suits are used to increase water resistance
against the swimmer to help them train for
competitions. Other forms of drag wear include
nylons, old suits, and T-shirts: articles that
increase friction in the water to build strength
during training, and thus increase speed once drag
items are removed for competition. Some
swimmers practice in basketball shorts over their
bathing suit, wearing two bathing suits, or wearing
an extra bathing suit with holes cut in the material.
Many swimmers also shave areas of exposed skin
before end-of-season competitions to reduce
friction in the water. The practice gained popularity
after the 1956 Olympics, when Murray Rose and
Jon Henricks came shaved and won gold medals
for Australia.[22] Freshly shaven skin is less
resistant when in the water. In addition, a 1989
study demonstrated that shaving improves a
swimmer's overall performance by reducing
drag.[23]
Wearing drag suits during training also improves
mental performance during competitions[citation needed].
Drag makes a swimmer feel slower and more
resistant during training with the added friction.
Then on the day of the competition, a shaven
swimmer wearing only a fast competition suit will
feel an improvement in how fast and smooth they
feel in the water.[citation needed]
The disadvantages of using a drag suit include the
depletion of proper stroke. This is caused by the
swimmer's own fatigue. When the swimmer
becomes more fatigued, different muscle groups
become more tired. Consequently, the swimmer
will try to engage another group of muscle to do
the same thing, which can cause the stroke
efficiency to drop.[citation needed]

Elite and international

swimming[edit]
Elite and international swimming comprises the
highest level of competition available to swimmers,
including competitions such as the Olympic
Games and FINA World Aquatics Championships.

Professionalism[edit]
Swimming creates a mix of levels, including: fully
professional, semi-professional, and amateur. Fully
professional swimmers will typically get a salary
both from their national governing body and from
outside sponsors, semi-professionals a small
stipend from their national governing body, and
amateurs receive no funding. Outside of these
major championships prize money is low – the
2015 FINA World Cup series has a total prize fund
of $3,000 per race shared between the top
three[24] and the 2014–15 USA Grand Prix Series
$1,800[25] compared to the 2015 World Aquatics
Championships fund of $60,000 per race shared
between the top eight.[26]

Open-water swimming[edit]

Swimmers must go around the yellow marked to

count as a "lap"

Open water swimming is swimming outside a

regular pool, usually in a lake, or sometimes
ocean. Popularity of the sport has grown in recent
years, particularly since the 10 km open water
event was added as an Olympic event in 2005,
contested for the first time in the 2008 Olympic
Games in Beijing.[27]
New recent technology has developed much faster
swimsuits. Full body suits have been banned, but
swimmers at the very top levels still wear suits that
have been lasered together because stitching
creates drag. The disadvantage of these suits is
that they are often uncomfortable and tight, and
can tear easily if not handled carefully.
The largest Ocean Swim's in terms of numbers of
participants are in Australia, with the Pier to Pub,
Cole Classic and Melbourne Swim Classic all with
roughly 5000 swimming participants.

Changes to the sport[edit]

Swimming times have dropped over the years due
to superior training techniques and new technical
developments.
The first four Olympics were not held in pools, but
in open water (1896 – the Mediterranean, 1900 –
the Seine river, 1904 – an artificial lake, 1906 – the
Mediterranean). The 1904 Olympics' freestyle race
was the only one ever measured at 100 yards,
instead of the usual 100 meters. A 100-meter pool
was built for the 1908 Olympics and sat in the
center of the main stadium's track and field oval.
The 1912 Olympics, held in the Stockholm harbor,
marked the beginning of electronic timing.[clarification
needed]

Olympian Ryan Lochte standing on top of the

wedged starting blocks

Male swimmers wore full-body suits until the

1940s, which caused more drag in the water than
their modern swimwear counterparts experience.
Competition suits now include engineered fabric
and designs to reduce swimmers' drag in the water
and prevent athlete fatigue. In addition, over the
years, pool designs have lessened the drag. Some
design considerations allow for the reduction of
swimming resistance, making the pool faster.
These include proper pool depth, elimination of
currents, increased lane width, energy absorbing
racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other
innovative hydraulic, acoustic, and illumination
designs. There have been major changes in
starting blocks over the past years. Starting blocks
used to be small, narrow and straight [28] but
through time they have become bigger and wider
and nowadays the surface of the block is angled
towards the swimming pool.[29] In addition, starting
blocks now have a "wedge" which is a raised,
slanting platform situated at the rear of the main
block. This enables the swimmer to adopt a
crouched position at a 90 degrees angle and push
off quicker with the rear leg to increase their launch
power.[30]
The 1924 Summer Olympics were the first to use
the standard 50-meter pool with marked lanes. In
the freestyle, swimmers originally dove from the
pool walls, but diving blocks were incorporated at
the 1936 Summer Olympics. The tumble turn was
developed by the 1950s and goggles were first
used in the 1976 Olympics.
There were also changes in the late 20th century
in terms of technique. Breaststrokers are now
allowed to dip their heads completely under water
to glide, which allows for a longer stroke and faster
time. However, the breaststrokers must bring their
heads up at the completion of each cycle. In
addition, a key hole pull in the breaststroke start
and turns has been added to help speed up the
stroke. There have been some other changes
added recently[when?] as well. Now off the start and
turns, breaststrokers are allowed one butterfly kick
to help increase their speed. Backstrokers are now
allowed to turn on their stomachs before the wall in
order to perform a "flip-turn". Previously, they had
to reach and flip backwards and a variation of it,
known as a "bucket turn" or a "suicide turn", is
sometimes used in individual medley events to
transition from backstroke to breaststroke.

Records[edit]
The foundation of FINA in 1908 signaled the
commencement of recording the first official world
records in swimming.[31] At that time records could
be established in any swimming pool of length not
less than 25 yards, and records were also
accepted for intermediate distance split times from
long distance events. Today World Records will
only be accepted when times are reported by
Automatic Officiating Equipment, or Semi-
Automatic Officiating Equipment in the case of
Automatic Officiating Equipment system
malfunction.[32]
Records in events such as 300 yd, 300 m,
1000 yd, and 1000 m freestyle, 400 m backstroke,
and 400 m and 500 m breaststroke were no longer
ratified from 1948. A further removal of the 500 yd
and 500 m freestyle, 150 m backstroke, and
 3×100 m medley relay from the record listings
occurred in 1952.
In 1952, the national federations of the United
States and Japan proposed at the FINA Congress
the separation of records achieved in long-course
and short-course pools, however it was four more
years before action came into effect with the
Congress deciding to retain only records held in
50 m pools as the official world record listings.
By 1969 there were thirty-one events in which
FINA recognised official world records – 16 for
men, 15 for women – closely resembling the event
schedule that was in use at the Olympic Games.
The increase in accuracy and reliability of
electronic timing equipment led to the introduction
of hundredths of a second to the time records from
21 August 1972.
Records in short course (25 m) pools began to be
officially approved as "short course world records"
from 3 March 1991. Prior to this date, times in
short course (25 m) pools were not officially
recognised, but were regarded a "world best time"
(WBT). From 31 October 1994 times in 50 m
backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly were added
to the official record listings.
FINA currently recognises world records in the
following events for both men and women.[33]

 Freestyle: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 800 m,

1500 m
 Backstroke: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m
 Breaststroke: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m
 Butterfly: 50 m, 100 m, 200 m
 Individual medley: 100 m (short course
only), 200 m, 400 m
 Relays: 4×50 m freestyle relay (short course
only), 4×100 m freestyle, 4×200 m
freestyle, 4×50 m medley relay (short course
only), 4×100 m medley
 Mixed relays (teams of two men and two
women): 4×50 m mixed freestyle (short course
only), 4×100 m mixed freestyle (long course
only), 4×50 m mixed medley (short course
only), 4×100 m mixed medley (long course
only)
 Michael Phelps. Most people will take it as no surprise that we’ve deemed Phelps the top
swimmer of all time. Phelps is known for breaking the all-time record for the most Olympic
gold medals, with a total of 22 medals overall. Now considered the most famous Olympic
swimmer of all time, Phelps is also the long course world record holder for the 100-meter
butterfly, 200-meter butterfly and 400-meter individual medley.
 Mark Spitz. Also known as Mark the Shark, Spitz is a retired American swimmer who won
seven gold medals in the 1972 Munich Olympic games. This achievement has only been
surpassed by Michael Phelps, who won eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympics. Spize was
named World Swimmer of the Year in 1969, 1971, and 1972.
 Matt Biondi. Amazingly, Biondi did not start swimming year-round until he entered high
school. By the end of high school, he had the national high school record in the 50-yard
freestyle. He’s an 11-time Olympic medalist who is remembered for pushing the era of true
professional swimming.
 Bob Bowman. The man behind the legend, Bowman coached Michael Phelps to his 22
Olympic medals. His impact on high-level swimmers is truly immeasurable. He has been
named the greatest swimming coach of all time and created his own brand.
 Janet Evans. One of the most accomplished female distance swimmers of all time, Evans
was setting national records by age 11. She broke world records in several freestyle
categories and has shown the power of female athletes in the sport.
 Ian Thorpe. Nicknamed the Thorpedo, Thorpe is a retired Australian freestyle swimmer. He
was the first person to win six gold medals in one world championship, and has won 11 world
championship golds, which is the second-highest of any swimmer. He is one of Australia’s
most popular athletes.
 Debbie Meyer. Meyer is a former American swimmer who won three swimming events in the
1968 summer Olympics in Mexico City, while still a high school student in Sacramento,
California. She is famous for her young age of winning medals and becoming the first
swimmer to win three gold medals in one Olympics.
 Dara Torres. Torres is the only swimmer to represent the U.S. in five Olympics games. She
is one of the most famous female swimmers and has been named one of the “Top Female
Athletes of the Decade” by Sports Illustrated. She has blazed the trail for many women in the
swimming community.
 Fran Crippen. This long-distance swimmer had an amazing career but is also known for a
tragic death that brought attention to the marathon swimming community. Crippen died
during a race in The United Arab Emirates, where the temperature was 100 degrees and the
water was 87 degrees. This changed regulations and brought greater safety for athletes in
the sport.
 Johnny Weissmuller.
 First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from a
serious illness or injury,[1] with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening,
or to promote recovery. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional
medical help being available, such as performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) while
awaiting for an ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as applying
a plaster to a cut. First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical training. Mental
health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover mental health.
There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation,
regulation, or guidance which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain
circumstances. This can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such
as an automated external defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings,
or mandatory first aid training within schools. First aid, however, does not necessarily require any
particular equipment or prior knowledge, and can involve improvisation with materials available at
the time, often by untrained people.[2]
First aid can be performed on all mammals, although this article relates to the care of human
patients.

Contents

 1Early history and warfare

o 1.1Formalization of life saving treatments
 2Aims
o 2.1Preserve life
o 2.2Prevent further harm
o 2.3Promote recovery
 3Key skills
o 3.1Preserving life
 4Training
o 4.1Types of first aid which require training
 5First aid services
 6Symbols
 7Conditions that often require first aid
o 7.1First aid kits
o 7.2Contents
 8References
 9External links

Early history and warfare[edit]

Skills of what is now known as first aid have been recorded throughout history, especially in relation
to warfare, where the care of both traumatic and medical cases is required in particularly large
numbers. The bandaging of battle wounds is shown on Classical Greek pottery from c. 500 BCE,
whilst the parable of the Good Samaritan includes references to binding or dressing wounds.[3]There
are numerous references to first aid performed within the Roman army, with a system of first aid
supported by surgeons, field ambulances, and hospitals.[4] Roman legions had the specific role of
capsarii, who were responsible for first aid such as bandaging, and are the forerunners of the
modern combat medic.[5]
Further examples occur through history, still mostly related to battle, with examples such as
the Knights Hospitaller in the 11th century CE, providing care to pilgrims and knights in the Holy
Land.[6]

Formalization of life saving treatments[edit]

During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a major concern amongst the
population. In 1767, a society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was started
in Amsterdam, and in 1773, physician William Hawes began publicizing the power of artificial
respiration as means of resuscitation of those who appeared drowned. This led to the formation, in
1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal Humane
Society, who did much to promote resuscitation.[7][8]
Napoleon's surgeon, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps
(the ambulance volantes), which included medical assistants, tasked to administer first aid in battle.
In 1859 Jean-Henri Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, and his work led to the
formation of the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of "aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the
field".[6] The Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid worldwide.[9]

Esmarch bandage showing soldiers how to perform first aid

In 1870, Prussian military surgeon Friedrich von Esmarch introduced formalized first aid to the
military, and first coined the term "erste hilfe" (translating to 'first aid'), including training for soldiers
in the Franco-Prussian War on care for wounded comrades using pre-learnt bandaging and splinting
skills, and making use of the Esmarch bandage which he designed.[3] The bandage was issued as
standard to the Prussian combatants, and also included aide-memoire pictures showing common
uses.
In 1872, the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in England changed its focus from hospice care, and
set out to start a system of practical medical help, starting with making a grant towards the
establishment of the UK's first ambulance service. This was followed by creating its own wheeled
transport litter in 1875 (the St John Ambulance), and in 1877 established the St John Ambulance
Association (the forerunner of modern-day St John Ambulance) "to train men and women for the
benefit of the sick and wounded".[10]
Also in the UK, Surgeon-Major Peter Shepherd had seen the advantages of von Esmarch's new
teaching of first aid, and introduced an equivalent programme for the British Army, and so being the
first user of "first aid for the injured" in English, disseminating information through a series of
lectures. Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the newly
charitable focus of St John,[3] and established the concept of teaching first aid skills to civilians. The
first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich (near Woolwich
barracks where Shepherd was based) using a comprehensive first aid curriculum.
First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St John,
often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways.[11]

Aims[edit]
The primary goal of first aid is to prevent death or serious injury from worsening. The key aims of
first aid can be summarized in three key points, sometimes known as 'the three Ps':[12]

Preserve life[edit]
The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid, is to save lives and minimize the
threat of death.

Prevent further harm[edit]

Prevent further harm also sometimes called prevent the condition from worsening, or danger of
further injury, this covers both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of
harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying
pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous.

Promote recovery[edit]
First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury,and in some
cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a small
wound.
It is important to note that first aid is not medical treatment and cannot be compared with what a
trained medical professional provides. First aid involves making common sense decisions in best
interest of an injured person.

Key skills[edit]

In case of tongue fallen backwards, blocking the airway, it is necessary to hyperextend the head and pull up the
chin, so that the tongue lifts and clears the airway.

Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously.
Particularly the "ABC"s of first aid, which focus on critical life-saving intervention, must be rendered
before treatment of less serious injuries. ABC stands for Airway, Breathing, and Circulation.[13] The
same mnemonic is used by all emergency health professionals. Attention must first be brought to
the airway to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-threatening emergency. Following
evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and
provide rescue breathing if necessary. Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for
patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions
(and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients.
Some organizations add a fourth step of "D" for Deadly bleeding or Defibrillation, while others
consider this as part of the Circulation step simply referred as Disability. Variations on techniques to
evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider. Once the ABCs are
secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments or examination, as required if they possess the
proper training (such as measuring pupil dilation).[14] Some organizations teach the same order of
priority using the "3Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, and Bones (or "4Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, Burns,
and Bones). While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions
may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously. This includes the provision of
both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse,
and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway.

Preserving life[edit]
To save a person's life, you need to have an open airway so it makes a clear passage where air can
go through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down into the lungs, without
obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are
unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of
the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning.
If the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally then place them in the recovery position,
with the patient leant over on their side, which also has the effect of clearing the tongue from
the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on
regurgitated stomach contents.
The airway can also become blocked through a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or
larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this through a combination
of ‘back slaps’ and ‘abdominal thrusts’.
Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if the patient is breathing. If
there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally, such as agonal breathing, the first
aider would undertake what is probably the most recognized first aid procedure—CPR, which
involves breathing for the patient, and manually massaging the heart to promote blood flow around
the body.
If the chocking person is an infant, the aide will give five strong blows in the infant’s upper back by
placing the infant’s face down on his forearm. The aide will be taught not to provide first aid if the
infant is able to cough or cry. Coughing and crying indicate the airway is open and the foreign object
will likely to come out from the force the coughing or crying produce [15]
The first responder also will be educated on how to perform CPR along with using Automatic
External Defibrillation (AED) for a person who is having a sudden cardiac arrest. Survival rate in
people who had cardiac arrest outside of hospital is low. The lack of oxygen supply to the brain for
five minutes will cause permanent brain damage, so quick action is very important to save the
person’s life. AED is a device that examine a heartbeat and give shock to restart the heart. AEDs
were developed to allow first responders to successfully deliver shocks after seeing diagrams and
auditory instructions of the device[16]
The first aider is also likely to be trained in dealing with injuries such as cuts, grazes or bone
fracture. They may be able to deal with the situation in its entirety (a small adhesive bandage on a
paper cut), or may be required to maintain the condition of something like a broken bone, until the
next stage of definitive care (usually an ambulance) arrives.

Training[edit]
First aid scenario training in progress

Basic principles, such as knowing the use of adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a
bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences. However, to provide effective, life-
saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training. This is especially true where it
relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require CPR; these procedures
may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider. As with any
training, it is more useful if it occurs before an actual emergency, and in many countries, emergency
ambulance dispatchers may give basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is
on the way.
Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular
changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill,
attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary. First aid training is
often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or
through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee. This commercial training is most
common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many community
organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes.

Types of first aid which require training[edit]

There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which require specific additional training. These
are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken.

 Aquatic/Marine first aid is usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards,

professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be faced
after water-based rescue or delayed MedEvac.
 Battlefield first aid takes into account the specific needs of treating
wounded combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict.
 Hyperbaric first aid may be practiced by underwater diving professionals, who need to treat
conditions such as decompression sickness.
 Oxygen first aid is the providing of oxygen to casualties who suffer from conditions resulting
in hypoxia. It is also a standard first aid procedure for underwater diving incidents where gas
bubble formation in the tissues is possible.
 Wilderness first aid is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency
responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain,
weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person
for several hours or days.
 Mental health first aid is taught independently of physical first aid. How to support someone
experiencing a mental health problem or in a crisis situation. Also how to identify the first signs
of someone developing mental ill health and guide people towards appropriate help.

First aid services[edit]

First aider of the British Red Crossaccompanies parade of morris dancers at the Knutsford Royal May Day
2012

Some people undertake specific training in order to provide first aid at public or private events,
during filming, or other places where people gather. They may be designated as a first aider, or use
some other title. This role may be undertaken on a voluntary basis, with organisations such as the
Red Cross and St John Ambulance, or as paid employment with a medical contractor
People performing a first aid role, whether in a professional or voluntary capacity, are often expected
to have a high level of first aid training and are often uniformed.

Symbols[edit]
Further information: Emblems of the Red Cross § Use of the emblems
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective
symbol of the Red Cross. According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the
use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the International Red Cross and
Red Crescent, and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations.
Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution.
The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown
below.
Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by
ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta
Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance. Other symbols may also be used.
 

ISO First Aid Symbol

St. Andrew's First AidBadge

Emblem of the Red Cross

Maltese or Amalfi Cross

Star of Life
 

Civil defense

Conditions that often require first aid[edit]

Also see medical emergency.

 Altitude sickness, which can begin in susceptible people at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can
cause potentially fatal swelling of the brain or lungs.[17]
 Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening condition in which the airway can become constricted and the
patient may go into shock. The reaction can be caused by a systemic allergic reaction
to allergens such as insect bites or peanuts. Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection
of epinephrine.
 Battlefield first aid—This protocol refers to treating shrapnel, gunshot wounds, burns, bone
fractures, etc. as seen either in the ‘traditional’ battlefield setting or in an area subject to damage
by large-scale weaponry, such as a bomb blast.
 Bone fracture, a break in a bone initially treated by stabilizing the fracture with a splint.
 Burns, which can result in damage to tissues and loss of body fluids through the burn site.
 Cardiac Arrest, which will lead to death unless CPR preferably combined with an AED is started
within minutes. There is often no time to wait for the emergency services to arrive as 92 percent
of people suffering a sudden cardiac arrest die before reaching hospital according to the
American Heart Association.
 Choking, blockage of the airway which can quickly result in death due to lack of oxygen if the
patient’s trachea is not cleared, for example by the Heimlich Maneuver.
 Childbirth.
 Cramps in muscles due to lactic acid build up caused either by inadequate oxygenation of
muscle or lack of water or salt.
 Diving disorders, drowning or asphyxiation.[18]
 Gender-specific conditions, such as dysmenorrhea and testicular torsion.
 Heart attack, or inadequate blood flow to the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle.
 Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or hyperthermia, which tends to occur during heavy
exercise in high humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may occur spontaneously in some
chronically ill persons. Sunstroke, especially when the victim has been unconscious, often
causes major damage to body systems such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric
tract. Unconsciousness for more than two hours usually leads to permanent disability.
Emergency treatment involves rapid cooling of the patient.
 Hair tourniquet a condition where a hair or other thread becomes tied around a toe or finger
tightly enough to cut off blood flow.
 Heat syncope, another stage in the same process as heat stroke, occurs under similar
conditions as heat stroke and is not distinguished from the latter by some authorities.
 Heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually and later with a pressure bandage) to
the wound site and elevating the limb if possible.
 Hyperglycemia (diabetic coma) and Hypoglycemia (insulin shock).
 Hypothermia, or Exposure, occurs when a person’s core body temperature falls below 33.7 °C
(92.6 °F). First aid for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming, which can be achieved
by wrapping the affected person in a blanket, and providing warm drinks, such as soup, and high
energy food, such as chocolate.[19] However, rewarming a severely hypothermic person could
result in a fatal arrhythmia, an irregular heart rhythm.[20]
 Insect and animal bites and stings.
 Joint dislocation.
 Poisoning, which can occur by injection, inhalation, absorption, or ingestion.
 Seizures, or a malfunction in the electrical activity in the brain. Three types of seizures include a
grand mal (which usually features convulsions as well as temporary respiratory abnormalities,
change in skin complexion, etc.) and petit mal (which usually features twitching, rapid blinking,
or fidgeting as well as altered consciousness and temporary respiratory abnormalities).
 Muscle strains and Sprains, a temporary dislocation of a joint that immediately reduces
automatically but may result in ligament damage.
 Stroke, a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain.
 Toothache, which can result in severe pain and loss of the tooth but is rarely life-threatening,
unless over time the infection spreads into the bone of the jaw and starts osteomyelitis.
 Wounds and bleeding, including lacerations, incisions and abrasions, Gastrointestinal
bleeding, avulsions and Sucking chest wounds, treated with an occlusive dressing to let air out
but not in.
Many accidents can happen at home, office, schools, laboratories etc. which require immediate
attention before the patient is attended by the doctor.

First aid kits[edit]

A first aid kit consists of a strong, durable bag or transparent plastic box. They are commonly
identified with a white cross on a green background. A first aid kit does not have to be bought ready-
made. The advantage of ready-made first aid kits are that they have well organized compartments
and familiar layouts.