Guide To Resistors

The Ultimate Guide to
Resistors
The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 1

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The Ultimate Guide to Resistors
Introduction have extended operating temperature limits. A very
Resistors are probably the most common and well wide variety of resistor technologies are available
known of all electrical components. This guide in both the precision and power categories and the
to precision and power resistors answers all your success of your design may rest on your choice.
questions about the four main resistor technologies
and their performance. In these pages, you’ll Applying a resistor to a circuit requires calculation of
find a glossary of the most used terms in resistor the nominal values needed in the circuit application
specifications and data sheets, along with a discussion (resistance, value, power rating, etc.), then selection of
of wirewound, thick and thin film and metal foil resistor acceptable tolerances for the resistor that ensure it will
technologies, a guide to selecting resistor heat sinks, function properly in all extremes of the application. The
and application guides for medical devices, LED first design consideration is relatively simple, typically
lighting, power supplies and heating applications. based on straightforward theory and linear calculations.
There’s also an appendix giving the absolute basics, The second design task can be more difficult, because
for resistor beginners. resistors have several characteristics that alter their
nominal resistance value when used in a practical circuit.
Resistors are often designated as precision or power. This guide is intended to help you through the process
Precision resistors are designed for applications where of selection.
tight resistance tolerance and stability are primary
considerations, and they generally have restricted This eBook is brought to you by Riedon, a leading
operating temperature limits and power dissipation manufacturer of power and precision resistors.
ratings. Power resistors can also have tight tolerance
and be quite stable, but their design emphasis is to For more on Riedon, visit riedon.com
optimize power dissipation – these resistors generally
>
Contents
Chapter 1 Chapter 6
Resistor Characteristics and their Definitions Using Resistors in Medical Applications
Chapter 2 Chapter 7
Wirewound Resistors Using Resistors in LED Lighting Applications
Chapter 3 Chapter 8
Thick and Thin Film Chip Resistors Using Resistors in Power Supplies
Chapter 4 Chapter 9
Metal Foil Resistors Using Resistors as Heaters
Chapter 5 Appendix
Power and Heat Sink Dimensioning A Resistor Primer

Chapter 1 Resistor Characteristics and their Definitions
Here’s a brief glossary of the most important terms testing large samples. Reliability is seldom defined for
used when describing resistors’ characteristics. commercial products, but is a common requirement
for critical designs such as in aerospace and medical
Tolerance applications.
Resistor tolerance is the deviation from the nominal
value. It is expressed as a ±%, measured at 25°C Frequency Response and Rise Time
with no load applied. Some resistor designs have Frequency response relates to the resistor’s change
extremely tight tolerances. For example, precision in impedance with frequency, caused by reactive
wirewound resistors are made with tolerances components from its inductance and capacitance.
as tight as ±0.005%. Film resistors typically have Rise time is an associated parameter, relating the
tolerances of ±1% to ±5%. In applications like precision resistor’s response to a step or pulse input.
voltage dividers and networks, the designer should
consider resistor sets matched for resistance or ratio Some wirewound designs use special winding
tolerances. Often, these matched sets save cost over techniques to minimize reactive components. Typical
buying individual resistors with very tight resistance reactive values for these special designs are less than
tolerances. 1μh inductance for a 500Ω resistor, and less than 0.8pf
capacitance for a 1MΩ resistor. A typical fast rise time
Accuracy resistor has a rise time of 20nsec or less.
Resistor accuracy is not the same as tolerance.
Accuracy is the resolution (or number of digits) Voltage Coefficient
from the mantissa of the nominal resistor value. For Voltage coefficient is the change in resistance with
example, 5.045Kohm would be 4 digits accuracy. applied voltage. It is a function of the resistor’s value
and its composition.
Stability
Stability is defined as the repeatability of resistance of Noise
a resistor over time when measured at a referenced Noise does not affect the resistor’s value, but can
temperature and subjected to a variety of operating generate circuit errors in high gain and sensitive
and environmental conditions. It’s normally expressed circuits. Wirewound and metal film resistors have the
in percent from the absolute resistor value (the best noise performance: carbon composition and
reference value) at t=0. thick film have higher noise characteristics.
Stability is difficult to specify and measure since it Thermocouple Effect

is application dependent. Experience with practical The thermocouple effect generates a thermal electro-
circuits has given us some guidelines: bulk metal and motive force (EMF) at the junction of two dissimilar
wirewound designs are typically most stable, while metals. In resistors, it is caused by the materials
designs using composition materials are less stable. For used in leads and the resistive element. It is normally
highest resistance stability, it is best to operate critical insignificant, but may be important in high gain or
resistors well within their power limits, with limited critically balanced circuits and low ohm resistors.
temperature rise. Thermal EMF is minimized by keeping the resistor
leads and body at the same temperature.
Reliability
Reliability is the statistical probability that a resistor will Temperature Rating
perform its function. Normally, it is specified as failure Temperature rating is usually the maximum operating
rate per 1,000 hours of operation. Various statistical temperature of the resistor. An operating temperature
studies are used at arriving at these failure rates by range is often specified: for example, -55°C to +275°C.
4 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

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Chapter 1
Thermal Resistance of the resistor to desired characteristics in applications

Thermal resistance is the factor of proportionality where temperatures change.
between power dissipation and over-temperature and
is usually expressed as As a practical example, a resistor with a resistance
of 1000 ohms, made from pure nickel wire, would
have a new resistance of 1670 ohms if we increase
its temperature from 20°C to 120°C. In the same
where Rth is the thermal resistance, dT is the application, a resistor made with Evenohm wire would
temperature change and P is the power dissipated. increase to only 1001 ohms.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Power Rating

The absolute ohmic value of a resistor depends on When applying an electric voltage in a resistor, the
temperature. A resistor’s Temperature Coefficient of energy is converted into heat. The result of the energy
Resistance (TCR) tells how much its resistance value per unit time is the power dissipation. Depending on
changes as its temperature changes, and is expressed the heat removal, there is a temperature rise of the
in parts per million per degree Centigrade (ppm/°C). resistance element under steady state conditions.
A wide range of TCRs are available to the designer
(typically from ±1 ppm/°C to ±6700 ppm/°C) for Power ratings are normally specified at +25°C and
specific applications. must be reduced as the resistor’s temperature
increases. A derating chart is often used to specify
Specifying TCR is important in applications where the rated power vs. ambient temperature. Since
the change in resistance with temperature changes these parameters are application dependent, power
must be small. Equally important may be applications derating curves or charts should be considered
where a specific TCR is required (temperature general rather than absolute. Power ratings are
compensation circuits and temperature-sensing based on many factors. The most stable designs use
applications for example). Typically, there are two the largest physical size operating at conservative
contributors to temperature-related resistance temperatures and power ratings.
changes; the resistor’s temperature increase as it
dissipates power, and ambient temperature changes. Nominal power dissipation
The maximum permanent allowed power dissipation
Often matching TCRs for pairs or sets of resistors is without exceeding the limiting temperature of the
more important than the actual TCR itself. In these resistor. The nominal power dissipation in Riedon
cases, matched sets are available which assure specifications is measured under the following
that resistance values of the set track in the same conditions: free standing assembly, ambient
magnitude and direction as operating temperature temperature of 70°C without additional cooling, or
changes. In this case, the TCR matching is the assembled on a heat sink with optimal fixed mounting.
maximum allowed TC difference of different resistors
in the network. U-Characteristic for Wirewound Resistors
Standard silicone-coated, wirewound resistors (such
Special wire alloys are formulated to have special as the Riedon UT-series) are rated under two load/
temperature coefficients. For example, “Evenohm” (a power characteristics to allow more flexibility to meet
trade name for a low TCR wire alloy) is formulated to user’s application requirements.
have a small TCR of 5 to 20ppm/°C. Pure nickel has a
much larger TCR of 6700ppm/°C. Copper has a TCR
of 3900ppm/°C. These, and other alloys allow tailoring

Chapter 1
The standard maximum power ratings are called Aryton-Perry Windings

U-characteristic ratings and define the maximum In Aryton-Perry windings, a layer is first wound in
power to be applied to the resistor to ensure that one direction. After a layer of insulation, the next
the tolerance of the part would be maintained under winding is wound in the opposite direction with the
normal usage for a period of one year. Drift in a turns crossing every 180 degrees. This configuration
wirewound resistor is a function of temperature, and minimizes the inductance of the resistor.
operating a resistor within this U-characteristic power
level limits the maximum operating temperature of Low Value Resistors for Shunt and Current
the resistor (250°C) within a range which ensures the Sensing
tolerance specification is correct. Special low ohm power resistors are often used
for measurement shunts, and for current sensing
V-Characteristic for Wirewound Resistors applications. The value of these resistors is
A second, higher power rating is also assigned to a low, generally less than 0.1 ohm. Some special
resistor which allows the same resistor (same physical considerations apply.
size) to be operated at a higher power level and
higher temperature range (up to 350°C), but which Lead material should be of good conductivity
also requires that the environmental performance to prevent the lead resistance from becoming a
tolerances of the part be increased to reflect the significant portion of the total resistance. Measurement
higher operating temperatures. This V-characteristic points should be specified for critical applications;
power level is little-used, but if a customer requires a point 3/8” from the end of the resistor body is
higher power capability in the same size package universally accepted.
and is willing to accept degraded environmental
performance specifications, the V-characteristic part Four-Terminal (Kelvin) Connections
offers a solution. Four terminal leads are often specified for low ohm
current sensing applications where lead resistance
Some Other Typically Specified Parameters is a significant factor in total resistance. The Kelvin
• Impulse strength is the maximum allowed short- connection eliminates the error voltage due to IR-drop
duration (impulse) electric electric energy that that would be present in the leads of a two terminal
the resistor can withstand without exceeding the resistor.
limiting temperature.
• Limiting voltage, also referred to as dielectric
strength, is the maximum allowable voltage that
can be applied to the resistor.
• Limiting current is the maximum allowable current
through the resistor.
• Insulation strength, also known as breakdown
rating, is the maximum allowable voltage between
the resistance element and the environment
(chassis or heat sink).
• Standard conditions are the measurement
conditions for defining the resistor value, tolerance
and stability. In Riedon laboratory and production
processes, the reference temperature is 25degC
+/- 2degC.

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Chapter 2 Wirewound Resistors
Like every component, the fabrication technology

used in resistor manufacture has changed over
time and resistive films, for example, have made a
significant contribution in allowing the cost-effective
mass production of devices that are increasingly
miniaturized.
Yet the traditional wirewound resistor, despite a

substantial decline in the number of manufacturers of
this component in recent decades, remains the best
solution for many specialized applications.
Construction
One reason for the survival of wirewound resistors
is that all of the alternative fabrication techniques Figure 1. Easy customization is one of the major
have drawbacks. For example, the use of conductive advantages of wirewound resistor technology, as
inks to produce carbon film or thick film resistors can shown in these examples from Riedon.
produce very low-cost components but the resulting
devices have limited pulse handling, no better than Metal film types perform better. They deliver
0.1% initial tolerance and poor long-term stability, improved tolerance (as good as 0.01%), TCR of 10
typically 500 to 1000ppm/year. to 200ppm/°C and stability of 200 to 600ppm/yr.
However, these figures still cannot match those of
The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of wirewound alternatives, and their pulse handling
carbon and thick film resistors is high, around 50 to capability is significantly lower.
100ppm/°C.
As a result of the limitations of other technologies,
Moreover, relatively high current noise of -18 dB to -10 wirewound components continue to be used in
dB is typical, where: many applications. They can handle high level pulses
and transients, can dissipate substantial amounts
of power (some are rated at up to 2.5kW), and they
can be made with great precision – some have initial
tolerances down to 0.005%. Just as importantly, they
Carbon composition resistors, made by binding are stable (15 to 50ppm/yr), maintaining their precision
conductive carbon powder and an insulating material over time because they are made with stable
(usually ceramic) in a resin are some of the earliest materials. Wirewound resistors are also among the
resistor types. The proportions of carbon and lowest current noise resistors available at -38dB.
insulating material determine the desired resistance
value. It’s difficult to achieve accurate values so ±5%
is often the best initial tolerance available and they
exhibit poor temperature stability with a TCR of some
1000ppm/°C. These resistors also have high current
noise (-12dB to +6dB ) and suffer from poor stability
over time. Figure 2. The fundamental construction of a
wirewound resistor has changed little over time.

Chapter 2
The basic structure of a power wirewound resistor has choice therefore allows the manufacturer to tailor the
remained unchanged for many years. As the name resistor to desired characteristics. In general, low TCR
suggests, a resistance wire is wound around a central is desirable.
core or former, usually made of ceramic. Metal end-
caps are pressed onto the core, and the resistance However, in some situations, such as temperature
wire welded to them. sensing and compensation applications, the opposite
may be true, since the specific purpose of these
Finally, the assembly is encapsulated to protect it components is to respond to changes in temperature.
from moisture and physical damage. Wirewound
construction also produces devices that are easy to Wirewound components are sometimes chosen
customize, so engineers have the freedom to specify for their ability to continue operating in extreme
exactly what they need, even if the final quantities temperatures. Devices such as Riedon’s UT series
required are in the hundreds, rather than tens of of axial resistors, for example, operate from -55°C
thousands. And although familiar, the technology has to 275°C, and continue to function at even higher
not stood still. For instance, advances in materials temperatures with de-rating. These capabilities make
science allow the construction of devices with tightly the technology well-suited for use in the aerospace
controlled response across a range of temperatures, industry, and in high temperature applications such as
with TCR as low as 1ppm/°C. fire suppression.
The individual component’s resistance is determined Power handling and energy dissipation characteristics
by the length, cross-sectional area, and material (and are similarly linked to the physical construction of the
hence resistivity) of the resistance wire. In terms of device. As a general rule, a resistor with a larger mass
material choice, a small diameter copper wire 30m can safely absorb and dissipate more instantaneous
long may have a resistance of a few ohms. In contrast, power and more energy overall, and this is another
the higher resistivity of a nickel-chrome alloy means strength of wirewound technology.
that a small diameter wire only 30cm long made
of this material may have a resistance of several
thousand ohms. Energy = Power x Time = Pt
Voltage
Single Pulse
Manufacturers of wirewound resistors offer a
choice of metal alloys and sizes and the fabrication
characteristics go a long way to explaining the Vpk
advantages. When a high precision resistor is required,
for example, a longer resistance wire can be used,
allowing the value to be trimmed to great accuracy by Vpk/2.7
removing a few centimeters (or even millimeters) of

Time
wire. tp t
Rectangular Exponential
Resistance Temperature Characteristics

The choice of material is also the major factor Single Square Wave Pulse P = V2t/R
influencing the temperature characteristic of the Exponential Pulse = P = V2t/2R
resistor. For example, low-TCR “RO-800” alloy is
formulated to have a TCR of 5 to 10ppm/°C. For Figure 3. Pulse shape, repetition rate and duration
comparison, pure nickel has a TCR of 6700ppm/°C, all need to be understood in order to
and copper a TCR of 3900ppm/°C. The material calculate the required energy handling capabilities.

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Chapter 2
Pulse performance It is not easy to capture within a datasheet all of the

One common use for wirewound resistors is in pulse information required to make such a choice. For
handling applications. A device such as a medical pulses of up to five seconds, the industry standard
defibrillator needs to dissipate a large amount of specification is a withstand of five-times rated power
energy in a very short time, putting its electrical for five seconds, so a 5W resistor must be able to
components under a high degree of stress. To protect handle 25W for 5 seconds (125 Joules), regardless of
these components from failure, engineers typically package size or resistance value.
design-in a resistor that can absorb the energy of
a significant current surge of very short duration For shorter pulses, the mass of the resistance wire
(milliseconds). In another application, wirewound determines the Joule rating, which is then dependent
resistors are used to protect a metering module upon resistor value and package type, including its size
installed in a solid-state electricity meter. Here, the and whether it’s an axial or surface mount component.
resistor absorbs the high current generated when Repetition rate and pulse shape - square, triangular or
a metal oxide varistor (MOV) clamps in response to irregular – also have to be taken into account.
a voltage surge on the grid. Surges can have many
causes, including lightning, inductive loads (motors), In current sensing applications, designers have
capacitor banks, switchgear, or even switching heating different requirements. For example, monitoring
and ventilation systems in and out of circuit. For battery life in a handheld device generally requires a
these types of application, resistors in the UT series small package, whereas measurements in industrial or
mentioned above are often prefered. medical equipment might necessitate high precision
and high current withstand.
They can withstand over 1000 Joules. Values range
from 0.02 Ohms to 260kΩ with tolerances down to Wirewound devices excel where accuracy is important.
±0.01% and TCR down ±20ppm/°C. For instance, four-terminal components are available
in values from 0.01Ω to 1kΩ with tolerances down to
Determining the right pulse handling capabilities 0.005% and current handling capability of up to 25A.
for a particular application is not always an easy
task. Dealing with inrush current implies different The most commonly cited disadvantage of wire
requirements than transient suppression. wound resistors, particularly with respect to high
frequency applications, is their self-inductance.
However, this can overcome with a bifilar or Aryton-
Perry winding technique, shown in Figure 4, in
which the turns are arranged so that two opposing
magnetic fields are created (one clockwise and
the other counterclockwise), cancelling out the
inductance, except the residual amount accounted
for by terminations and connecting leads. Inductance
is typically reduced by 90% or more compared to a
standard part.
From Joule-rated devices for energy absorption to

Figure 4. Non-inductive winding can produce miniaturized components for current temperature
wirewound resistors with minimal self-inductance. sensing, wirewound resistors continue to offer
significant advantages over alternatives in many
applications, as shown in Table 1.

Chapter 2
Wirewound Thick Film Metal Film Metal Foil

Resistance (Ohms) 0.003 to 260k 10 to 3M 0.02 to 30M 0.0001 to 1M
Power (Watts) to 15 to 5 to 1 to 50
Tolerance (%) 0.005 to 1 5 0.1 to 1 0.005 to 5
TCR (ppm/°C) 5 to 20 typical 200 typical 30 to 300 1 to 15 typical
Stability 2,000/ 0.05 % (500 ppm) 0.5 % (500 ppm) 0.05 % (500 ppm) 0.005 % (50 ppm)
10,000 hours 0.15 % (1500 ppm) 2.0 % (20,000 ppm) 0.15 % (1500 ppm) 0.01 % (100 ppm)
Noise (dB) -35 +20 -20 -42
Table 1. Comparison between resistor types for power electronics applications.
Example Applications for Common applications include HVAC controls,

Wirewound Resistors industrial probes, aerospace sensors, compensation
• Power Resistors resistors and process control applications. Table 2
Wirewound resistors are often used as power shows commonly used wires in high TCR applications;
resistors, because they are rugged, reliable, small other TCRs are attainable by using different
and compatible with modern PCB and surface manufacturing techniques.
mount manufacturing systems. Although they have
been around for a while, newer technologies still fall Special TCRs are most commonly used with precision
short in many power applications. Table 1 compares wirewound resistor series (such as Riedon 100, SM
several resistor technologies for power applications. and PC series) but may also be used with power
Although metal foil technology is a close second series (UT, UB series) and Riedon’s surface mount
to wirewounds, other technologies are generally series (S series). Custom packages can also be
unable to measure up in power rating, tolerance designed to meet particular specifications.
and TCR. Surge current capability and stability are
other important specifications often not found in
data sheets. Wirewounds have 2 to 5 times the surge Common High TCR Wires
current capability of film products. Stability is hard to Temperature Range
define, but wirewounds may be from 10 to 100 times Wire (0°C - 100°C)*
more stable. Rediseal 3500 ± 300
Platinum 3850 ± 300
• Temperature Sensing Copper 3900 ± 300
Many of Riedon’s Wirewound products are BALCO 4400 ± 300
available in special high Temperature Coefficients of Nickel-5000 5000 ± 300
Resistance (TCR), ideal for use in temperature sensing Nickel-6000 6000 ± 300
applications. Wirewound sensors provide the most *Reference Temperature at 25°C
accurate temperature measurements over a wide
range of temperatures and with the most flexibility in Table 2. Commonly used wire materials used in high
selection of TCR. Riedon high temperature elements TCR wirewound resistors.
feature all-welded construction for use in high stress
and vibration applications.

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Chapter 3 Thick Film and Thin Film Chip Resistors
Film technology products have developed sufficiently

to replacing older carbon resistors. There are two
Matte tin
common film types, thick film and metal or thin film,
with thick film being the most prolific type of resistor Nickel layer
used in electronic devices. These devices may look
similar, but they are constructed differently and have Wrap around
silver thick film
different properties.
Inner resistor
Thick Film Construction and Properties terminal AgPd
Thick film resistors have many carbon resistor
characteristics; they can be made small and are Ceramics
very low cost in high quantities. Their resistance Glass coating Resistive layer substrate
tolerance, TCR and stability over time is not as

favorable as wirewound or foil types, but they have
other benefits. Thick film resistors offer high resistance Figure 5. The construction of Riedon’s CRW and CRS
values, up to 10TΩ (tera-ohm), very high temperature series of thick film chip resistors with galvanic nickel
performance and high voltage capability and are barrier layers. They feature matte tin terminations.
inherently non-inductive. They are suitable for the
demanding requirements of medical, aerospace and
downhole (oil and gas) applications. Riedon’s range
includes precision high value chip resistors, power Wrap around
chip resistors and trimmable chip resistors alongside PtAg thick film
standard models.
Inner resistor
Thick film resistors are made by silk-screening terminal AgPd
conductive paste onto an insulating substrate (see

Ceramics
figure 5). The paste is fired to make the assembly
permanent. These resistors can be made small and Resistive layer
are low cost in high quantities, and are especially
important in hybrid and integrated circuits because
resistors can be printed onto the substrate, eliminating
board loading and soldering steps. Figure 6. The construction of Riedon’s CHR, HVS
and HVC series of thick film platinum/silver
Standard components use nickel/tin terminations chip resistors. They feature thick film terminations.
(see figure 5). With a continuous working temperature
of 155°C; nickel limits the working temperature. Tin Nickel/tin-free models of thick film resistor are
can also only be used up to 230°C. Some nickel/ suitable for lead free soldering or silver epoxy
tin-free devices are now available from Riedon (see attachment (silver epoxy is highly reliable at high
figure 6) which use a special termination technology. temperatures). They don’t suffer outgassing under
These resistors can be used up to 300°C, with the the vacuum conditions used with conductive epoxies;
limiting factors being the interconnection technology standard components are coated with a polymeric
and the substrate material for the unit. They are also material which can out gas. Another benefit is that
absolutely non-magnetic, making them suitable for the absence of tin means they cannot generate tin
applications where strong magnetic fields are present, whiskers, a feature required by many aerospace
such as CT and MRI scanners. applications.

Chapter 3
All thick film resistors display low voltage coefficient of Wirewound Metal Film
resistance (VCR), a property of the device defined as Tolerance Best
the change in resistance with respect to the voltage Stability Best
applied over a specific voltage range. Layout, size, TCR Best*
termination material and trimming geometry all affect Rise Time Best
the VCR of a given device. Size Best
Cost Best
Thin Film Construction and Properties *Can be tailored for special applications
Thin film resistors are built on a ceramic base, with Table 3. Properties of wirewound versus
the resistive layer sputtered on top using vacuum metal/thin film resistors
deposition to create a chip resistor. The material used
is commonly an alloy of nickel and chrome called Compared to wirewound precision resistors, thin film
Nichrome. The thickness of the film, which at around devices are not as accurate (>0.01%), have higher TCR
50 to 250 angstroms is thousands of times thinner (20-200ppm/°C), and are not as stable (200-600ppm/
than thick film devices, determines the resistance, yr.) However, they come in small packages, are low
but this can be calibrated by laser trimming if cost in high quantities, and are excellent in high
required. Alternatively, the film can be sputtered onto frequency and fast rise time applications. The key to
a cylindrical surface with axial leads; the resulting selecting a precision resistor technology is therefore
devices are typically called metal film resistors rather in the application, as summarized in table 3. If the
than thin film, but the concept is the same, albeit at application involves fast rise times (microseconds) or
the expense of parasitic inductance. high frequencies (megahertz), thin film products are
best. When cost is the only consideration, use thin films.
Lead Wire Cap Protective Incidentally, on a board full of typical components, the
Coating higher cost of a few precision resistors will have a small
total cost impact. If size is critical, as in hybrid circuits
and chip applications, thin films have the advantage.
Laser Trimming Applications which commonly take advantage of thin

film resistors precision properties:
Ceramic Core Resistive Film • Instrumentation – Aircraft instruments, altimeters,
gauges, flight control systems.
Figure 7. Construction of a thin film resistor. • Medical – Heart monitors, diagnostic equipment,
scales, scopes.
Thin film resistors are able to achieve much lower • Audio – Radio receivers, DVD/Blu-Ray players,
tolerances and resistor temperature coefficients, have amplifiers, tuners, equalizers, crossovers.
lower noise, lower parasitic inductance, and lower • Computer – Voltage regulators, voltage dividers,
capacitance compared to thick film devices. With these network communications, process controllers.
better qualities, thin film resistors have generally been • Power Suppliers – Step-Up or Step-Down
much more expensive to produce than their thick converters, input or output voltage sets, voltage
film resistor cousins, however, improvements to mass dividers.
production techniques and operation conditions have • Telecom – Voice communications, routers,
greatly reduced the cost to manufacture high-quality, bridges, multiplexes, fiber/wire converters.
precision thin film chip resistors. Riedon’s CAR series • HVAC – AC, ventilation, heating control.
resistors are available with tolerances to ±0.01% and • RF – Wireless routers, Bluetooth modules, cell
temperature coefficient ratings to ±25 ppm/°C. phone receivers, display drivers.

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Chapter 4 Metal Foil Resistors
Technology Wirewound Precision Wirewound Foil Resistor Foil (NiCr)

Power (Watts) 0.05 to 2 1 to 2 0 to 0.6 0.4 to 0.6
Resistance 0.1 ohms to 0.01 ohms to 1 ohms to 1 ohms to
6 MOhms 1 KOhms 150 KOhms 300 KOhms
Tolerance (%) 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
TCR (ppm/°C) 1 20 2 1
Part Number 100, SM, PC SC UHPL USR 2-0808
Table 4. A comparison of Riedon 0.005% tolerance wirewound and metal foil resistors
Metal foil resistors offer unmatched performance expansion of the foil and the base), which reduces the
for the highest precision applications, without foil’s resistance. Overall, the balance of the two effects
compromising on accuracy, stability or speed. They leads to a very stable resistor. TCRs of ±0.05ppm/°C
are constructed by adhering a metal alloy foil, usually or less are available with today’s technology, such
nickel/chromium (Nichrome) with some additives, as Riedon’s USR 2-0808 series. Foil products also
to a ceramic base. Typically this foil is a few microns exhibit a low power coefficient of resistance, that is,
thick. A pattern is then photo-etched into the foil to they exhibit low self-heating due to the power they
trim the resistance to the correct value. Foil resistors dissipate, which adds to their temperature stability.
can be made in chip/SMD or leaded/through-hole
packaging. Thermal stabilization
Thermal stabilization is a measure of how quickly
Compared to other resistor technologies, foil offers the device’s resistance stabilizes when exposed to
low TCR, the best long-term stability of all resistor a change in temperature, whether that’s a result of
technologies, non-inductance, ESD immunity, low ambient temperature changes or self-heating due to
capacitance, fast thermal stabilization, and low noise. an increase in power dissipation. This is important in
For example, Riedon’s UHPL series of through-hole precision circuits which require the highest possible
foil resistors achieves tolerance of ±0.005%, a TCR stability. Foil resistors are a clear winner over other
of ±2ppm/°C and a load life stability of ±0.005%. technologies in this case, stabilizing within a few
Meanwhile, the ultra-high precision, surface mount seconds, while other technologies’ response is in the
UHPC series achieves an extremely low TCR of order of minutes.
±0.05ppm with a power coefficient of 5ppm/W at
rated power and a load life stability of ±0.005%. Response time
As well as temperature-related effects, the nature of
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance foil resistors means they also have minimal parasitic
Low TCR is one of foil’s most important properties inductance and capacitance. This is critical in circuits
for applications like precision analogue circuits that which rely on high speed signals as any unwanted
require tight temperature stability. This is down to inductance and capacitance distort and degrade
properties of the foil itself; as the temperature rises, the signal. Compared to wirewound resistors, which
the resistance of the foil rises, but the temperature are in essence a coil of wire and therefore have a
increase also causes a compressive stress on the parasitic inductance, the patterned metal foil that foil
foil (due to differences in the coefficient of thermal resistors use is all in one plane. The foil patterns are

Chapter 4
also specially designed to mitigate any parasitic

reactance; S-shaped or zig zag patterns mean
current in adjacent wires flows in different directions.
A good design can replicate pulses as short as a
few nanoseconds on the output. Foil resistors are
therefore suitable for high frequency applications.
Applications
Applications for foil resistors include anywhere that
high precision and excellent long-term stability is
required, including high precision instrumentation
and differential amplifiers. They are popular in audio
circuits since the increasing demand for sound
integrity places noise restrictions on components in
order to preserve signal integrity. Medical devices,
automated test equipment, current sensing and
weighing systems commonly use foil resistors.
They also suit military and aerospace applications,
extreme environments such as downhole drilling
and the industrial sector.

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 5 Power and Heat Sink Dimensioning
In any system where heat dissipation could affect the

components’ performance, understanding power
Power (% from nominal power)

dissipation for the purposes of selecting the right heat 120
sink is very important. Let’s take a closer look at the 100
80
power dissipation of resistors.
60
40
Standard Conditions for Specifications 20
The first thing to understand is the manufacturer’s 0
specification for the resistor in question. In Riedon data 25 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 155
sheets, the nominal power dissipation is mentioned
Ambient Temperature (°C)
for all resistors. The data is valid for a free standing
assembly, that is, an SMD assembled on a PCB. The
ambient temperature is always 70°C. This means Figure 8. The derating curve of a free standing
that the inherent temperature of the resistance resistor series – in this case, Riedon USR/USN/UNR/
element (the sum of the ambient temperature and the UHR/UPW series without additional cooling.
temperature through the power dissipation) will reach .
the limiting temperature if additional cooling is not The most effective method is forced air cooling
used. with a ventilating fan. With this additional cooling,
the heat convection of the resistor can be higher. In
Derating general, with forced air cooling of 3 m/s and optimal
If the ambient temperature is higher than 70°C, the placement of the fan, it is possible to double the
power dissipation must be reduced to secure that resistors’ power dissipation.
the resistance element will not exceed the limiting
temperature. Otherwise the element will be damaged. Another possibility is the use of a heat sink. A heat sink
This necessary reduction of the power dissipation effectively increases the surface area of the resistor,
is called derating. A derating curve should always resulting in higher convection. All Riedon resistor
be shown in the resistor’s data sheets (see figure 8). series use packaging designed to have a heat sink
The value of the specific power dissipation depends mounted on it (for example, TO 220 and TO 218).
on the ambient temperature, usually given as a
percentage of the nominal power dissipation. The resistors’ data sheets show the nominal power
dissipation when the resistor is used with a heat
If the ambient temperature reaches the limiting sink. The specifications are valid under the following
temperature of the element, it is not possible conditions:
to electrically stress the element. If the ambient
temperature is below 70°C, it is possible to stress the • Assembled on a heat sink with optimal fixed
element with a higher power than mentioned in the mounting (pressurized and with the use of a heat
data. conduction paste)
• Temperature of the heat sink is 25°C (for power
Cooling Techniques resistors, 40°C)
The power dissipation can be increased even further if
an additional cooling system is used (ie, a heat sink or With the resistor is installed on a heat sink, the
forced air cooling). derating curve looks different from the freestanding
assembly. The power dissipation depends on the
temperature of the case bottom plate (figure 9).

Chapter 5
To calculate the thermal resistance of the resistor or

the heat sink (note that the thermal resistance of the
Power (% from nominal power)
120 heat sink must be obtained from the manufacturer of

100 the heat sink):
80
60
40
20
0 In order to calculate the maximum power we have to
25 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 155 use following equation which results from the former
equations:
Temperature of the backplate (°C)
Figure 9. The derating curve of a resistor when

optimally assembled on a heat sink. Another use case for heat sink mounted resistors is to
. reduce the change in temperature in order to reduce
the associated change in resistance, to increase the
The maximum allowed power dissipation depends stability for precision applications. In this case, the
on the temperature of the heat sink, because the inherent temperature will be constant at the same
inherent temperature is the sum of the heat from the power dissipation. In order to calculate it, we need the
power dissipation and the heat sink temperature itself. following equation:
For the maximum allowed power dissipation, the

following condition is valid:
And the thermal resistance of a heat sink can be
calculated be rearranging the equation:
Where Tresistor is the inherent temperature of the

resistor, dTR is the increase in temperature caused
by the resistor power dissipation, TKK is the heat sink
temperature, and Tlimit is the limiting temperature.
Example 1. We are assembling a USR series resistor, a
When the resistor gets hot, it heats up the heat sink. 2-T220 precision foil resistor, with a thermal resistance
The temperature of the heat sink rises above the of 13°C/W and a temperature limit of 155°C, on a
ambient temperature of the application, Tambient. TKK is heat sink with a thermal resistance of 7°C/W. What
now Tambient plus the change in TKK, dTKK. is the maximum power dissipation at an ambient
temperature of 25°C?
The thermal resistance is the factor of proportionality

between the power dissipation, P, and the increase in
temperature. We can calculate this as follows: This represents a good solution when compared with
the maximum power dissipation without the heat sink,
which is 2.3W

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 5
Real World Accuracy

Although data sheets state the thermal resistance
size-specific thermal conductance

0.0035
for heat sink-mounted resistors in K/W or °C/W,
0.003
this data is for a pressurized assembly with a heat
conduction paste. Also, the nominal power dissipation 0.0025
in W/(Kqmm)
quoted is related to applications where the heat sink 0.002
temperature is 25°C or 40°C. To get a more accurate 0.0015

real world figure for the heat sink temperature, we 0.001
must also consider the sum of all power dissipation 0.0005
from the parts assembled to the heat sink, and the 0
ambient temperature. 10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k 50k
Contact size in qmm
The thermal resistance of the resistor RthR is the

result of the thermal resistance between the Figure 10. Thermal conductance between the
resistance element and the mounting plate (Rthj-c), housing and the heat sink ,versus application size.
inherent in design, and the thermal resistance Approximated guide values for thermal paste with
between the mounting plate and the heat sink 1W/mK.
(RthRAppl), depending on the application. The Rthj-c is
fixed by the manufacturer of the resistor. The RthRAppl
depends on how the heat sink is mounted, the size
of the mounting plate, the type of fixing (number
Thermal resistance in K/W
of the location holes or fixing strap), the force used 20

10
to assemble the resistor to the heat sink and the
2
specialized experience of the customer for the 1
application.
0.2
0.1
Figures 10 and 11 show the reachable average thermal
0.02
conductance for an optimal application, and the
absolute thermal resistance (RthRAppl) dependency 10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k 50k
on the mounting point, with normal heat conduction Contact size in qmm
paste. The decrease of the heat conductivity within

big mounting areas results in the problem that it is Figure 11. Thermal resistance between the housing
virtually impossible to reach an optimal constant and the heat sink, versus application size.
pressure to fix the elements on the heat sink.
The results of these calculations are the thermal

resistances between the mounting plate and the
surface of the heat sink (RthRAppl) for the most important
heat sink-mountable resistors within the Riedon
product portfolio. The specific inherent thermal
resistance of each resistor (resistance element /
mounting plate) Rthj-c is shown in table 5.

Chapter 5
Type/size RthRAppl Rthj-c Example 2. A PF2472 power film resistor needs to

(guide value) operate at 60W. The PF2472 has an internal thermal
USR T220 2.2 K/W 10.8 KW resistance of 1.3°C/W and a maximum internal
UNR T220 2.2 K/W 6.8 KW temperature of 155°C. The maximum ambient
USR 3425 0.5 K/W 3.5 KW temperature is 50°C. What is the maximum heat sink
UNR 3425 0.5 K/W 2.1 KW thermal resistance that will accomplish this?
USR 4020 0.5 K/W 3.6 KW
UNR 4020 0.5 K/W 2.2 KW The difference between the resistor’s mounting plate
FPR T220 1.8 K/W 4.8 KW temperature and the internal resistance element is
FPR T218 1.0 K/W 2.5 KW calculated as follows:
FHR 3025 0.52 K/W 2.0 KW
FHR 3825 0.46 K/W 1.6 KW
FHR T238 0.42 K/W 1.3 KW
FNR T238 0.42 K/W 1.0 KW The maximum heat sink temperature rise is
FPR T227 0.2 K/W 1.3 KW given by:
FNR T227 0.2 K/W 1.0 KW
FHR 8065 0.096 K/W 0.16 KW
FHR 80110 0.060 K/W 0.09 KW
FHR 80216 0.036 K/W 0.04 KW So the maximum allowable heat sink thermal
FHR 80320 0.025 K/W 0.026 KW resistance is:
FHR 80370 0.02 K/W 0.022 KW
NPR T220/T221 0.6 K/W 3.5 KW .
KPR T218 0.3 K/W 2.1 KW
NHR T220/T221 0.6 K/W 2.1 KW
KHR T218 0.3 K/W 0.8 KW
KPR T227 0.2 K/W 0.7 KW
KHR T227 0.2 K/W 0.35 KW
Table 5. The specific inherent thermal resistance of

each resistor.
With these specifications, it is possible to calculate

the maximum allowed power dissipation. It is only
necessary to define the temperature of the housing
(ie, 85°C at the mounting plate). This temperature
must be measured in the application.
An additional increase of the heat dissipation can

be reached with the use of a thermally-conductive
grease. The disadvantage of using such an agent
is that it is difficult to remove the resistor from the
system, should it subsequently become necessary.

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 6 Using Resistors in Medical Applications
Medical electronics equipment is no longer just found The difference with hospital-type defibrillators is that
in hospitals, clinics and doctors’ surgeries. Neither is they are designed for manual operation by trained
its use restricted to qualified practitioners. Instead doctors, paramedics and nursing staff who can
designs have become smaller, more portable and diagnose the cardiac condition and will know what
easier to use to the point where now appliances like level of shock to apply. Also, while these defibrillators
defibrillators are deployed in many public places such may have inbuilt electrocardiogram (ECG) readers,
as sports venues, schools, airports, health and fitness many hospital patients, especially those at risk of
clubs and many commercial and government offices. cardiac arrest, are likely to already be connected to
comprehensive diagnostic monitoring equipment,
Other devices such as blood glucose meters are which provides the clinician with all the information
today considered essential in the care of patients with they require.
diabetes and have evolved to be personal, pocket-
sized units that can be carried everywhere. There is By contrast, AEDs are more portable devices, primarily
also equipment for patient monitoring, diagnostics intended for use by people who are not healthcare
and medication delivery that has been designed for professionals, although ideally their operators
in-home use, which often includes portable, body- will be first responders who have been trained in
worn elements. their use. Some ambulances may carry AEDs in
addition to manual defibrillators. AEDs, as their name
Medical equipment generally demands the implies, automate the analysis and diagnosis of the
highest quality components to ensure safe and patient’s heart rhythm and either administer a shock
dependable operation; and portable equipment automatically or will clearly advise the user whether a
poses the additional challenges of compact size, the shock is required and how to deliver it. Consequently
ruggedness needed to cope with harsh operating AEDs are more limited in their capabilities and can
conditions, and usually needing to be battery- only treat the common shockable types of arrhythmia
powered. (often referred to as VT and VF) and will not work with
a ‘flatline’ condition after the heart has arrested.
This chapter will explore two of these applications for
portable medical electronics, looking at the specific AEDs are commonly considered as ‘public access’
requirements of the resistor technology used in their devices, prominently located in shopping centers,
circuit designs. railway stations and similar locations, but body-worn
and other personal AEDs are becoming popular for
Automatic External Defibrillators (AEDs) vulnerable people and are even being promoted as
Automatic external defibrillators operate on the essential home safety equipment.
same principle as the external defibrillators found
in hospitals. They are used to treat victims of life- R1 R4 I
threatening cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat),
which may lead to cardiac arrest, by administering an
electrical shock to re-establish a normal heart rhythm. R2
Note that external defibrillators are those where the RS Paddles
V C
charge is delivered via paddles placed on the chest DC
whereas internal defibrillators, usually only found in R3 RT

CS
operating theatres, use electrodes in direct contact
with the heart.
Figure 12. Simplified defibrillator circuit schematic.

Chapter 6
The basic electrical design of a defibrillator is relatively a supply voltage of say 1000V down to a level of 2V,
simple (shown in figure 12). The key element is the compatible with the comparator input range of a
storage capacitor C, which is charged to a level typical microcontroller. Hence if R2 were 10MΩ then
sufficient to deliver a predetermined dose of electrical R3 would need to be around 20kΩ. Assuming the
energy as a shock to the heart. system can be calibrated, then again the exact values
and tolerance of these devices are not important.
This schematic only shows the essential charge/ However, temperature stability and voltage linearity
discharge circuitry and not the controls that drive are critical performance characteristics, defined by
the switches and automatically determine correct the parameters of TCR (temperature coefficient of
operation. The charging circuit comprises a DC supply resistivity) and VCR (voltage coefficient of resistivity).
and series resistor R1 , which limits the charging Suitable values would be ±100ppm/°C for TCR and
current and determines the charging time. Depending between -1 to -5ppm/V for VCR, which has a negative
on the capacitor’s value and the required shock coefficient.
energy, the supply may well need to provide upward
of 1000V, perhaps even as high as 5000V. So, in the Riedon offers various types of resistor that address
case of a battery-powered portable AED, this will these requirements. For R1 its HTE thick-film range
come from a DC-DC converter. The potential divider, provides a non-inductive, axial-leaded design with
formed by R2 and R3 , monitors the capacitor voltage a voltage rating up to 48kV, power ratings from 0.7
and provides a lower voltage signal that is used to to 17W and resistances from 1kΩ to 100MΩ . With a
disconnect the supply once the required charge level ±100ppm/°C TCR specification the HTE series is also
is reached. suitable for R2 and R3. For R4 and also to protect any
sensitive monitor inputs that may be connected to
Discharge is via an inductor I, which in combination the paddles, suitable pulse-withstanding resistors are
with resistor R4 produces a heavily damped pulse that required. For these Riedon recommends its UT series
typically delivers 100 joules of energy over a period of wirewound resistor, which is capable of handling
of around 5ms. The system as shown provides a fixed over 1000 Joules. A suitable value for RS would be
polarity pulse whereas most defibrillator designs are 50Ω while RT might be around 5kΩ and again, the UT
now biphasic so as to reverse the polarity of alternate type provides the necessary pulse handling capability.
pulses. Biphasic defibrillators achieve higher success R4, RS, and RT should all be non-inductive.
rates and operate at reduced energy levels. RS and
CS form a snubber circuit while RT may be included to Blood Glucose Meters
provide a means of testing the defibrillator output. Blood glucose monitoring enables diabetics to
monitor their condition and respond to high or low
The performance requirements of the resistors used blood sugar levels. Understanding how and why these
in AEDs, including the associated cardiac monitoring levels change helps those affected manage their diet,
circuits, are quite demanding. Resistors R1, R2 and R4 exercise and medication regime. This is particularly
in figure 11 must all be able to withstand high voltages important for sufferers of Type 1 diabetes (and some
but R1 is carrying the charging current so while its Type 2s) whose treatment requires insulin injections
exact value (perhaps 100kΩ), and hence accuracy, is – regular blood glucose testing allows them to check
not so important, it will probably need to be capable the effectiveness of their last insulin dose and plan the
of dissipating around 10W of power. R4 is used to next one.
shape the charge pulse delivered to the paddles
so its value (e.g. 10Ω) and surge handling capacity
(around 300 Joules) are key. The ratio of the values
of R2 and R3 might be in the order of 500:1 to divide

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 6
Such blood glucose meters, or ‘glucometers’ as they

are frequently called, use test strips that absorb a
defined amount of blood. The glucose in the blood
is oxidized using an enzyme electrode as a catalyst;
it is then re-oxidized with a mediator reagent, which
in turn reacts with the electrode and generates an
electrical current. The total charge (current times
time) produced is then proportional to the amount of
glucose in the blood sample. This charge can either be
measured over a period of time or, knowing the timing
characteristic of the chemical reaction, the current can
be measured after a predefined interval to provide an
equivalent estimate of the glucose concentration.
Figure 13. A typical blood glucose meter.
The accuracy of glucometers is vitally important
and is therefore defined by ISO standards. Accuracy
A blood glucose meter is an electronic device that is affected by many factors including the size and
provides a relatively simple means of measuring quality of the blood sample, ambient temperature and
blood glucose levels. And advances in technology humidity, calibration and aging of the test strips and
have provided pocketsize battery-powered units ultimately the accuracy of the electrical measurement.
that are convenient to carry and easy to use so that The latter is something that is readily addressed by
testing can be carried out several times a day, helping appropriate current measurement techniques using
patients maintain closer to normal blood glucose precision components.
levels throughout the day.
Current sensing resistors provide the ideal solution.
Most blood glucose testing is performed by obtaining Like the shunt resistors used in traditional ammeters,
a small blood sample, typically by pricking a finger, the current is actually measured as a voltage drop
and applying the blood to a test strip that contains across an accurately known, low-value resistor,
chemicals that react with the glucose. placed in series with the load. In devices like
Early measurements relied on a reaction that glucometers that have digital displays, the voltage
changed the color of the strip, which could either will be measured by an analog to digital converter
be crudely compared to a color reference chart (ADC), which will typically be an integrated function
or, more accurately, measured with a colorimeter. of the microcontroller used to process and output the
The alternative measurement method uses an glucose readings and provide overall control for the
electrochemical reaction and it is the combination of operation of the device.
this technology with an appropriate electrical metering
circuit that forms the basis of most blood glucose Aside from their low resistance value, the key
meters today. requirements for a current sensing resistor are
accuracy and stability, across all operating conditions
and over time. Riedon offers a number of different
types of current sensing and shunt resistors for
various applications. For this type of medical
application, it particularly recommends either its CSR
surface mount series or its through-hole mounting
MSR series.

Chapter 6
Riedon’s CSR series are ultra low Ohm metal strip chip
resistors with values from 0.5 to 15 mΩ, a tolerance
of ±1% and a TCR of ±50ppm/ oC. Three package
sizes are offered, supporting power ratings from 1
to 3 Watts over a wide -55oC to +170oC operating
temperature range. Its MSR resistors are available
in values from 5 to 100 mΩ with a tolerance of ±1%,
a TCR of ±20ppm/°C and power ratings of 1, 3 or
5W. Their bare metal element design and welded
construction provides a low inductance solution that is
also very economical.
Current sensing, using the same principles as above,

is also very important in portable medical devices for
monitoring battery life. Resistors of the type described
above, or perhaps similar specification but higher
power resistors from Riedon, will provide the right
solution for this task.

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Chapter 7 Using Resistors in LED Lighting Applications
Efficient and reliable operation of LED lighting is Understanding LED operation and
dependent on the right choice of current-limiting biasing requirements
resistor. Not all resistors are the same and growth in A light emitting diode (LED) is a type of semiconductor
new markets like high-power LED lighting is serving to diode that emits light when a current flows from
highlight the importance of understanding all aspects anode to cathode across the P-N junction of the
of an application in order to correctly and safely device. Hence, in normal operation, an LED requires
specify the right type of resistor. a direct current (DC) supply to provide the necessary
positive bias (forward voltage) across this junction.
Consequently, this chapter will first return to basics
to understand the operating principles of LEDs and
how they need to be correctly biased to achieve 1000
the optimum light output performance specified by 900
the manufacturers. This chapter will also look at the 800
electrical, optical and thermal characteristics of LEDs 700
Forward Current (mA)

to appreciate why driving several LEDs in series can 600
be more efficient than overdriving single LEDs, and 500
why keeping temperatures in check is not just key to
400
maximizing output but also to maintaining the desired
300
color tone and ensuring reliability and long life.
200
100
Having understood the biasing calculations for some
0
typical lighting scenarios, it quickly becomes apparent 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5
that in many applications the necessary ballast Forward Voltage (V)
resistor is likely to dissipate several Watts of power.
This not only dictates the need for a suitable high- Figure 14. Typical LED current versus voltage
power resistor type but may call for a design suitable characteristic
for mounting on a heat sink, to help carry heat away
from the LED rather than contribute to an already High brightness LEDs intended for lighting
challenging design requirement. applications typically deliver optimum performance
with a forward voltage of around 3V. However, as
All these considerations and more will be explored can be seen in figure 14, the relationship of voltage to
in the context of potential design solutions from current is non-linear so while the LED will start to turn
specialist resistor manufacturer and supplier, on at a lower voltage it will rapidly draw a much higher
Riedon, whose product line includes its UT series of current as the voltage increases above its nominal
wirewound power resistor for up to 13W dissipation, its rating. Apart from considerations of heat dissipation
PF series of power film resistor with ratings up to 20W and reliability (more on this below), this is inefficient
and other series that allow for additional heatsinking since the relationship of luminous flux (a measure of
and surface mount options. light output) with LED current is also non- linear. So a
doubling of current certainly does not result in twice
the light output and a far better solution to achieve the
desired light output is to use multiple LEDs.

Chapter 7
Given these characteristics, the conventional solution

for driving LEDs is to control the current through the
device and the simplest method, as shown in figure R
+
15, employs a series resistor to limit current such that,
VDC Anode
using Ohm’s Law: -
LED VF
Cathode
where IF = forward current, VDC = supply voltage, Figure 15. Simple LED biasing circuit.
VF = forward voltage, R = ballast resistor.
It is possible to use a rectified and smoothed mains Ballast resistor selection considerations
input to power the LED bias circuit but the resulting We can most readily understand this by performing
supply voltage (V DC) will be much higher than the some simple calculations based on the bias circuit
forward voltage (V F ) across a single LED, meaning and LED characteristics shown above. For example,
that considerable power would be wasted in the using a 24V DC supply and six LEDs connected in
ballast resistor compared to the power consumed series (each with a nominal forward voltage of 3V)
by the LED. Connecting a number of LEDs in series, leaves us with 6V to be dropped across the ballast
which is typical of many LED lamp designs, only resistor. So, with a corresponding LED forward current
partially addresses the issue, as the cumulative of 350mA, the required resistor value is given by:
forward voltage will still be less that the voltage
dropped across the resistor.
Instead most LED lighting systems employ power And, the power that the resistor has to dissipate is
supply units (PSUs) with dedicated LED driver given by:
circuits providing an output to suit the required LED
configuration. These PSUs typically accept AC mains
input with a DC output that may drive a single LED but
more likely a string of LEDs operating at voltages up This provides the baseline specification for the resistor
to 60V. but before moving on to see what type of resistor
might be suitable it is perhaps useful to question
Even the “60W replacement” type of LED bulb uses some of our assumptions. Such as, why a 24V supply
a built-in LED driver circuit to convert AC mains when clearly a 20V supply would reduce the power
to a suitable DC voltage to power its LEDs. Using dissipation in the resistor to just 0.7W? One reason lies
dedicated power supplies also allows the connection with design and component tolerances. A typical PSU
of LEDs or LED strings in parallel for distributed may have an output voltage tolerance of ±5% and,
lighting systems but normally the current in each while the current/voltage characteristic of the LEDs
parallel path still needs to be limited by a separate is still a factor, most of the output variation will affect
series resistor. the voltage across the resistor. Hence in our example
with a 24V PSU an increase of +5% (+1.2V) will result in a
current increase to around 400mA, which is still close
to nominal for the LEDs. However with a 20V PSU a
+5% increase (+1V) takes the forward current to around
450mA, which is disproportionally higher than the
target 350mA.

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 7
Similar effects on the forward current will result if low TCR (temperature coefficient of resistance)
the resistor value itself deviates significantly from performance and they can operate over of aluminum-
the design target value or if the LEDs vary from housed wirewound power resistor with ratings to 50W
their nominal characteristics. Although there are no and above (see figure 16).
absolute rules for the design of LED bias circuits,
all these factors need to be taken into account. The Wirewound resistors are available with non-inductive
penalty, as noted earlier, is that the increased power windings but thin film resistor technology provides an
dissipation from operating at higher currents leads alternative that may suit some applications. Riedon’s
to higher LED junction temperatures. This results in PF series offers low-inductance power film resistors in
reduced relative light output, which partly negates any various package housings to support different power
increase from operating at a higher current, but more ratings e.g. 20W TO-126 and 50W TO-220. For surface
importantly impacts on the device’s reliability and mount designs the PFS series of power SMD film
expected lifetime. resistor from Riedon can handle up to 35W.
The relative chromaticity, i.e. color tone, of an LED is For LED lighting applications, devices with a nominal
also affected by variations in current and temperature rated forward current of 350mA are quite typical but
and is another reason for keeping both under control. LEDs designed for operation at 700mA, 1A and even
This raises the issue of LED dimming since, although it 1.5A are becoming increasingly common. So where
is possible to achieve analog dimming of LEDs over a the application example discussed above requires a
limited brightness range by varying the drive current, resistor with a rating just over 2W, higher power LEDs
sometimes even beyond its nominal rating, this comes may well require resistors rated at 10W or more.
with the same problem of color variations. Instead the
preferred method is pulse-width modulation (PWM)
of the bias current. This approach typically drives
the LEDs with a rectangular waveform, effectively
switching the LEDs on and off at a rate (100kHz+ )
which is too high to be noticed. In this way the LEDs
see the ideal nominal forward current during the
‘on’ part of the cycle and there is negligible power
dissipation during the ‘off’ phase. The potential
requirement for PWM dimming does however impose
another constraint on the choice of ballast resistor;
namely that it needs to be a non-reactive load i.e. with Figure 16. Riedon resistors for LED lighting.
minimal inductance or capacitance.
Types of resistor for LED ballasts

For LED lighting applications, devices with a nominal
rated forward current of 350mA are quite typical but
LEDs designed for operation at 700mA, 1A and even
1.5A are becoming increasingly common. So where
the application example discussed above requires a
resistor with a rating just over 2W, higher power LEDs
may well require resistors rated at 10W or more. Axial-
leaded wirewound resistors offer reasonable power
handling with low resistance tolerances, excellent

Chapter 8 Using Resistors in Power Supplies
The subject of power supplies is potentially very Back to Basics –

broad and the application of resistors in power Simple Linear Regulators
supplies is quite diverse. Here we will focus on Understanding some of the basics of power supply
power supply units (PSUs) designed for use in design would seem a good way to appreciate the
electronic appliances that nominally require fixed DC importance of seemingly mundane components like
outputs ranging from just a few volts up to a few kV. resistors. From their college days, most engineers
will remember designing Zener regulators to provide
Whether such end-equipment is destined for a constant voltage to a permanently connected
consumer, commercial or industrial markets, the load, represented by R2 in figure 16. The principle is
PSU designer will need to pay heed to stringent straightforward and simply requires the value of R1 to
safety, environment and other regulations in be calculated to provide both the minimum current
addition to meeting the basic electrical performance needed to ensure the Zener diode operates in its
requirements. As well as considering the role of constant voltage breakdown region, as well as the full
resistors in regulating a power supply’s output voltage load current.
(or current), we will examine how resistors protect a
R1
supply from potential fault conditions, such as output
overload, output short- or open-circuit and input
surge currents, which can result in a fire or present a
shock hazard to users. VS - VS
VS VZ R2 R2 =
IZ + IR2
Power supplies are often defined by their input
source, AC or DC, and whether they use linear or
switched mode regulation to achieve the desired DC
output. AC-DC supplies are typically line powered but Figure 17. A simple Zener regulator circuit.
a DC in, DC out supply could just be a linear circuit
that regulates the output from a battery or other DC Zener regulators are generally fine for low power
source to produce a lower DC level. The term DC-DC applications where both the supply voltage and
converter is usually reserved for supplies that use load are reasonably constant. However, in a shunt
switched-mode techniques, which can support both configuration like this, a significant reduction in load
step-down (buck) and step-up (boost) conversion for current or increase in supply voltage may result in
lower and higher voltages respectively. an increased current through the Zener diode that
exceeds its maximum power dissipation. From the
While most power supply manufacturers offer a range resistor perspective though, other than the power
of standard units to satisfy various end- equipment rating needed to handle the combined load and
requirements, some applications demand a custom Zener currents, the performance requirements on R1
solution. As a manufacturer and supplier of high are minimal.
performance resistors, Riedon has the experience to
help designers choose the right component. Greater sophistication in linear regulation is achieved
with a series design that uses a pass transistor to
regulate the load current and drop the input voltage
to the required output level. This concept is shown in
figure 18 and such designs are typical of integrated
circuit (IC) regulators and also low drop-out (LDO)
regulators, which often provide a regulated supply at
the “point of load”.

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 8
V1 V0
Switching Technology Improves PSU
R1 Efficiency
( )
- R1 Because linear power supplies divide the DC source
+ R2
V0 = 1 +R 2
x VREF to provide a regulated output voltage, energy is being
consumed in the series pass device as well as the
VREF load. This results in low efficiency, especially if the
voltage dropped by the regulator is significant.
Figure 18. Simplified diagram of a linear series
regulator. A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) takes an
unregulated DC source, which may be from an AC line
The potential divider formed by resistors R1 and R2 is input that has been directly rectified and smoothed,
used to sense and set the output voltage relative to and switches it on an off at high frequency (typically
an accurate reference voltage. In the case of fixed 10kHz – 1MHz) with a duty cycle that determines the
output linear regulator ICs this divider will be internal resulting DC output voltage, once that high frequency
but, for other regulator ICs and PSUs, having one or AC signal has been rectified and smoothed. Output
both arms of the voltage divider external to the device regulation of an SMPS uses a similar output sensing
provides the necessary flexibility to adjust the output arrangement to the linear series regulator described
voltage as required. earlier but now the feedback signal from the potential
divider is used to control the switching frequency and
The choice of resistor values for the divider chain duty cycle.
is primarily determined by their ratio, so a key
consideration is their impact on total power supply By avoiding the voltage dropped by a linear regulator
accuracy. Provided that the comparator circuit has that continually dissipates power, a switched-mode
a high gain and high input impedance, the effects supply, where the pass transistor is either fully on
of resistor tolerance can be calculated by modeling or fully off, achieves much higher efficiency, which
their worst case value in the output voltage equation in good designs can be up to 95%. What’s more,
above, e.g. calculating first with R1 at its maximum compared to a linear AC-DC supplies of similar
value and R2 at its minimum and then vice versa to rating, switched-mode supplies will be much smaller
find the potential deviation in output voltage. because the high frequency transformer (typically
required to provide electrical isolation from the line
To illustrate this: If VREF is 1.2V and R2 is nominally 5kΩ input) and associated filter/reservoir capacitors, are
then for a 3.3V output, R1 needs to be 8.75kΩ. So if physically smaller than the equivalent components in
R1 and R2 are 1% tolerance devices the worse case a linear supply.
output error is ±1.27%. However, the output error is
reduced for an output voltage closer to the voltage However one issue with switched-mode supplies is
reference e.g. for a 1.8V output R1 needs to be 2.5kΩ that they require a minimum load to operate correctly
and the output error is ±0.67%. These errors due to and can be damaged under no-load conditions. For
resistor tolerance add to the rated accuracy of the this reason it is not uncommon to build in a dummy
device itself, so if the device is nominally specified to load in the form of a suitable power resistor that will
±1% then it is usually desirable that the error due to draw the minimum specified load current in the event
resistor tolerance is not significantly greater. that the primary load becomes disconnected. Of
course, such a load resistor will itself consume power,
which not only needs to be taken account of in the
resistor specification but also reduces the efficiency of
the supply. An alternative solution is to employ a shunt

Chapter 8
resistor that can be connected across the output to is initially charged. The alternative, particularly
divert current should the power supply detect that the for higher-wattage supplies, is to use negative
intended load has gone open circuit. Switched-mode temperature coefficient (NTC) resistors, which
supplies usually include other safety features such as initially present a higher resistance that falls as
current limiting to protect against output short-circuit their temperature increases through self- heating.
and shut down the supply. Low ohmic value, high- But, to ensure an acceptably low resistance value
power shunt resistors can also be used in a similar during normal operation, NTC resistors have to
crowbar fashion to protect users from over-voltage continue operating at this temperature, which may
conditions. be incompatible with other constraints on the power
supply’s operation. The use of specialized pulse
DC-DC converters also use switching technology to withstanding resistors may be a better solution –
convert from one DC voltage to another. Indeed the these are rated according to their energy-handling
step-down form of DC-DC converter (often referred capacity in Joules rather than the continuous power
to as a “buck” converter) essentially operates in the rating (in Watts), which the high inrush current level
same way as a SMPS. Step-up, or “boost”, DC-DC would otherwise dictate.
converters use charge pump techniques to raise
the input voltage to a higher output level. In general • Balancing resistors provide a way for sharing a load
though, the same methods of regulating the output either between two or more DC-DC converters.
voltage still apply along with similar techniques for Operating DC-DC converters in parallel may be more
protecting against fault conditions. cost effective than using a single higher-current
unit or may be more desirable in some instances
Further roles for resistors in because of physical size constraints or thermal
power supplies considerations. However simply tying the outputs of
In addition to their use for voltage sensing/setting two converters together does not ensure they share
and as dummy loads or shunts, resistors can play the load current equally. The equal value R SHARE
a number of other important roles in power supply resistors shown in figure 19 accommodate the
designs: difference between the regulated outputs of each
converter.
• Bleed resistors placed in parallel with a power
supply’s load are used to discharge the smoothing RSHARE
capacitors used in linear AC-DC converters and VDC1
also the reservoir capacitors employed by DC-DC R1
converters. These capacitors can retain charge V0
long after a supply is turned off, presenting a R2
RLOAD
potentially lethal shock hazard to users accessing RSHARE
the supply. Clearly the bleed resistor’s value should
VDC2
be calculated to be high enough not to consume R3
significant power when the supply is operating
normally but low enough to discharge the unit
R4
relatively quickly when the supply is switched off.
• Inrush limiting resistors of a few Ohms or less in Figure 19. Balancing resistors share load between
series with the AC line can address the problem with DC-DC converters
AC-DC converters where a large surge current may
occur at switch-on as the bulk storage capacitor

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 8
A similar situation applies to the power transistors • High voltage dividers are used to scale down the
used to regulate the load in various power supply output of a high voltage power supply to provide
designs. Rather than using a single device rated at the feedback for regulation purposes and potentiometric
full load it may be better to use several transistors in ratios as high as 1000:1 are not uncommon. Voltage
parallel to share the load. So, as with the paralleled divider resistors are also used in applications such as
DC-DC converter, load-sharing resistors can be automatic defibrillators to monitor the high voltage
placed in series with the output of each transistor to supply used to charge the storage capacitor and
equalize the current. switch the supply off once the required charge level
is reached. High performance resistors for custom
A third balancing scenario is encountered where power supplies
reservoir capacitors are connected in series to the
outputs of high voltage DC supplies, as shown by • High current sensing is where a low ohmic precision
C1 and C2 in figure 20. The problem here is that resistor is used in series with the supply current
electrolytic capacitors have leakage currents that to measure current by measuring the voltage it
can be considered as resistors in parallel with the drops, using the principle of a shunt ammeter. The
capacitor. Unfortunately these leakage resistances dilemma facing the designer is the conflict between
(RL1 and RL2 ) can differ significantly in value, even for minimizing heat generation and power loss (P=I 2
the same value capacitors, but they act as a potential R) by choosing a low resistance, versus a higher
divider across the output resulting in unequal voltages resistance that results in a larger voltage drop, which
across the capacitors, which could exceed their is easier to measure.
maximum rating. A solution is to add more accurately
matched, lower value external resistors (RB1 and RB2 ) The use of resistors in power supplies presents a
across the capacitors to counteract the leakage effect. multitude of differing performance requirements.
These include the need for precise values with low
tolerances, devices that can handle high current, high
voltage or high power, as well as more specialized
components offering low ohmic values, superior
RL1 C1 RB1 V1 temperature stability or the ability to withstand surge
currents. Riedon, as a specialist manufacturer and
supplier of high performance resistors, has solutions
for all these requirements. Examples include: its
RL2 C2 RB2 V2 Power Film (PF Series) resistors, which provide
resistances from 20 mΩ to 100kΩ with tolerances
from 0.1% and power handling from tens to hundreds
of Watts, and its UAL resistors that employ an
Figure 20. Balancing resistors ensure equal aluminum housing for high power dissipation but also
voltages across output capacitors provide excellent pulse handling, low ohmic values
(from 5mΩ ), tolerances from 0.01% and a low TCR
(temperature coefficient of resistance) of ±20ppm/K.

Chapter 9 Using Resistors as Heaters
Power resistors and resistance heaters share many and transferred to the surrounding environment.
common design considerations. In both products, The efficiency of this process is critical. Resistors in
good thermal design ensures low thermal resistance contemporary applications must be small and reliable.
between the element and the exterior environment. If the thermal design is not efficient, the resistor is
Both must be rugged and reliable. unnecessarily large for a given power rating. Reliability
is poor because the element will operate at a higher
Power resistors are often used in heater applications. temperature.
They allow a designer to apply and control heat to
a small area. Riedon offers a broad range of these Thermal efficiency for heaters must also be high.
resistors. If standard resistors won’t do, existing Poor thermal efficiency will result in excessive energy
products can be modified or new designs created to consumption, and the reliability will be compromised
fit any special requirements. because the element must operate at higher
temperatures. Efficient heat transfer also improves
Riedon power resistors are used in a variety of heater response time facilitating better temperature control
applications. They are especially useful in situations and minimizing thermal hysteresis and overshoot.
where the heat must be isolated or concentrated in a
small area. Power Density
Contemporary electronic and electrical equipment
For example, Riedon power resistors are used design places importance on size and efficiency,
to eliminate condensation on outdoor security so modern power resistors must be small. As an
camera installations. Heat from the resistor keeps example, Riedon’s TF1220S film power resistor is rated
the lens temperature above the dew point. With at 25 watts and has a mounting “footprint” of only
small “footprint” resistors, heat is localized to 0.21in2. As a heater, this translates to a power density
optimize energy-efficiency of the system. Another of 119 watt/in2! With a thermal resistance rating of only
application uses our resistors to warm and control the 3.0°C/W, its thermal efficiency is very high.
temperature of samples in blood analyzer systems.
In electronic circuits, power resistors provide heat Other Riedon power resistors have watt-density
to sensitive semiconductor chips and circuit boards ratings from below 10 watts/in2 to over 50 watts/in2
protecting them from damage by condensation and (see table 6) and surface areas generally below two
cold conditions. In life science applications, localized square inches.
heaters are used to incubate bacterial cultures
providing tight temperature control with minimum
over-shoot and no out-gassing. Some analyzer Type Watts (W) Area (in2) W/in2
systems use resistors to heat test samples. UAL-5 5 0.3 17
UAL-50 50 1.6 31
Good Thermal Design is Critical PF3220 15 0.2 75
Power resistors and heaters share a common critical PF1238H 80 1.5 53
design requirement - efficient thermal design. In either TF1218 50 0.5 100
product, good thermal design provides low thermal SP1185 5 0.2 25
resistance between the element and the exterior UB-12 10 1.2 8
environment.
Table 6. Riedon power resistors have watt-density
Power resistors must dissipate the heat generated ratings from below 10 watts/in2 to over 50 watts/in2
by current flow through the resistance element. This and surface areas generally below two square inches.
heat must be removed from the resistance element

www.riedon.com xx
Chapter 9
Reliability
Resistors are designed for ruggedness and reliability.
These features are also important in heaters, but often
ignored in standard heater designs. For high reliability,
resistors (and heaters) must be electrically stable and
structurally sound.
Elements run cooler in low thermal resistance designs,

lengthening life. Film elements are normally bonded
to anodized substrates. Wire elements are wound
on cores that are centerless ground for uniformity,
preventing hot spots and ensuring uniform heat
distribution.
Resistance wire and leads are welded to stainless

steel end caps, and elements are protected with
molded epoxy cases or silicone coatings. Dielectric
strength is typically 1000 VAC or higher.
Custom Designs
Riedon can modify existing power resistor designs
to fit many special applications. For example, it is
relatively easy to imbed one of our standard wire-
wound power resistors into a custom case. This
approach provides a low-cost alternative to special
cast-in heater designs. Our custom capability is
somewhat unique. Riedon focuses on small to
moderate volume resistor requirements, as contrasted
to the high volume “commodity” business. This allows
our manufacturing system to easily accommodate
customized designs and short run requirements
while still providing a high level of customer service at
economical prices. Prototypes are delivered quickly
at minimal cost, and early production delivery is fast.
We provide these same advantages for our resistance
heater and RTD business segment customers.

Appendix A Resistor Primer
Resistance Not all conductors are equally capable of supporting

Resistance is one of three basic quantities in electrical current flow. Copper is a better conductor than
or electronic circuits: nickel. Silver is a better conductor than copper. Gold
is a better conductor than Silver. Carbon is a poor
Current is the flow of electrons through a circuit. It conductor.
is the principle quantity because it does work, and
accomplishes the desired results. We measure Similarly, insulators are not perfect. Wood is an
current in Amperes. (See “UNITS”) insulator if dry, but becomes a conductor when wet.
The best insulators are glasses and ceramics. Plastics,
Voltage is the force that causes current to flow such as epoxy, are generally good insulators.
in a circuit. In fact, we sometimes call voltage
“electromotive force” or “EMF.” We measure it in Volts. There also are materials that are neither conductors
nor insulators. Called “semiconductors,” they are used
Resistance controls the flow of current. We measure it to make transistors. We will not discuss transistors
in Ohms. here, but it is interesting that they are really only
resistors that electronic circuits can control. This again
These three quantities are so basic to electrical and shows that Ohms Law is fundamental to circuit design.
electronic circuits, a simple equation called Ohms Law
relates them. Ohms law states that the current flowing Resistors
in a circuit is proportional to the voltage applied to the There are several ways to make resistors for electrical
circuit, and inversely proportional to the resistance or electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are made by
of the circuit. In other words, for a given voltage, the attaching leads to a bar or rod of carbon material.
current in the circuit will decrease as the resistance The material is usually made by suspending carbon
increases. particles in a plastic material. The material mix
determines resistance.
Mathematically, Ohms Law is: I = E/R, or current
equals voltage divided by resistance. This simple Carbon resistors have some serious limitations. They
equation can be transformed to find voltage or cannot dissipate much power, and are difficult to
resistance, given the other two quantities. (For make with small resistance tolerances. However,
example, if you know the voltage and current in a automated manufacturing makes them in large
circuit, you can calculate the circuit resistance by quantities, so their cost is low.
dividing the voltage by the current.)
Some resistors are made with metal films or oxides.
Ohms Law is truly fundamental. Every electrical or These resistors are small and can be manufactured
electronic circuit design begins here! with good tolerances. But, they cannot handle higher
power levels. Another type of film resistor is made
Conductors and Insulators with conductive inks. They are inexpensive, but are
All materials are either conductors or insulators; unstable and have limited power dissipation and poor
a material will either conduct electrical current, or resistance tolerances.
impede its flow.
Wirewound resistors are made by winding a length
of wire on an insulating core. They can dissipate large
power levels compared to other types, and can be
made with extremely tight resistance tolerances and
controlled temperature characteristics.

www.riedon.com xx
Appendix
Its length, cross-section area, and material determine The resistance of all materials changes as their
the resistance of a wire. Copper is a good conductor, temperature changes. If the temperature is lowered,
but has some resistance (to current flow.) A small resistance (typically) declines. In fact, if cooled
diameter copper wire, 100 feet long, may have a sufficiently, the material becomes a superconductor
resistance of a few ohms. However, a small diameter with no significant resistance. Increasing the
nickel alloy wire only one foot long may have a temperature (typically) increases resistance.
resistance of several thousand ohms.
The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of
Riedon makes wire wound resistors using wire of wire or a resistor relates the change in resistance to
several metal alloys and sizes. The selection of wire the change in temperature. It is usually expressed as
depends on several factors. For example, a high “parts per million per degree Centigrade” (ppm/°C.)
resistance design would require a long copper wire The temperature coefficient of resistance tells you
and the resistor would be large. The same resistor how much the resistance changes (ppm) if the
could be made with a short length of nickel alloy temperature changes one degree Centigrade.
wire, resulting in a much smaller device. However,
when a high precision resistor is required, it is easier Inductance
to trim resistance by removing a few inches of a low There is another quantity that is similar to resistance.
resistance wire, than by trimming millimeters of high It is called reactance. Like resistance, we measure
resistance wire. reactance in ohms, and it follows the rule of Ohms
Law.
Power
We measure electrical power in Watts. In a resistive Reactance only occurs in electrical or electronic
circuit, power is calculated by squaring the current circuits if the current flow is changing rapidly. It is
and multiplying that value by the resistance (P = I x usually important in alternating current (AC) circuits
R). Wirewound resistors excel in higher power rating where the current periodically changes direction and
applications. amplitude at some rate called frequency. However,
reactance does not exist in direct current (DC) circuits
Because resistors impede the flow of current, they where current flows in one direction and its amplitude
generate heat. If the resistor operates within its is not changing rapidly.
power rating, the heat is harmlessly dissipated into
the surrounding environment. But, if we exceed Reactance occurs because all circuit elements
the wattage rating, the resistor cannot dissipate the have inductance and capacitance. In AC circuits, the
excess heat, and its temperature rises. The resistor capacitance of wire wound resistors is seldom large
will fail, usually by acting as a fuse and breaking the enough to be considered, so we will ignore it in this
circuit. If the resistor is used in a high temperature discussion. However, the inductance of wire wound
environment, its power rating must be lowered, or resistors can be critical!
“derated.”
All conductors have some inductance. When the
Temperature Coefficient conductor is coiled, as it usually is in wire wound
In wirewound resistors, another selection factor is the resistors, this inductance becomes larger. In AC
temperature characteristic of the wire. circuits, inductance causes inductive reactance.
Inductive reactance and resistance add, increasing
the resistor’s value.

Appendix
Inductive reactance increases as the frequency of

the alternating current increases. For example, a
resistor might have enough inductance to create one
ohm of reactance at a frequency of 60Hz (cycles per
second.) If we increase the frequency to 6,000Hz (an
audio frequency), the reactance would increase to
100 ohms. Increasing the frequency to 6,000,000Hz (a
radio frequency), increases the resistor’s reactance is
10,000 ohms.
Obviously, the inductance of wirewound resistors

can be significant in AC circuits! When reactance is
important in AC circuit applications, Riedon can wind
the wire in a special way to eliminate or reduce the
resistor’s inductance.
Units
Amperes: (“Amps”)
milliamp = 1/1,000 amp
microamp = 1/1,000,000 amp
Volts:
millivolt = 1/1,000 volts
microvolt = 1/1,000,000 volts
Ohms:
kilo ohm (“K ohm” ) = 1,000 ohms
megohm = 1,000,000 ohms

www.riedon.com xx
The Ultimate Guide to
Resistors
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Guide To Resistors

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What are the different types of resistors discussed in the document?

What are the different types of resistors discussed in the document?

What factors are considered when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit?

What factors are considered when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit?

The Ultimate Guide to

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 1

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 3

Stability is difficult to specify and measure since it Thermocouple Effect

4 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Thermal Resistance of the resistor to desired characteristics in applications

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Power Rating

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 5

The standard maximum power ratings are called Aryton-Perry Windings

6 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Like every component, the fabrication technology

Yet the traditional wirewound resistor, despite a

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 7

removing a few centimeters (or even millimeters) of

Resistance Temperature Characteristics

8 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Pulse performance It is not easy to capture within a datasheet all of the

From Joule-rated devices for energy absorption to

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 9

Wirewound Thick Film Metal Film Metal Foil

Table 1. Comparison between resistor types for power electronics applications.

Example Applications for Common applications include HVAC controls,

10 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Film technology products have developed sufficiently

tolerance, TCR and stability over time is not as

conductive paste onto an insulating substrate (see

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 11

Laser Trimming Applications which commonly take advantage of thin

12 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Technology Wirewound Precision Wirewound Foil Resistor Foil (NiCr)

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 13

also specially designed to mitigate any parasitic

14 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

In any system where heat dissipation could affect the

Power (% from nominal power)

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 15

To calculate the thermal resistance of the resistor or

120 heat sink must be obtained from the manufacturer of

Figure 9. The derating curve of a resistor when

For the maximum allowed power dissipation, the

Where Tresistor is the inherent temperature of the

The thermal resistance is the factor of proportionality

16 The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs

Real World Accuracy

size-specific thermal conductance

temperature is 25°C or 40°C. To get a more accurate 0.0015

The thermal resistance of the resistor RthR is the

of the location holes or fixing strap), the force used 20

paste. The decrease of the heat conductivity within

The results of these calculations are the thermal

The UlTimaTe GUide To ResisToRs 17

Type/size RthRAppl Rthj-c Example 2. A PF2472 power film resistor needs to

Table 5. The specific inherent thermal resistance of

With these specifications, it is possible to calculate