INTRODUCTION

The study of a certain behavior of a population is what research is all about. It is all about
investigating or to search exhaustively. It is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry
or examination especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws, it can also be the collection
of information about a particular subject.

The study of the whole population however has become difficult, in some instances next
to impossible due to the factors that will be discussed later in this write up. As such,
samples to represent the population have been practice in the field of research.

A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can be
defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose
of a survey.

A population is a group of individual persons, objects, or items from which samples are
taken for measurement for example a population of presidents or professors, books or
students.

Sampling on the other hand is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable
sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters
or characteristics of the whole population. This process aims to reduce the use of
resources for a given research; save time that it may take to study the whole population;
Very useful for very large and/ or partly accessible populations.

SAMPLE SIZE

Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study population.
For example, all children below age three in Tanzania. Then determine your sampling
frame which could be a list of all the children below three as recorded by statistic bureau
of Tanzania. You can then struggle with the sample size.

The question of how large a sample should be is a difficult one. Sample size can be
determined by various constraints. When research costs are fixed, a useful rule of thumb
is to spent about one half of the total amount for data collection and the other half for data
analysis. This constraint influences the sample size as well as sample design and data
collection procedures.

In general, sample size depends on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired
precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons
that will be made, the number of variables that have to be examined. For example, if the
key analysis of a randomized experiment consists of computing averages for
experimentals and controls in a project and comparing differences, then a sample under
100 might be adequate, assuming that other statistical assumptions hold.

Probability and Non Probability Sampling

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a
chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be
accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce
unbiased estimates of population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their
probability of selection. Example; we want to estimate the total income of members of
staff working in my organization. We visit each department, identify all members of staff
working there, and randomly select one member from each department. The selected
members of staff are then interviewed and conclusion is made. Each member of staff in
the departments has equal chance of being selected.

Non probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the
population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/ 'under covered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Example: We visit every
household in a given street to establish whether they use our products, and interview the
first person answers the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a
non probability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sampling of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an
equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of
selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair
of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly
for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In
particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good
indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to
estimate the accuracy of results.

Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every X’s element from then onwards. In this case, X = (population size/sample size). It
is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the X element in the list. A simple example
would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory in a customer
satisfaction survey conducted in an organization.

Stratified sampling

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be
organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected.
A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or
variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will be in
group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are
referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of
units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B
has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10
from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C.

Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling', in the first stage a sample of

areas is chosen and in the second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a
cluster may be some thing like a school and a region. So you decide all the primary
schools in Dar Es Salaam are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple
or systematic random sampling to select the schools, and then every school selected
becomes a cluster. If your interest is to interview teachers on the opinion of some new
program which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be
interviewed.

Quota sampling

In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

The convenient sample

A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen
from a population for observation. A sample may be drawn due to convenience of
proximity, know who, and may be accessibility. A good example of this is when
choosing friends working in the banking sector to respond in a research done on the
employees’ retention study.
The judgment sample

A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar

with the relevant characteristics of the population. This is purely based on the
researcher’s discretion.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it can be said that using a sample in research saves mainly on money and
time, if a suitable sampling strategy is used, appropriate sample size selected and
necessary precautions taken to reduce on sampling and measurement errors, then a
sample should yield valid and reliable information. Details on sampling can be obtained
from the references included below and many other books on statistics or qualitative
research which can be found in libraries.

Reference:

Sampling in research, Mugo, Fridah W.

Wikipedia, searched on 13th October 2009