Lecture Notes

on

Flexible Manufacturing System

(ETMT-428)

By-

Nitesh Kumar Agrhari

(Asst. Prof.)

Delhi Technical Campus

Greater Noida
 History of FMS

At the turn of the century FMS did not exist. There was not a big enough need for efficiency
because the markets were national and there was no foreign competition. Manufacturers could
tell the consumers what to buy. Henry Ford is quoted as saying people can order any color of
car as long as it is black. This was the thinking of many big manufacturers of the time. After the
Second World War a new era in manufacturing was to come. The discovery of new materials and
production techniques increased quality and productivity. The wars end open foreign markets
and new competition. Now the market focused on consumer and not the manufacturer. The first
FMS was patent in 1965by Theo Williamson who made numerically controlled equipment.

Examples of numerically controlled equipment are like a CNC lathes or mills which is called
varying types of FMS. In the 70ths manufacturers could not stay to date with the ever-growing
technological knowledge manufacturers competitors have, so FMS became mainstream in
manufacturing.

In the 80ths for the first time manufacturers had to take in consideration efficiency, quality, and
flexibility to stay in business.
 Introduction

A Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a production system consisting of a set of identical

and/or complementary numerically controlled machine which are connected through an
automated transportation system.

Or we can say FMS is actually an automated set of numerically controlled machine tools and
material handling systems, capable of performing a wide range manufacturing operations with
quick tooling and instruction changeovers.

Flexibility measures the ability to adapt “to a wide range of possible environment”. To be
flexible, a manufacturing system must possess the following capabilities:

i. Identification of the different production units to perform the correct operation.

ii. Quick changeover of operating instructions to the computer controlled production
machines
iii. Quick changeover of physical setups of fixtures, tools and other working units

The term flexible manufacturing system, or FMS, refers to a highly automated GT machine cell,
consisting of a group of computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools and supporting
workstations, interconnected by an automated material handling and storage system, and all
controlled by a distributed computer system. The reason, the FMS is called flexible, is that it is
capable of processing a variety of different part styles simultaneously with the quick tooling and
instruction changeovers. Also, quantities of productions can be adjusted easily to changing
demand patterns.

Each process in FMS is controlled by a dedicated computer (FMS cell computer).

By implementing the components of robotics, manufacturing technology & computer

integrated manufacturing in correct order one can achieve a successful Flexible Manufacturing
System.

Basic component of FMS:

There are several basic components of an FMS. In the following segment, a framework for
understanding the components of an FMS is presented. A flexible manufacturing system consists
of two subsystems:

 Physical subsystem
 Control subsystem
Physical subsystem includes the following elements:
 1. Workstations. It consists of NC machines, machine-tools, inspection equipments,
loading and unloading operation, and machining area.
  2. Storage-retrieval systems. It acts as a buffer during WIP (work-in-processes) and
holds devices such as carousels used to store parts temporarily between work stations or
operations.
 3. Material handling systems. It consists of power vehicles, conveyers, automated
guided vehicles (AGVs), and other systems to carry parts between workstations.
Control subsystem comprises of following elements:
 1. Control hardware. It consists of mini and micro computers, programmable logic
controllers, communication networks, switching devices and others peripheral devices
such as printers and mass storage memory equipments to enhance the working capability
of the FMS systems.
 2. Control software. It is a set of files and programs that are used to control the physical
subsystems. The efficiency of FMS totally depends upon the compatibility of control
hardware and control software.

Basic features of the physical components of an FMS are discussed below:

1. Numerical control machine tools: Machine tools are considered to be the major
building blocks of an FMS as they determine the degree of flexibility and capabilities of
the FMS. Some of the features of machine tools are described below-
 The majority of FMSs use horizontal and vertical spindle machines. However,
machining centers with vertical spindle machines have lesser flexibility than
horizontal machining centers.
 Machining centers have numerical control on movements made in all directions e.g.
spindle movement in x, y, and z directions, rotation of tables, tilting of table etc to
ensure the high flexibility.
The machining centers are able to perform a wide variety of operations e.g. turning, drilling,
contouring etc. They consist of the pallet exchangers interfacing with material handling devices
that carry the pallets within and between machining centers as well as automated storage and
retrieval systems.
2. Work holding and tooling considerations- It includes pallets/fixtures, tool changers,
tool identification systems, coolant, and chip removal systems. It has the following
features:
 Before machining is started on the parts, they are mounted on fixtures. So, fixtures must
be designed in a way, to minimize part-handling time. Modular fixturing has come up as
an attractive method to fixture a variety of parts quickly.
 The use of automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) and material handling
systems such as AGVs, lead to high usage of fixtures.
 All the machining centers are well equipped with tool storage systems called tool
magazines. Duplication of the most often used tools in the tool magazines is allowed to
ensure the least non-operational time. Moreover, employment of quick tool changers, tool
regrinders and provision of spares also help for the same.
3. Material-Handling Equipments- The material-handling equipments used in flexible
manufacturing systems include robots, conveyers, automated guided vehicle systems,
monorails and other rail guided vehicles, and other specially designed vehicles. There
important features are:
 They are integrated with the machine centers and the storage and retrieval systems.
  For prismatic part material handling systems are accompanied with modular pallet
fixtures. For rotational parts industrial robots are used to load/unload the turning
machine and to move parts between stations.
 The handling system must be capable of being controlled directly by the computer
system to direct it the various work station, load/unload stations and storage area.
4. Inspection equipments- It includes coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) used for
offline inspection and programmed to measure dimensions, concentricity,
perpendicularity, and flatness of surfaces. The distinguishing feature of this equipment is
that it is well integrated with the machining centers.
5. Other components- It includes a central coolant and efficient chip separation system.
Their features are:
 The system must be capable of recovering the coolant.
 The combination of parts, fixtures, and pallets must be cleaned properly to
remove dirt and chips before operation and inspection.
TYPES OF FMS:
Flexible manufacturing systems can be divided into various types depending upon their features.
They all are discussed below-

i. DEPENDING UPON KINDS OF OPERATION: Flexible manufacturing system

can be distinguished depending upon the kinds of operation they perform:
a. Processing operation. Such operation transforms a work material from one state to
another moving towards the final desired part or product. It adds value by changing the
geometry, properties or appearance of the starting materials.
b. Assembly operation. It involves joining of two or more component to create a new
entity which is called an assembly/subassembly. Permanent joining processes include
welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, rivets, press fitting, and expansion fits.

ii. DEPENDING UPON NUMBER OF MACHINES:

a. Single machine cell (SMC). It consists of a fully automated machine capable of
unattended operations for a time period longer than one machine cycle. It is capable of
processing different part styles, responding to changes in production schedule, and
accepting new part introductions. In this case processing is sequential not simultaneous.
b. Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC). It consists of two or three processing workstation
and a part handling system. The part handling system is connected to a load/unload
station. It is capable of simultaneous production of different parts.
c. A Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). It has four or more processing work stations
(typically CNC machining centers or turning centers) connected mechanically by a
common part handling system and automatically by a distributed computer system. It also
includes non-processing work stations that support production but do not directly
participate in it. E.g. part / pallet washing stations, co-ordinate measuring machines.
These features significantly differentiate it from Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC).
Comparison for three categories of FMS

AN EXAMPLE OF FMS
 Introduction to Automation

Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for
human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of industrialization,
automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human operators
with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly
decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.

Or It is a technology dealing with the application of-

 Mechatronics
 Computers

For production of goods and services.

The main objectives of Automation Control System used in the industry are:

a. To increase productivity
b. To improve quality of the product
c. Control production cost

Automation is broadly classified into:

 Manufacturing automation
 Service automation

Example of Automation:

 Automatic machine tools to process parts-CNC m/c

 Industrial robots
 Automatic material handling
 Feedback control systems

Types of Automation

i. Fixed automation

ii. Programmable automation

iii. Flexible automation

i. Fixed/Permanent/Hard Automation: Fixed automation refers to the use of special

purpose equipment to automate a fixed sequence of processing or assembly
operations. Each of the operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps
a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of two. It is
 relatively difficult to accommodate changes in the product design. This is called hard
automation.
 This control system is designed to perform a specific task
 Functions of control circuit are fixed and permanent.
 It will be complicated if we want to do other task apart from the existing task
 High production rates, inflexible product design

ii. Programmable Automation: Programmable automation equipment designed to

accommodate a specific class of product changes in this automation. When the task
to be performed by machines changed, changes only need to be done by making
modifications to the machine control program. It is being used for batch production,
medium volume.
iii. Flexible Automation: It is designed to manufacture a variety of products or parts.
Low production rates, varying product design and demand

Comparison between Fixed and Flexible Automation System

HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM

1. Pallets and fixtures

2. Machining centers

3. Robots

4. Inspection equipment

5. Chip removal system

6. In process storage facility

7. Material handling systems

LAYOUT CONFIGURATIONS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

SYSTEM:

“Flexible manufacturing system brings rewards in actual manufacture of products

as the process is designed for several products to be run on different machines
within a manufacturing facility which allows for greater growth and stability with
more diversity in the output. A Flexible manufacturing system is designed to
provide an effective operation sequence to fulfill the production requirements and
reasonably allocate the resources. The objectives of the system are to shorten the
throughput time and reduce the resource requirements which include avoiding
deadlock in material flow, decreasing in process inventory, balancing the workload
of all machines and make good use of the bottleneck devices.

Line layout:

“An Automated guided vehicle is most efficient when the movement is in straight-
lines along the AGV path in a single-row machine layout. Machines are arranged
only on one side of AGV path, and in double row machine layout, machines are
arranged on both sides. A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in fig.”
 Line Layout

Loop layout
“The loop layout uses conveyor systems that allow unidirectional flow of parts
around the loop. A secondary material handling system is provided at a
workstation which permits the flow of parts without any obstruction. A possible
arrangement of this layout is shown in fig below

Loop Layout

Ladder type layout

“Ladder type layout consists of rungs on which workstations are located. This
reduces the average travel distance thereby reducing the transfer time between
workstations.
A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in fig below.
Carousel layout
“In the Carousel layout configuration, parts flow in one direction around the loop.
The load, unload stations are placed at one end of loop, A possible arrangement of
this layout is shown in fig

Robot centered cell

If a handling robot is used in a Flexible manufacturing system cell, the machines

are laid out in a circle, such a layout is called circular layout. A possible
arrangement of this layout is shown in fig.
The open field layout
“The open field layout is also an adoption of the loop configuration.
The open field layout consists of loops and ladders organized to achieve the
desired processing requirements. This is used for the processing of a large family
of parts. The number of different machines may be limited and the parts are routed
to different workstations depending on availability of machines. A possible
arrangement of this layout is shown in fig
 SCHEDULING OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Introduction to FMS scheduling

“Scheduling is a method of totaling start and finish time data to the job sequencing
dictated in the sequencing process. Sequencing process in turn, is defined as
getting the order in which jobs are processed on a machine. The sequence thus
obtained determines the schedule, since authors assume each job is started on the
machine as soon as the job has finished all predecessor operations and the machine
has completed all earlier jobs in the sequences. This is referred to as a semi-active
schedule and acts as an optimal policy for minimizing the completion time, flow
time, lateness, tardiness, and other measures of performance. Scheduling problems
are often denoted by N/ M/ F/ P, where N is the number of jobs to be scheduled; M
is the number of machines; F refers to the job flow pattern and P is performance
measures that are to be appropriately minimized or maximized. The solution of
scheduling problems is generally presented in the form of gantt-chart which is
plotted between different work centers and total processing time on that work
center.”
“Flexible material-handling systems for manufacturing have the capability of
moving articles or carrying materials between process stations in different
sequences. The traditional method for controlling the routing of carriers is to
determine, in advance , all of the useful paths within the system , and store the
information in a central computer until needed.”
Flexible manufacturing system scheduling could be considered as a static
scheduling problem where a fixed set of orders are to be scheduled either using
optimization or priority scheduling heuristics.
Alternatively this could also be viewed as a dynamic scheduling problem where
orders arrive periodically for scheduling as daily orders are released from a
material requirement planning system or as individual customer’s orders. For these
types of scheduling performance criteria minimizing the make span or the mean
order lateness and tardiness are usually considered.”
“Under both types of scheduling problems, three different scheduling and control
decisions are taken while managing day-to-day operations.
i. When to load a part into FMS?
ii. Which type of part to be loaded into FMS?
iii. Dispatching of part.”

“For the first decision, factors such as system congestion and part fixture
availability are considered. The second decision concerns choosing the type of part
to enter the FMS at the loading station when it is time for a new part to enter the
system, considering such factors as part characteristics and machine workload
conditions. The dispatching decision is depend on routing parts through the FMS at
the time of actual production, and also sequencing parts at the individual machines
in an FMS.”

Functions of scheduling:
To design an effective production scheduling system, the following functions must
be carried out in most systematic and efficient manner.
1. Assigning different jobs to different facilities after considering the feasibility
of allocation (loading).
2. Establishing a set of rules of priorities to sequence the activities on the
facilities (sequencing)
3. Dispatching job orders as per the schedule to initiate loading of jobs to
facilities.
Reviewing the status of jobs i.e., monitoring the achievement and the scheduling or
changing the priorities of the jobs to rectify the deviation.

Objectives of scheduling:
The objectives of FMS scheduling.
1. Achieving high efficiency of the operations by optimally utilizing machines
and equipment.
 2. Maintaining low inventories in process and raw materials.
3. Maintaining short flow time of products.
The objectives often become conflicting to each other and as such the scheduling
process involves a trade – off conflicting objectives such that proper balance is
obtained.””

Elements of scheduling
“Scheduling determines the timings and order of the operations to optimize the use
of resources to meet production requirements. The following are the elements of
scheduling.
a. Job arrival patterns
b. Number and variety of machines /operations
c. Ratio of workers to machines/operations
d. Flow pattern of jobs
e. Priority rules for allocating work”
Principles of scheduling
“In view of the direct equivalence between the workflow and cash flow, scheduling
should be done with utmost care .The following are the major principles of
scheduling.
i. Effectiveness should be measured by speed of workflow
ii. Scheduling jobs as a string with process step back
iii. A job started should not be interrupted
iv. Speed of flow is most efficiently achieved by focusing on bottlenecks
v. Reschedule every day
vi. Obtain feedback on each job at each work center every day
vii. Match the work center input information to that the worker can actually
do
viii. When seeking improvement in output, look for incompatibility between
engineering design and process execution
ix. Always work to attain certainty of standards and routings”

Scheduling priority rules

“A sample set of priority rules are presented below”. In this work, there are six
kinds of rules for operation selecting from the given allowed set.
1. Short Processing Time (SPT),
 Process the operation with minimum processing time.
2. Most Work Remaining (MWR),
 Process the operation among the tasks with the maximum total processing
time.
3. Random Selecting Rule,
 Select an operation from the giving allowed set with a random way.
4. Long Processing Time (LPT),
 Process the operation with maximal processing time.
5. Most Operation Remaining (MOR),
 Process the operation among the tasks with most remaining operation.
6. Earliest due date Rule (EDD) rule,
 The earliest due date rule minimizes the maximum job lateness, or job
tardiness, but unfortunately it tends to need more tasks and increased the
mean tardiness.
 UNIT III
High Volume Production System
Assembly Systems and Line Balancing

Automated Assembly –

The use of mechanized and automated devices to perform the various assembly tasks in an
assembly line or cell”.
Assembly involves the joining together of two or more separate parts to form new entity which
may be assembly or subassembly. Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and
automated devices to perform the various functions in an assembly line or cell.
Automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated operations to combine multiple
components in to a single entity which can be a final product or sub assembly. Automated
assembly technology should be considered when the following condition exists-
 High product demand
 Stable product design
 The assembly consists of no more than a limited number of components.
The product is designed for automated assembly. Automated assembly system involves less
investment compared to transfer lines because 1. Work part produced are smaller in size
compared to transfer lines. 2. Assembly operations do not have the large mechanical forces and
power requirement 3. Size is very less compared to transfer lines.

TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS:

Assembly Systems:
Based on physical configuration:
1. Dial-type assembly machine
2. In-line assembly machine
3. Carousel assembly system
4. Single-station assembly machine

1. The dial-type machine, the base partare indexed around a circular table or dial. The
workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the dial.
The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or positioned, in turn, at each
station a new component is added to base part. This type of equipment is often referred to
as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is shown in Figure 1
and example of six station rotary shown in table below.
2. In-line type configuration: The in-line configuration assembly system consists of a
sequence of workstations in a more-or-less straight-line arrangement as shown in figure
3. An example of an in-line transfer machine used for metal-cutting operations is
illustrated in Figure 4. The in-line assembly machine consists of a series of automatic
workstations located along an in-line transfer system. It is the automated version of the
manual assembly line. Continuous, synchronous, or asynchronous transfer systems can be
used with the in line configuration.
3. Carousel assembly system: “A hybrid between circular work flow of dial indexing machine
and straight work flow of in-line system.

4. Single-Station Assembly: “Assembly operations are performed on a base part at a single

location” A robot is sometimes used as the assembly machine.
 Multi-Station vs. Single-Station
Multi-station assembly machine or line:
 Faster cycle rate
 High production quantities
 More operations possible
 More components per assembly

Single-station assembly cell

 Suited to robotic assembly
 Intended for lower production quantities

Parts Delivery at Workstations

Typical parts delivery system at a workstation consists of the following hardware components:
i. Hopper - container for parts
 ii. Parts feeder - removes parts from hopper
iii. Selector and/or orientor - to assure part is in proper orientation for assembly at
workhead
iv. Feed track - moves parts to assembly workhead
v. Escapement and placement device - removes parts from feed track and places them at
station

Automated production or Transfer Lines:

An automated production system or transfer line is specialized manufacturing system that can be
used for a variety of purposes one of which is automated assembly. A transfer line typically has
four major components:
i. Machine Tools
ii. Assembly machines
iii. Conveyor System
iv. Loading & Unloading equipments

A transfer line used for an automated assembly setting would handle parts fed into the system
oriented, machined inspected, assembled and unloaded in continuous operation by central
supervisory computer.

Classification of Transfer Lines:

With respect to arrangement of equipments of, transfer lines are divided into-
i. Closed Loop transfer line: It may be circular or rectangular. Circular transfer line, for
example, rotary transfer machines, features a small no. of stations and a rotary
indexing table.
ii. Open loop transfer lines: Most transfer lines have an open loop arrangements such as
straight Line (In Line), L-shaped, U-shaped, W-shaped & zigzag.
The kind of work piece & sequence of operations in a manufacturing process are the key factors
which determines the type of transfer line.
Applications:
 Transfer lines used for machining
 Robotic spot welding lines in automotive final assembly
 Sheet metal stamping
 Electroplating of metals
 High product demand
Requires large production quantities
 Stable product design
Difficult to change the sequence and content of processing operations once the line is
built
 Long product life
At least several years
 Multiple operations required on product
The different operations are assigned to different workstations in the line
 Low direct labor content
 Low product cost
 High production rates
 Production lead time and work-in-process are minimized
 Factory floor space is minimized
 Rotary Indexing Machine

METHODS OF WORKPART TRANSPORT

The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially completed
workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient and locate the parts in the
correct position for processing at each station. The general methods of transporting workpieces
on flow lines can be classified into the following three categories:
i. Continuous transfer
ii. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
iii. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer
The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on such factors as:
 The types of operation to be performed
 The number of stations on the line
 The weight and size of the work parts
 Whether manual stations are included on the line
 Production rate requirements
 Balancing the various process times on the line
i. Continuous transfer: With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are
moved continuously at Constant speed. This requires the workheads to move during
processing in order to maintain continuous registration with the workparts. For some
types of operations, this movement of the workheads during processing is not
feasible. It would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining
transfer line because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the workheads.
In other cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are in
 beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where the
human operator can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple automatic
assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are transported
around a continuously rotating drum. Beverage is discharged into the moving bottles
by spouts located at the drum's periphery. The advantage of this application is that the
liquid beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence there are no inertia
problems.
Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and can
achieve a high rate of production.
ii. Intermittent transfer: As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are
transported with an intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed
in position and the parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper
locations for processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for this
reason, the term "synchronous transfer system" is also used to describe this method of
workpart transport.
iii. Asynchronous transfer: This system of transfer, also referred to as a "power-and-
free system," allows each workparts to move to the next station when processing at
the current station has been completed. Each part moves independently of other parts.
Hence, some parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others are
being transported between stations.
Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the
other two systems, and this flexibility can be a great advantage in certain
circumstances. In-process storage of workparts can be incorporated into the
asynchronous systems with relative ease. Power-and-free systems can also
compensate for line balancing problems where there are significant differences in
process times between stations. Parallel stations or several series stations can be used
for the longer operations, and single stations can be used for the shorter operations.
Therefore, the average production rates can be approximately equalized.
Asynchronous lines are often used where there are one or more manually operated
stations and cycle-time variations would be a problem on either the continuous or
synchronous transport systems. Larger workparts can be handled on the asynchronous
systems. A disadvantage of the power-and-free systems is that the cycle rates are
generally slower than for the other types.
 TRANSFER MECHANISMS
(Page no. 118 from Dr. K. C. Jain book)

There are various types of transfer mechanisms used to move parts between stations. These
mechanisms can be grouped into two types: those used to provide linear travel for in-line
machines, and those used to provide rotary motion for dial indexing machines.
A. Linear transfer mechanisms: We will explain the operation of three of the typical
mechanisms; the walking beam transfer bar system, the powered roller conveyor
system, and the chain-drive conveyor system. This is not a complete listing of all
types, but it is a representative sample.
i. Walking beam systems: With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work-parts
are lifted up from their workstation locations by a transfer bar and moved one
position ahead, to the next station. The transfer bar then lowers the pans into nests
which position them more accurately for processing. This type of transfer device is
illustrated in Figure 1. For speed and accuracy, the motion of the beam is most often
generated by a rotating camshaft powered by an electric motor or a roller movement
in a profile powered by hydraulic cylinder. Figure 2 shows the working of the beam
mechanism.

.
Figure 1
 Figure 2: walking beam transfer system, showing various stages during transfer stage

ii. Powered roller conveyor system:

This type of system is used in general stock handling systems as well as in automated flow lines.
The conveyor can be used to move pans or pallets possessing flat riding surfaces. The rollers can
be powered by either of two mechanisms. The first is a belt drive, in which a flat moving belt
beneath the rollers provides the rotation of the rollers by friction. A chain drive is the second
common mechanism used to power the rollers. Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer
systems because they can be used to divert work pallets into workstations or alternate tracks.
 Figure 3: Power Conveyor

iii. Chain-drive conveyor system

In chain-drive conveyor system either a chain or a flexible steel belt is used to transport the work
carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an "over-and under" configuration, in which the
pulleys turn about a horizontal axis, or an "around-the-corner" configuration, in which the
pulleys rotate about a vertical axis.
 Figure 4: Chain drive conveyor transfer system.

This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or nonsynchronous
movement of workparts. In the nonsynchronous motion, the workparts are pulled by friction or
ride on an oil film along a track with the chain or belt providing the movement. It is necessary to
provide some sort of final location for the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations.

B. Rotary transfer mechanisms

There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal angular positions
corresponding to workstation locations.
i. Rack and pinion
This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed operation
often associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in Figure below and uses a
piston to drive the rack, which causes the pinion gear and attached indexing table to rotate, A
clutch or other device is used to provide rotation in the desired direction.

Figure: Rack and pinion mechanisms

ii. Ratchet and pawl:

A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while preventing
motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets consist of a gearwheel and a pivoting spring loaded
finger called a pawl that engages the teeth. Either the teeth, or the pawl, are slanted at an angle,
so that when the teeth are moving in one direction, the pawl slides up and over each tooth in turn,
with the spring forcing it back with a 'click' into the depression before the next tooth. When the
teeth are moving in the other direction, the angle of the pawl causes it to catch against a tooth
and stop further motion in that direction. This drive mechanism is shown in Figure below.
 Figure: Rachet and pawl mechanism

iii. Geneva mechanism:

The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into a rotational motion. The Geneva
mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as pictured in Figure below. If
the driven member has six slots for a six-station dial indexing machine, each turn of the driver
will cause the table to advance one-sixth of a turn. The driver only causes movement of the table
through a portion of its rotation. For a six-slotted driven member, 120° of a complete rotation of
the driver is used to index the table. The other 240° is dwell. For a four-slotted driven member,
the ratio would be 90° for index and 270° for dwell. The usual number of indexings per
revolution of the table is four, five, six, and eight.

Figure: Geneva mechanism

 (Numerical on Line balancing)

SELF STUDY FROM BOOK: Computerized line balancing methods

 Automated Material Movement

What is a material-handling system?

 A material-handling system can be simply defined as an integrated system involving such
activities as handling, storing, and controlling of materials.
 The word material has very broad meaning, covering all kinds of raw materials, work in 
process, subassemblies, and finished assemblies.
 The primary objective of using a material handling system is to ensure that the material in
the right amount is safely delivered to the desired destination at the right time and at
minimum cost.
 The material handling system is properly designed not only to ensure the minimum cost
and compatibility with other manufacturing equipment but also to meet safety concerns.

Principles of Material Handling:

Basic guidelines for designing and operating material-handling systems are as follows-
1. Orientation principle: study the system relationships thoroughly prior to preliminary planning
in order to identify existing methods and problems, physical and economic constraints, and to
establish future requirements and goals.
2. Planning principle: establish a plan to include basic requirements, desirable options, and
consideration of contingencies for all MH and storage activities.
3. System principle: integrate the handling and storage activities that are economically viable into
a coordinated system of operation including receiving, inspection, storage, production, assembly,
packaging, warehousing, shipping, and transportation.
4. Unit load principle: handle product in as large a unit load as practical.
5. Space utilization principle
6. Standardization principle
7. Ergonomic principle: recognize human capabilities and limitations
8. Energy principle
9. Ecology principle: minimize adverse effects on the environment when selecting MH
equipment ad procedures.
10. Mechanization principle: mechanize the handling process where feasible to increase
efficiency and economy in handling of materials.
11. Flexibility principle: use methods and equipment that can perform a variety of tasks under a
variety of operating conditions.
12. Simplification principle: simplify handling by eliminating, reducing, or combining
unnecessary movements and/or equipment.

Material Handling Equipment

 Industrial trucks include hand trucks such as two-wheeled, four-wheeled, hand lift, and
forklift and powered trucks such as forklift, tractor-trailer trains, industrial crane trucks,
and side loaders.
 Conveyors such as belt, chute, roller, wheel, slat, chain, bucket, trolley, tow, screw,
vibrating, and pneumatic.
 Monorails, hoists, and cranes such as bridge, gantry, tower, and stacker.
  Automated guided vehicle systems such as unit load carriers, towing, pallet trucks, fork
trucks, and assembly line.
 Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) such as unit load, mini-load, person-
on-board, deep lane, and storage carousel systems.

Automated guided vehicle systems (AGVs)

An automated guided vehicle system is a battery-powered driver-less vehicle with programming

capabilities for destination, path selection, and positioning.
 The AGVS belongs to a class of highly flexible, intelligent, and versatile material
handling systems used to transport materials from various loading locations to various
unloading locations throughout the facility.
 The components of an AGVS-
i. The vehicle. It is used to move the material within the system without a human operator.
ii. The guide path. It guides the vehicle to move along the path.
iii. The control unit. It monitors and directs system operations including feedback on moves,
inventory, and vehicle status.
iv. The computer interface. It interfaces with other computers and systems such as the
mainframe host computer, the automated storage and retrieval system, and the flexible
manufacturing system.

The type of AGVS:

1. AGVS towing vehicles: usually, towing applications involve the bulk movement of
product into and out of warehouse areas. Towing vehicles are better used for large
volumes with long moving distances of 1000 ft or more.
2. AGVS unit load transporters: are equipped with decks that permit transportation of an
individual unit load on board the vehicle. The deck can be powered or non-powered
roller, chain or belt deck, lift-and-lower type, or custom deck with multiple
compartments. Unit load transporters are often equipped with automatic load transfer and
normally used in warehousing and distribution systems where the guide path lengths are
relatively short but the volumes are high.
3. AGVS pallet trucks: are designed to lift, maneuver, and transport palletized loads. The
vehicle is used for picking up and dropping off loads from and to floor level, thus
eliminating the need for fixed load stands. It can be loaded and unloaded in automatically
or manually. For load transportation, the vehicle normally proceeds along the path to a
specific storage area destination, pulls off onto a spur, lowers the pallet forks to the floor,
pulls from the pallet, and then automatically returns empty to the loading area.
4. AGVS forklift trucks: has the ability to pick up and drop off palletized loads both at
floor level and on stands, and pickup height can be different from the drop-off height.
The vehicles can position its forks at any height so that conveyors or load stands with
different height in the material handling system can all be served. It is one of the most
expensive
5. AGVS types, so they are applied only in systems where full automation is required. A
system with these vehicles requires a more intricate path layout and a method for
 accurately positioning the loads on the floor or on stands. It also requires greater
discipline than other systems.
6. AGVS light-load transporters: They are used to handle small, light parts over a
moderate distance and to distribute the parts between storage and number of
workstations. They are designed to operate in areas with limited space.
7. AGVS assembly-line vehicles: are adaptations of the light-load transporter for
applications involving serial assembly processes. The guided vehicle carries major
subassemblies such motors, transmissions, or even automobiles. As the vehicle moves
from one station to the next, succeeding assembly operations are performed. The major
advantage of the AGVS assembly line is lower expense and ease of installation compared
with hard assembly lines. The line can easily be changed by adjusting the guide path if
necessary and by reprogramming.
AGVS guidance systems:
The primary objective of a guidance system is to keep the vehicle in the pre-designated path.
The main advantage of AGVS guidance is that the guide path can be changed easily at low cost
compared with the high cost of modifying fixed-path equipment such as conveyors, chains, and
low lines. The selection will depend on need, application, and environmental constraints.
1. Wire-Guided guidance system: an energized wire is embedded in the floor along the
AGV guide path.
2. Optical guidance: colorless fluorescent particles are painted or taped on to the carpeted,
tiled, or concrete floor. Photo-sensors on the vehicle read and track these colorless
particles.
3. Inertial guidance system: the system has an onboard microprocessor that is used to steer
the vehicle on a preprogrammed path. A sonar system is used for obstacle detection and a
gyroscope for directional change.
4. Infrared guidance system: this system consists of infrared light transmitters, reflectors
mounted in the roof of the facility to reflect the light, and radar-like detectors to relay
reflected light signals to the computer. The computer then determines the position and
direction of travel of the vehicle.
5. Laser guidance system: a laser beam is used to scan wall-mounted bar-coded reflectors.
Accurate location and maneuvering of an AGV are achieved through known distances.
6. Teaching-Type guidance system: neural network concepts are used. A programmed
vehicle learns the guide path by “walking through” the desired route. It then informs
the host computer what is has learned about the new path. The host computer, in turn,
passes information about the new path to other automated guided vehicles.
 AGVS Steering Control:
The steering control of an AGVS can control the vehicle to negotiate a turn and to maneuver
physically in different ways. Two basic types of AGVS steering control systems are used for this
purpose:
1. Differential-speed steer control: uses an amplitude-detection type of guidance sensor. The
control is based on balancing of signals from the left and right sensors in front of the
vehicle. Whenever a difference exists between the amplitudes of the right and left signals,
the steering system compensates by correcting the steering.
2. Steered-wheel steer control: uses a phase-detection type of guidance sensor to determine
whether the vehicle is to the left or right of the path by detecting the positive or negative
phase of the sensor signal received from the guided path wore. Vehicles with steered-
wheel steer control have excellent tolerance along the guide path.

AGVS Routing:
AGVS routing means determining how the vehicle negotiates the path to take the shortest route
from one point to another. The commonly used methods are:
I. Frequency select method: Demonstrated in Figure, the location where a path splits
into two or more than two separate directions is called a decision point. At the
decision point the vehicle reads a marker (a passive code device in form of magnet, or
code device) in the floor, where multiple frequencies are present to allow the vehicle
to go into multiple directions. The vehicle selects a frequency for the direction it
wants to follow.

II. Path-switch select: the guide path is divided into segments that are switch on and off
by separate floor controls. Only one frequency is used. At the decision points the
controls are switched on and off depending on the path to be followed. The vehicle
chooses the proper path in the frequency select method. For this reason the path-
switch select method is less preferred than the frequency select method.
 AGVS control systems:
Three types of AGVS control systems are available:
i. Computer-controlled system: is most efficient, but it is also the most expensive and
complex type of control system.
ii. Remote dispatch control system: most remote dispatch control systems have automatic
loading and unloading capability.
iii. Manual control system: is simple and the least expensive of all control systems. The
efficiency of the system depends on the skill and performance of the operator.

Interface with other subsystems:

The computer-controlled system may interface the AGVS materials-handling system with other
subsystems in the organization.
The subsystem includes:
i. Automated storage and retrieval systems
ii. Flexible manufacturing systems
iii. Computer numerical control (CNC) machines
iv. Process control equipment
v. Shop floor control system
This interface may be through either a distributed data processing network or the host computer.

AGVS load transfer

Loading and unloading the AGVS vehicle is also known as AGVS load transfer. The load
transfer operations can be separated into two categories:
1. Manual load transfer:
i. Manually coupling and uncoupling towed trailers
ii. Loading and unloading for forklift truck
iii. Loading and unloading by roller
iv. Manually loading and unloading the AGVS vehicle

2. Automatic loading and unloading can be accomplished in many different ways:

i. Automatic couple and uncouple
 ii. Powered roller, belt, and chain
iii. Powered lift and lower device
iv. Powered push or pull device

Advantages of AGVs:

i. Reduced Labor Costs: AGVs reduce labor costs in your operation in many ways: By
replacing a human worker with an AGV, a company pays a single expense for the
equipment—the initial investment—versus ongoing costs that would come with a
new hire such as healthcare coverage, payroll taxes, salary increases, vacation time,
etc.
ii. Increased Safety: AGVs are programmed with safety in mind, and as such are
crammed full of cameras, lasers, and other sensors that allow them to safely operate
around personnel and structures. By contrast, equipment run by human operators,
such as forklifts, do not have as many built-in safety mechanisms and ultimately rely
on human input, which can be compromised in any number of ways. Whereas a
human operator always has the potential to become distracted or fatigued, and
therefore cause an accident, these are not concerns when using AGVs. Additionally,
AGVs can operate in conditions that humans either aren’t able to operate in, or in conditions
that humans don’t operate optimally in, such as in extreme heat or cold or around hazardous
materials. All of this increased safety leads to reduced cost and reduced operational
downtime, which can ultimately increase profitability of many operations.
iii. Increased Accuracy and Productivity: Simply put: Humans make mistakes. By replacing
the human element with AGVs, you remove some of the potential for inaccurate
workflows, ultimately reducing waste and increasing output, allowing your operations
to become more productive and accurate. And whereas human personnel are limited
in how long they can work, AGVs are capable of running 24/7. In addition to the
obvious improvements in accuracy and productivity, by integrating AGVs with a
warehouse control system or a warehouse management system, you can streamline
processes such as inventory and materials ordering.
iv. Easy to Expand: As your operations expand, it is easy to add additional AGVs as
necessary (this is sometimes called a “modular system element”). This allows you to
avoid an incredibly high initial investment because instead of purchasing 20 or 30
AGVs at once, you are able to start with one or two and transition slowly, eventually
expanding your fleet to a fully-automated or mostly-automated operation.

Advantages of AGVs:

1. Potentially High Initial Investment

2. High maintenance Costs
3. Not Suitable for Non-repetitive Tasks
4. Decreased Flexibility of Operations
 Types of Automated Storage System

Function – to store materials (e.g., parts, work-in-process, finished goods) for a period of time
and permit retrieval when required
 Used in factories, warehouses, distribution centers, wholesale dealerships, and retail
stores
 Important supply chain component
 Automation available to improve efficiency

There are following three types of automated storage system-

1. Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems
2. Carousel Storage System
3. In-process storage system

1. Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AS/RS):

 To get right parts, pallets, fixtures, and tools to the right place at the right time, an
efficient system for their storage and retrieval together with a material transportation
system is required.
 An integrated FMS, AGVS, and AS/RS system provides an efficient production system
for manufacturing low- to medium- volume and middle- to high-variety products.

Function of storage systems and definition of AS/RS

 Receiving, identification and sorting, dispatching to storage, placing in storage, storage,
retrieving from storage, order accumulation, packing, shipping, and record keeping for
raw materials, purchased parts, work in process, finished product, pallets, fixtures, tools,
spare parts, rework and scrap, office supplies, and so forth have traditionally been
considered the functions of storage systems.
 An AS/RS attempts to achieve these functions by automating most of these procedures in
a cost-effective and efficient manner.
 In general, an AS/RS performs a basic set of operations without human intervention,
regardless of the specific type of system that is employed.
i. Automatic removal of an item from a storage location
ii. Transportation of this item to a specific processing or interface point
iii. Automatic storage of an item in a predetermined location, having received an item from a
processing or interface point

Why an AS/RS?
 An AS/RS is highly space efficient. Space now occupied by raw stock, work in process,
or finished parts and assemblies can be released for valuable manufacturing space.
 Increased storage capacity to meet long-range plans.
 Improved inventory management and control.
 Quick response time to locate, store, and retrieve items.
 Reduced shortages of inventory items due to real-time information and control.
 Reduced labor costs due to automation.
 Improved stock rotation.
 Improved security and reduced pilferage because of closed storage area.
  Flexibility in design to accommodate a wide variety of loads.
 Flexibility in interfacing with other systems such as AGVS, FMS, and inspection
systems such as coordinate measuring machines.
 Reduced scrap and rework due to automatic handling of parts.
 Reduced operating expenses for light, power, and heat.
 Helps implement just-in-time (JIT) concepts by getting the right parts, tools, pallets and
fixtures to the right place at the right time because of automatic control of storage and
retrieval functions and accurate inventory management.

Type of AS/RS:

1. Unit load AS/RS: is used to store and retrieve loads that are palletized or stored in
standard-size containers.
2. Mini-load AS/RS: is designed to handle small loads such as individual parts, tools, and
supplies. The system is suitable for use where there is a limit on the amount of space that
can be utilized and where the volume is too low for a full-scale unit load system and tool
high for a manual system.
3. Person-on-board AS/RS: allows storage of items in less than unit load quantities.
4. Deep-lane AS/RS: is another variation on the unit load system. The items are stored in
multi-deep storage with up to 10 items per row rather than single or double deep. This
leads to a high density of stored items.
5. Automated item retrieval system

AS/RS components and terminology used:

An automated storage and retrieval system comprises the following:

i. A series of storage aisles having storage racks
ii. 2. Storage and retrieval (S/R) machines, normally one machine per aisle, to store and
retrieve materials
iii. One or more pickup and delivery stations where materials are delivered for entry to the
system and materials are picked up from the system.
2. Carousel Storage System: Oval conveyor system with bins to contain individual items.

Horizontal
 Operation is similar to overhead conveyor system used in dry cleaning establishments
 Items are stored in bins suspended from the conveyor
 Lengths range between 3 m and 30 m
 Horizontal is most common type
Vertical
 Operates around a vertical conveyor loop
 Less floor space required, but overhead room must be provided
 Carousel Applications:

i. Storage and retrieval operations

 Order picking
 Kitting of parts for assembly
ii. Transport and accumulation
 Progressive assembly with assembly stations located around carousel
iii. Work-in-process
 WIP applications in electronics industry are common
iv. Unique applications
Example: time testing of electrical products

Automated Tool Changer (ATC)

The machines within firms are general in nature. In order that these machines can process a
number of different items, they have to be provided with the correct tools & a means of
ensuring that they are available for use.
The majority of these machines are fitted with tooling drums containing over 100 different
tools. When a new tool is required, the drum is indexed automatically to a loading positions
near a pick and place device. The pick & place device then changes the new tool for the old
one, which is then placed its correct positions within the drum.

(FOR DETAIL THEORY refer page no. 663 from textbook)