READING TEST 1:

Attitude of Language
It is not easy to be systematic and objective about language study. Popular
linguistic debate regularly deteriorates into invective and polemic.
Language belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to
hold an opinion about it And when opinions differ, emotions can run high.
Arguments can start as easily over minor points of usage as over major
policies of linguistic education.

Language, more oven is a very public behavior so it is easy for different

usages to be noted and criticized No part of society or social behavior is
exempt: linguistic factors influence how we judge personality, intelligence,
social status, educational standards, job aptitude, and many other areas of
identity and social survival. As a result, it is easy to hurt, and to be hurt,
when language use is unfeelingly attacked.

ln its most general sense. prescriptivism is the view that one variety of
language has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to
be imposed on the whole of the speech community. The view is
propounded especially in relation to grammar and vocabulary, and
frequently with reference to pronunciation. The variety which ls favoured, in
this account, ls usually a version of the ‘standard’ written language,
especially as encountered in literature, or in the formal spoken language
which most closely reflects this style. Adherents to this variety are said to
speak or write ‘correctly'; deviations from lt are said to be 'incorrect`.

All the main languages have been studied prescriptlvely, especially in the
18th-century approach to the writing of grammars and dictionaries. The
aims of these early grammarians were threefold: [a) they wanted to codify
the principles of their languages, to show that there was a system beneath
the apparent chaos of usage. (b] they wanted a means of settling disputes
over usage, and (c] they wanted to point out what they felt to be common
errors, in order to ‘improve' the language. The authoritarian nature of the
approach is best characterized by its reliance on 'rules' of grammar Some
usages are prescribed; to be learnt and followed accurately; others are
prescribed to be avoided. ln this early period, there were no half-measures:
usage was either right or wrong. and it was the task of the grammarian not
simply to record alliterative but to pronounce judgement upon them.

These attitudes are still with us, and they motivate a widespread concern
that linguistic standards should be maintained. Nevertheless, there is an
alternative point of view that is concerned less with standards than with the
facts of linguistic usage. This approach ls summarized in the statement
that it is the task of the grammarian to describe not prescribe to record the
facts of linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks
evaluating language variation or halting language change. In the second
half of the 18th century, we already find advocates of this view, such as
Joseph Priestley, whose Rudiments of English Grammar (1761) insists that
‘the custom of speaking is the original and only just standard of any
language. `Linguistic issues, it is argued, cannot be solved by logic and
legislation. And this view has become the tenet of the modem linguistic
approach to grammatical analysis.

In our own time, the opposition between ‘descriptivists' and 'prescriptivists'

has often become extreme. with both sides painting unreal pictures of the
other. Descriptive grammarians have been presented as people who do
not care about standards, because of the way they see all forms of usage
as equally valid. Prescriptive grammarians have been presented as blind
adherents to a historical tradition. The opposition has even been presented
in quasi-political terms - of radical liberalism vs elitist conservatism.

Questions 1-8
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading
Passage 54?
In boxes 1-8 of your answer sheet, write:

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

1 There are understandable reasons why arguments occur about

language.
2 People feel more strongly about language education than about small
differences in language usage.
3 Our assessment of a person's intelligence is affected by the way he or
she uses language.
4 Prescriptive grammar books cost a lot of money to buy in the 18th
century.
5 Prescriptivism still exists today.
6 According to the descriptivist, it is pointless to try to stop language
change.
7 Descriptivism only appeared after the 18th century.
8 Both descriptivists and prescriptivists have been misrepresented.

Questions 9-12
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-l, below
Write the correct letter A-l, in boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet.

The language debate

According to 9 ………….., there is only one correct form of language.

Linguists who take this approach to language place great importance on
grammatical 10 ......................... Conversely, the view of 11 …………..,
such as Joseph Priestley, is that grammar should be based
on 12 ...................... .

Questions 13
Choose the correct letter A. B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 13 on your answer sheet.
What is the writer's purpose in Reading Passage?

A to argue in favour of a particular approach to writing dictionaries and

grammar books
B to present a historical account of differing views of language
C to describe the differences between spoken and written language
D to show how a certain view of language has been discredited
 Tidal Power
Undersea turbines which produce electricity from the tides are set to
become an important source of renewable energy for Britain. It is still too
early to predict the extent of the impact they may have. but all the signs
are that they will play a significant role in the future.

A. Operating on the same principle as wind turbines, the power in sea

turbines comes from tidal currents which turn blades similar to ships'
propellers, but, unlike the wind, the tides are predictable and the power
input is constant. The technology raises the prospect of Britain becoming
self-sufficient in renewable energy and drastically reducing its carbon
dioxide emissions, if tide, wind and wave power are all developed. Britain
would be able to close gas, coal and nuclear power plants and export
renewable power to other parts of Europe. Unlike wind power which Britain
originally developed and then abandoned for 20 years allowing the Dutch
to make it a major industry, undersea turbines could become a big export
earner to island nations such as Japan and New Zealand.

B. Tidal sites have already been identified that will produce one-sixth or
more of the UK’s power - and at prices competitive with modern gas
turbines and undercutting those of the already ailing nuclear industry. One
site alone, the Pendand Firth, between Orkney and mainland Scotland,
could produce 10% of the country's electricity with banks of turbines under
the sea, and another at Alderney in the Channel islands three times the
1,200 megawatts of Britain's largest and newest nuclear plant, Sizewell B,
in Suffolk. Other sites identified include the Bristol Channel and the west
coast of Scotland, particularly the channel between Campbeltown and
Northern Ireland.

C. Work on designs for the new turbine blades and sites are well advanced
at the University of Southampton‘s sustainable energy research group. The
first station is expected to be installed off Lynmouth in Devon shortly to test
the technology in a venture jointly funded by the department of Trade and
Industry and the European Union. AbuBakr Bahaj, in charge of the
Southampton research. said: The prospects for energy from tidal currents
are far better than from wind because the flows of water are predictable
and constant. The technology for dealing with the hostile saline
environment under the sea has been developed in the North Sea oil
industry and much is already known about turbine blade design, because
of wind power and ship propellers. There are a few technical difficulties,
but I believe in the next nine to ten years we will be installing commercial
marine turbine farms.' Southampton has been awarded £2’l5.U.`D over
three years to develop the turbines and is working with Marine Current
Turbines. a subsidiary of IT power; on the Lynmouth project. EU research
has now identified 1GB potential sites for tidal powen BG% round the
coasts of Britain. The best sites are between islands or around heavily
indented coasts where there are strong tidal currents.

D. A marine turbine blade needs to be only one-third of the size of a wind

generator to produce three times as much power. The blades will be about
20 metres in diameter so around 30 metres of water is required. Unlike
wind power, there are unlikely to be environmental objections. Fish and
other creatures are thought unlikely to be at risk from the relatively slow
turning blades. Each turbine will be mounted on a tower which will connect
to the national power supply grid via underwater cables. The towers will
stick out of the water and be lit. to warn shipping, and also be designed to
be lifted out of the water for maintenance and to clean seaweed from the
blades.

E. Dr Baha has done most work on the Alderrney site, where there are
powerful currents. The single undersea turbine farm would produce far
more power than needed for the Channel Islands and most would be fed
into the French Grid and be re-imported into Britain via the cable under the
Channel.

F. One technical difficulty is cavitations, where low pressure behind a

turning blade causes air bubbles. These can cause vibration and damage
the blades of the turbines. Dr Bahaj said: 'We have to test a number of
blade types to avoid this happening or at least make sure it does not
damage the turbines or reduce performance. Another slight concern is
submerged debris floating into the blades. So far we do not know how
much of a problem it might be. We will have to make the turbines robust
because the sea is a hostile environment. but all the signs that we can do it
are good.

Questions 14-17
Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter; A-F in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

14 the location of the first test site

15 a way of bringing the power produced on one site back into Britain
16 a reference to a previous attempt by Britain to find an alternative source
of energy
17 mention of the possibility of applying technology from another industry

Questions 18-22
CHOOSE FIVE Letters A-J
Write the correct letters in boxes 18-22 on your answer street.
Which FIVE of the following claims about tidal power are made by the
writer?

A. It is a more reliable source of energy than wind power.

B. It would replace all other forms of energy in Britain.
C. Its introduction has come as a result of public pressure.
D. It would cut down on air pollution.
E. It could contribute to the closure of many existing power stations ln
Britain.
F. It could be a means of increasing national income.
G. It could face a lot of resistance from other fuel industries.
H. It could be sold more cheaply than any other type of fuel.
I. It could compensate for the shortage of inland sites for energy
production.
J. It is best produced in the vicinity of coastlines with particular features.

Questions 23-26
Label the diagram below
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer
Write your answers in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet,

An Undersea Turbine

Whole tower can be raised for 23 ............. and the extraction of seaweed
from the blades. Sea life not in danger due to the fact that blades are
comparatively 24 ..........
Air bubble result from the 25 ........., behind blades. This is known
as 26 ............
 Information Theory- the Big Data
Information theory lies at the heart of everything - from DVD players and
the genetic code of DNA to the physics of the universe at its most
fundamental. it has been central to the development of the science of
communication, which enables data to be sent electronically and has
therefore had a major impact on our lives.
A. In April 2002 an event took place which demonstrated one of the many
applications of information theory. The space probe, Voyager I, launched in
1977, had sent back spectacular images of Jupiter and Saturn and then
soared out of the Solar System on a one-way mission to the stars. After 25
years of exposure to the freezing temperatures of deep space, the probe
was beginning to show its age, Sensors and circuits were on the brink of
failing and NASA experts realized that they had to do something or lose
contact with their probe forever. The solution was to get a message to
Voyager I to instruct it to use spares to change the failing parts. With the
probe 12 billion kilometers from Earth, this was not an easy task. By
means of a radio dish belonging to NASA’s Deep Space Network, the
message was sent out into the depths of space. Even travelling at the
speed of light, it took over II hours to reach its target, far beyond the orbit
of Pluto. Yet, incredibly, the little probe managed to hear the faint call from
its home planet, and successfully made the switchover.

B. It was the Ingest·distance repair job in history, and a triumph for the
NASA engineers. But it also highlighted the astonishing power of the
techniques developed by American communications engineer Claude
Shannon, who had died just a year earlier. Born in 1916 in Petoskey,
Michigart. Shannon showed an early talent for maths and for building
gadgets, and made breakthroughs in the foundations of computer
technology when still a student. While at Bell laboratories, Shannon
developed information theory, but shunned the resulting acclaim. In the
1940s. he singlehandedly created an entire science of communication
which has since inveigled its way into a host of applications, from DVDs to
satellite communication to bar codes - any area, in short, where data has
to be conveyed rapidly yet accurately.
C. This all seems light years away from the down to-earth uses Shannon
originally had for his work, which began when he was a 22-year—old
graduate engineering student at the prestigious Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1939. He set out with an apparently simple aim: to pin down
the precise meaning of the concept of ‘information'. The most basic form of
information, Shannon argued, is whether something is true or false - which
can be captured in the binary unit, or 'bit', of the form 1 or 0. Having
identified this fundamental unit, Shannon set about defining otherwise
vague ideas about information and how to transmit it from place to place.
ln the process he discovered something surprising: it is always possible to
guarantee information will gel through random interference - ‘noise' —
intact.

D. Noise usually means unwanted sounds which interfere with genuine

information. information theory generalizes this idea via theorems that
capture the effects of noise with mathematical precision. In particular,
Shannon showed that noise sets a limit on the rate at which information
can pass along communication channels while remaining error-free. This
rate depends on the relative strengths of the signal and noise travelling
down the communication channel, and on its capacity (its' bandwidth').
The resulting limit, given in units of bits per second, is the absolute
maximum rate of error-free communication given signal strength and noise
level. The trick, Shannon showed, is to find ways of packaging up - ‘coding'
- information to cope with the ravages of noise, while staying within the
information carrying capacity ‘bandwidth' - of the communication system
being used.

E. Over the years scientists have devised many such coding methods, and
they have proved crucial in many technological feats. The Voyager
spacecraft transmitted data using codes which added one extra bit for
every single bit of information; the result was an error rate of just one bit in
10,000 — and stunningly clear pictures of the planets. Other codes have
become parts of everyday life - such as the Universal Product Code, or bar
code, which uses a simple error-detecting system that ensures
supermarket check-out lasers can read the price even on. say, a crumpled
bag of crisps. As recently as 1993, engineers made a major breakthrough
by discovering so-called turbo codes - which come very close to Shannon’s
ultimate limit for the maximum rate that data can be transmitted reliably,
and now play a key role in the mobile videophone revolution.

F. Shannon also laid the foundations of more efficient ways of storing

information, by stripping out superfluous (‘redundant') bits from data which
contributed little real information. As mobile phone text messages like 'l CN
C U' show, it is often possible to leave out a lot of data without losing much
meaning, As with error correction, however, there's a limit beyond which
messages become too ambiguous. Shannon showed how to calculate this
limit, opening the way to the design of compression methods that cram
maximum information into the minimum space.

Questions 27-32
Reading Passage 56 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write the correct letter A-E in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.
27 an explanation of the factors affecting the transmission of information
28 an example of how unnecessary information can be omitted
29 a reference to Shannon`s attitude to fame
30 details of a machine capable of interpreting incomplete information
31 a detailed account of an incident involving information theory
32 a reference to what Shannon initially intended to achieve in his
research

Questions 33-37
Complete the notes below.
Choose N0 MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each
answer
Write your answers in boxes 33—37 on your answer sheet.

The Voyager l Space Probe

The probe transmitted pictures of both 33 ..................., and ................ ,

then left the 34 ................ The freezing temperatures were found to have a
negative effect on parts of the space probe. Scientists feared that both the
35 ............. and .............. were about to stop working. The only hope was
lo tell the probe to replace them with 38 ................ - but distance made
communication with the probe difficult. A 37, ................ was used to
transmit the message at the speed of light.
The message was picked up by the probe and the switchover took place.

Questions 38-40
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 37 in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet. write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

38. The concept of describing something as true or false was the starting
point for Shannon in his attempts to send messages over distances.
39. The amount of information that can be sent in a given time period is
determined with reference to the signal strength and noise level.
40. Products have now been developed which can convey more
information than Shannon had anticipated as possible.