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ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE TITLE:CHEMICAL ENGINEERING APPARATUS DESIGN
COURSE CODE:Cheg4191
WORK TYPE:PROJECT ON DRYER
SECTION THREE
NETWORK ONE
PROJECT GROUP MEMBER
NAME ID NUMBER
1. ABEBA MESERET 00671/08
2. AGEFARY ABDELE 00742/08
3. AMARE BIRHANU 00823/08
4. AREGAWI SELEMON 00849/08
5. ASHENAFY ETSAY 00859/08
6. ASQUAL WELDEMARIAM 00867/08
7. ZAYDE MARYE 02563/08

SUBMITTED TO INSTRUCTOR’S: 1.MEBRAHTOM HAGOS, AND

2. TSEGAKIROS FANTAY

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ACKNOWLOGMENT
First and foremost ,we would like to thank god for his never-ending grace,mercy,and
provision du ring what ended up being one of the toughest times of our life, playing
an icon like Elizabeth was a dream come true. Then we are really grateful because we
managed to complete our chemical Engineering Apparatus design (cheg4191) project
within the time by our Instructor’s Mebrahtom Hagose and Tsegakiros Fantay.This
project cannot be completed without the effort co-operation from our group
member’s. We also like to thank the digital librarian of our university library staffer
their co-operation during the project. Last but not least we would like to express our
gratitude to our friends and respondents for the support and willingness to spend
some times with us to fill in the questionnaires.

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Abstract
Drying is one of the widely used methods of grain, fruit and vegetable preservation.
The important aim of drying is to reduce the moisture content and thereby increase the
life time of products by limiting enzymatic and oxidative degradation. In addition, by
reducing the amount of water, drying reduces the crop losses, improves the quality of
dried products and facilitates its transportation, handling and storage requirements.
Drying is a process comprising simultaneous heat and mass transfer within the
material, and between the surface of the material and the surrounding media. Many
models have been used to describe the drying process for different agricultural
products. These models are used to estimate drying time of several products under
different drying conditions, and how to increase the drying process efficiency and also
to generalize drying curves, for the design and operation of dryers. Several
investigators have proposed numerous mathematical models for thin layer drying of
many agricultural products. This study gives a comprehensive review of more than
100 different semi-theoretical and empirical thin layer drying models used in
agricultural products and evaluates the statistical criteria for the determination of
appropriate model.

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 ii

BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS DRYER………………………………………...1

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS……………………………….
CHAPTER THREE THERMAL DESIGN OF DRYER………………….
CHAPTER FOUR MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DRYER………………
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUTION AND RECOMMONDATION………
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………
APPENDIX………………………………………………………………

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 iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

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CHAPTER ONE

WHAT IS DRYER?

1.1 NTRODUCTION
The term drying refers generally to the removal of moisture from a substance. It is one
of the oldest, most commonly used and most energy consuming unit operation in the
process industries. Drying is often necessary in various industrial operations
particularly in chemical process industries to remove moisture from a wet solid, a
solution or a gas to make it dry and choice of drying medium is depends on the
chemical nature of the materials. Three basic methods of drying are used today:
1) Sun drying, a traditional method in which materials dry naturally in the sun,
2) Hot air drying in which materials are exposed to a blast of hot air and
3) freeze drying, in which frozen materials are placed in a vacuum chamber to draw
out the water. The fundamental nature of all drying process is the removal of volatile
substances (mainly moisture) from mixture to yield a solid product. In general drying
is accomplished by thermal techniques and thus involves the application of heat, most
commonly by convection from current of air. Throughout the convective drying of
solid materials, two processes occur simultaneously namely, transfer of energy from
the local environment in the dryer and transfer of moisture from within the solid.
Therefore this unit operation may be considered as simultaneous heat and mass
transfer operation.

1.2 PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF DRYING

Drying does not mean only removal of the moisture but during the process, physical
structure as well as the appearance has to be preserved. Drying is basically governed
by the principles of transport of heat and mass. When a moist solid is heated to an
appropriate temperature, moisture vaporizes at or near the solid surface and the heat
required for evaporating moisture from the drying product is supplied by the external
drying medium, usually air or a hot gas. Drying is a diffusion process in which the
transfer of moisture to the surrounding medium takes place by the evaporation of
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surface moisture, as soon as some of the surface moisture vaporizes; more moisture is
transported from interior of the solid to its surface. This transport of moisture within a
solid takes place by a variety of mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of
the solid and its state of aggregation. Different types of solids may have to be handled
for drying crystalline, granular, beads, powders, sheets, slabs, filter-cakes etc. The
mechanism of moisture transport in different solids may be broadly classified into
A. Transport by liquid or vapor diffusion
B. Capillary section, and
C. Pressure induced transport.
The mechanism that dominates depends on the nature of the solid, its pore structure
and the rate of drying. Different mechanisms may come into play and dominate at
different stages of drying of the same material. The following term are commonly
used in designing of drying systems. Moisture content of a substance which exerts as
equilibrium vapor pressure less than of the pure liquid at the same temperature is
referred to as bound moisture. Moisture content of the solid which externs an
equilibrium vapor pressure equal to that of pure liquid at the given temperature is the
unbound moisture.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
There are two main objectives to achieve in this project which are:
 To study a characteristics and performance of the dryer system.
 To develop a dryer system for food drying and other applications

1.3.1 General objectives

The general objectives of this project are to design and construct a modified dryer
 Construction and working of dryer
 Advantages and disadvantages of dryer

1.3.2 Specific objective

The specific objectives of this study will be
 To design and construct a box type dryer system with different wire mesh
layers
 To evaluate the performance of the designed dryer.
 To compare thermal performance of the box type dryer, with the simple solar
dryer (with glass collector).

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1.4 SELECTION OF DRYING EQUIPMENT AND ITS COST
It depends on;
• Physical /Chemical properties of the product.
• Production Capacity (Kg/hr)
• Initial Moisture Content and final moisture required.
• Particle Size Distribution.
• Temperature & Drying Characteristics.
• Explosion & Toxicological Characteristics.
The following are some general considerations for the selection of dryer.
◦ The dryer must also operate reliably, safely & economically
◦ Operating & maintenance costs must not be excessive
◦ Pollution must be controlled
◦ Energy consumption must be minimized
In view of the enormous choice of dryer types one could possibly deploy for most
products, selection of the best type is a challenging task that should not be taken
lightly. The first consideration in selecting a dryer is its operability. Above all else,
the equipment must produce the desired product in the desired form at the desired
rate. The quality required in a finished product, and its necessary physical
characteristics, are determined by its end use. A wrong dryer for a given application is
still a poor dryer, regardless of how well it is designed. Although variety of
commercial dryers are available in the market, the different types mare largely
complementary, not competitive, and the nature of the drying problem dictates the
type of dryer that must be used, or at least limits the choice to perhaps two or three
possibilities. The final choice is then made on the basis of capital and operating costs.
Attention must be paid, however, to the costs of the entire drying system, not just the
drying unit alone.

1.5 Applications of Dryer

◦ Milk Powder ◦ Ceramic Slurry
◦ Magnesium Chloride ◦ Molasses
◦ Poly Aluminum Chloride ◦ Enzymes
◦ Catalysts ◦ Calcium Chloride
◦ Instant Tea/Coffee ◦ Instant Coffee
◦ Pastes ◦ Zealots

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◦ UF Resin ◦ Fruit Juice Powder
◦ Protein Hydrolysis ◦ Polyvinyl Acetate
◦ Dyes ◦ Detergent Powder
◦ Herbal Products ◦ Polymers (PVC, PP, PS, PMMA, PE)

1.6 Problem Statements

Drying is one of the oldest methods using solar energy where the products such as
vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat, etc to be dried exposed directly to the sun. This
method has many disadvantages such as spoilt products due to rain, wind, dust, insect
infestation, animal attack and fungi. The speed of drying especially in open sun
drying which is solar radiation exposed directly to the products will cause the
product's surface becomes hard before the moisture inside has a chance to evaporate
and it will affect the quality of dried product due to over drying. Open sun drying also
suffers from a high labor requirement and excessive crop handling particularly in
periods of inclement weather which can result in high costs, crop damage and a loss in
quality. In this study, the dryer was designed to solve this problem and will adapt the
ergonomics.
Problem Statement-1
Design a rotary drier using counter current flow is to be used to dry 25000 lb/hr of
wet solid (PTA) containing 5 weight percent water to a water content of 0.10 weight
per cent. The wet solid enters at 30oC (860F). Ambient air at 300C (860F) will be
heated to 1560C (3130F). Specific heat of solid is 0.2871. Estimate the length and
diameter of the drier.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DRYER CONSTRUCTION IN DETAIL AND INSTALLATION
1. Take the time to measure
We can’t stress this enough: Measure the space where we want to install the new
dryer, and take note of plumbing, electrical, and vent locations. Be especially accurate
with measurements for a laundry area surrounded by built-in cabinetry and for
machines stacked in a closet. These two installation scenarios have the smallest
margins for error. Keep in mind that there aren’t many standard dimensions for
dryers, so we need to compare the measurements of our space carefully with the
detailed technical specs for each model. Look for potential problems, and be sure that
the space can accommodate any accessories you’re considering, such as pedestals and
stacking kits.
2. Keep the appliances serviceable
Every laundry machine will break or malfunction at some point. Most service
companies refuse to do the repair if one person can’t get an appliance out and back
into its space without damaging floors, walls, or cabinets.
3. Know when to hire help
If the installation is especially complicated, consider buying your appliances from a
local dealer that specializes in working with custom-home builders and remodelers.
They usually have contact with specialized appliance-installation subcontractors who
have the experience that comes from years of custom appliance installations.
4. Duct length is crucial
When you check the technical specs of the dryers you’re considering, find the
allowable duct length for each machine. (This information is typically buried
somewhere in the installation manual, which you can find online if yours is missing.)
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 The allowable duct length can vary by more than 60 ft., depending on the model.
Also, be sure to count each elbow in the duct run at the equivalent straight-run length
listed in the manual.
5. Flex duct is OK, to an extent If, dryer ducting would always be rigid galvanized
steel and never the thin aluminum duct that’s often sold as dryer ducting. Flexible
ducting, though, is sometimes helpful. We use it between the dryer and the rigid duct
to allow me to connect the two and to push the dryer in place. I typically use less than
24 in., often much less, but in some instances, as with a stacked dryer in a closet, the
flexible duct must be slightly longer so that you can connect the dryer and push it in
place.
6. Use tape, not clamps
Metal worm-drive clamps won’t give you an airtight seal at joints in dryer ductwork,
and the leaking air traps lint around the joints and causes an obstruction over time.
Duct seams should be sealed with high-quality tape. Never use cloth duct tape; it will
dry out and fail. Aluminum foil tape stands up over time, but the best option is mastic
tape such as Nashua 324-A. This tape has foil on the outside, a thin layer of plastic in
the middle, and then an aggressive adhesive. Before using any tape, clean the
manufacturing-oil residue off the galvanized-steel duct with a degreasing household
cleanser, or the adhesive could fail.

2.2 FACTORS REQUIRED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENT

TYPES OF DRYER
 Capacity
 Product quality
 Product size
 Product consistency
 Hours of operation
 Pounds of water to be evaporated
 Acidity of the product
 Operational environment etc.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS

Drying equipment is classified in different ways, according to following design and
operating features.

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 Criterion Types

A. Mode of operation  Batch

 Continuous
B. Heat input-type  Convection
 Conduction
 Radiation
 Electromagnetic fields
 Combination of heat transfer modes
 Intermittent or continuous
 Adiabatic or non-adiabatic
C. State of material in dryer  Stationary
 Moving, agitated, dispersed
D. Operating pressure  Vacuum*
 Atmospheric
E. Drying medium (convection)  Air*
 Superheated steam
 Flue gases
F. Drying temperature  Below boiling temperature*
 Above boiling temperature
 Below freezing point
G. Drying temperature  Below boiling temperature*
 Above boiling temperature
 Below freezing point
H. Relative motion between  Co-current
drying medium and drying solids  Counter-current
 Mixed flow
I. Number of stages  Single*
 Multi-stage
 Residence time
 Short (< 1 minute)
 Medium (1 – 60 minutes)
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  Long (> 60 minutes)

2.3.1 Batch Type Dryers

Tray Dryer
Schematic of a typical batch dryer is shown in figure 2.1. Tray dryers usually operate
in batch mode, use racks to hold product and circulate air over the material. It consists
of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing trucks that support racks. Each
rack carries a number of trays that are loaded with the material to be dried. Hot air
flows through the tunnel over the racks. Sometimes fans are used to on the tunnel wall
to blow hot air across the trays. Even baffles are used to distribute the air uniformly
over the stack of trays. Some moist air is continuously vented through exhaust duct;
makeup fresh air enters through the inlet. The racks with the dried product are taken
to a tray-dumping station

Figure -2.1: Tray dryer

These types of dryers are useful when the production rate is small. They are used to
dry wide range of materials, but have high labor requirement for loading and
unloading the materials, and are expensive to operate. They find most frequent
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application for drying valuable products. Drying operation in case of such dryers is
slow and requires several hours to complete drying of one batch. With indirect heating
often the dryers may be operated under vacuum. The trays may rest on hollow plates
supplied with steam or hot water or may themselves contain spaces for a heating fluid.
Vapor from the solid may be removed by an ejector or vacuum pump. Freeze-drying
involves the sublimation of water from ice under high vacuum at temperatures well
below 0oC. This is done in special vacuum dryers for drying heat-sensitive products.

Pan Dryer
The atmospheric pan drier has a jacketed round pan in which a stirrer or mill revolves
slowly, driven from below. The slow moving stirrer exposes fresh surfaces and
thereby raises the rate of evaporation and, hence, of drying. The pan drier is a batch
machine and is limited to small batches. Pan driers may be used first to evaporate a
solution to its crystallizing concentration and then can function as a crystallizer by
sending cold water instead of steam into the jacket. The effect of the stirrer during
crystallization prevents the growth of large crystals and promotes formation of small,
uniform crystals. The mother liquor is then drained off and the crystals dried in the
same apparatus.

Agitated Vacuum
Dryer The agitated vacuum dryer is one of the most versatile in the range and is
similar in principle to a pan dryer. The dryer essentially consists of a jacketed
cylindrical vessel arranged for hot water, steam or a suitable thermal fluid flow
through the jacket for heating. Doors are provided on the shell, at the top for loading
the feed material and at the bottom for discharging. The dryers are available in variety
of sizes. The entire drying chamber is well machined to insure small clearance with
the agitator blade. Thus ensures proper shuffling of the material and avoids localized
overheating. Due to the agitation of the product in the agitated vacuum dryer the
drying time is substantially reduced. A choice of the agitator design which can be
arranged with or without heating depends on the material characteristics and process
requirements.

Continuous Dryer

Rotary Dryer
The rotary drier is basically a cylinder, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which may
be rotated, or the shell may be stationary, and an agitator inside may revolve slowly.
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In either case, the wet material is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation, or agitation,
advances the material progressively to the lower end, where it is discharged. Figure
(2.2) shows a direct heat rotary drier. Typical dimensions for a unit like this are 9 ft
diameter and 45 ft length. In direct-heat revolving rotary driers, hot air or a mixture of
flue gases and air travels through the cylinder. The feed rate, the speed of rotation or
agitation, the volume of heated air or gases, and their temperature are so regulated that
the solid is dried just before discharge.

Figure 2.2: Counter current direct heat rotary dryer

The shell fits loosely into a stationary housing at each end. The material is brought to
a chute that runs through the housing; the latter also carries the exhaust pipe. The
revolving shell runs on two circular tracks and is turned by a girth gear that meshes
with a driven pinion. The inclination is one in sixteen for high capacities and one in
thirty for low ones. As the shell revolves, the solid is carried upward one-fourth of the
circumference; it then rolls back to a lower level, exposing fresh surfaces to the action
of the heat as it does so. Simple rotary driers serve well enough when fuel is cheap.
The efficiency is greatly improved by placing longitudinal plates 3 or 4 in. wide on
the inside of the cylinder. These are called lifting flights. These carry part of the solid
half-way around the circumference and drop it through the whole of a diameter in the
central part of the cylinder where the air is hottest and least laden with moisture. By
bending the edge of the lifter slightly inward, some of the material is delivered only in
the third quarter of the circle, producing a nearly uniform fall of the material
throughout the cross section of the cylinder. The heated air streams through a rain of
particles. This is the most common form of revolving rotary cylinder. It has high
capacity, is simple in operation, and is continuous.
Table 2.1: Rotary dryer’s practical ranges of dimension and operating
parameters
Shell i.d. : D = 1 to 10 ft Length, L = 4 D to 15 D

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 Radial flight height: D/12 to D/8; shell Peripheral shell speed: 50 – 100 ft/min
rpm: 4 to 5
The flight count per circle: 2.4D to 3 D
Inclination of the shell to the horizontal: Avg. solid retention time: 5 min to 2h
up to 8cm/m
Mass flow rate of the drying gas: 300 to Drying capacity: 0.4 to 2.5 lb moisture/(h) (ft3
5000 lb/h.ft2 dryer volume)
Number of heat transfer units in the Solid hold up m(i.e. fraction of the shell volume
dryer (NT): 1.5 to 2 occupied by the solid at any time): 5-15%

Drum Dryer
In drum dryers (Fig 2.3a, b) a liquid containing dissolved solids or slurry carrying
suspended solids forms a thin layer on the outside surface of a large rotating drum.
For a single drum unit thickness of the film can be controlled by an adjustable
scraping blade. In case of a double drum unit thickness can be controlled by the gap
between the drums (figure 2.3a). A gas, normally air may be blown over the surface
for rapid removal of moisture. The rotation of the drum adjusted so that all of the
liquid is fully vaporized and a dried deposit can be scrapped off with the help of
flexible or adjustable knife. This type of dryer mainly handles the materials that are
too thick for a spray dryer and too thin for a rotary dryer. The solid collects on an
apron in front of the knife and rolls to a container or to a screw conveyor. The
operation of the drum drier is continuous. The drum is rotated continuously by a gear
driven by a pinion that receives its motion through a belt, a chain, or a reduction gear
from. The speed of the drum may be regulated by a variable-speed drive to adopt the
speed to any slight variation in the feed quality. The speed of the drum regulated
depending upon the nature of materials (i.e. wet or dry), if the product material is
wet/dry quite a distance before the knife is reached, the speed should be
decreased/increased. The design of the components is similar to that of drum filter.
The knife may be held just against the surface. It may be brought closer by turning the
adjusting wheels. The knife supports may be turned through part of a circle so that the
angle of the blade of the knife relative to the drum surface may be selected for the
greatest shearing effect. In recent years, double drum dryers have replaced single
drum dryer in several applications (figure 2.3b), due to their more efficient operation,

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wide range of products and high production rates.

Figure-2.3a: single drum dryer

Figure-2.3b: double drum dryer

Flash Dryer
The flash driers (figure 2.4), also called pneumatic dryers, are similar in their
operating principle to spray dryer. The materials that are to be dried (i.e. solid or
semisolid) are dispersed in finely divided form in an upward flowing stream of heated
air. These types of dryer are mainly used for drying of heat sensitive or easily
oxidizable materials. The wet materials that are to dried can be passed into a high-
temperature air stream that carries it to a hammer mill or high-speed agitator where
the exposed surface is increased. The drying rate is very high for these dryers (hence
the term flash dryers), but the solid temperature does not rise much because of the
short residence time. A flash dryer is not suitable for particles which are large in size
or heavy particles. The special advantage of this type of dryer is that no separate
arrangement is required for transporting the dried product. The fine particles leave the
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mill through a small duct to maintain the carrying velocities (drying gas) and reach a
cyclone separator. A solid particle takes few seconds to pass from the point of entry
into the air stream to the collector. The inlet gas temperature is high and varies from
650oC to 315oC, for example, in 2 seconds, or from 650oC to 175oC in 4 seconds. The
thermal efficiency this type of dryer is generally low. A material having an initial
moisture content of 80 % may be reduced to 5 or 6 % in the dried product.

Figure 2.4: Flash dryer

Fluidized Bed Dryer

Fluidized bed dryer consist of a steel shell of cylindrical or rectangular cross section.
A grid is provided in the column over which the wet material is rests. In this type of
dryer, the drying gas is passed through the bed of solids at a velocity sufficient to
keep the bed in a fluidized state. Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid in this type of
dryers. The dryer can be operated in batch or continuous mode (figure 2.5). Fluidized
bed dryer are suitable for granular and crystalline materials. If fine particles are
present, either from the feed or from particle breakage in the fluidized bed, there may
be considerable solid carryover with the exit gas and bag filters are needed for fines
recovery. The main advantage of this type of dryer are: rapid and uniform heat
transfer, short drying time, good control of the drying conditions.
In case of rectangular fluid-bed dryers separate fluidized compartments are provided
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 through which the solids move in sequence from inlet to outlet. These are known as
plug flow dryers; residence time is almost the same for all particles in the
compartments. But the drying conditions can be changed from one compartment to
another, and often the last compartment is fluidized with cold gas to cool the solid
before discharge.

Figure 2.5: Continuous fluidized bed dryer

I. Screen Conveyor Dryers

Screen conveyor dryer is also called a direct heat continuous type dryer. The solid to be dried are fed on
to endless, perforated, conveyor belt through which hot air is forced. The belt is housed in a long
rectangular drying chamber or tunnel (figure 2.6). The chamber is divided into series of separate
sections, each with its own fan and air heater. Air may be re circulated through and vented from each
section separately or passed from one section to another counter current to the solid movement. The
solid is carried through the tunnel and discharged at the opposite end. In order to prevent the higher flow
rate of hot air through thinner regions of the bed a uniform feeding rate and distribution of the material
over the conveyor is necessary. Coarse granular, flakey, or fibers materials can be dried by through
circulation without any pretreatment and without loss of material through the screen. High drying rate
can be achieved with good product quality control. Thermal efficiency of this type of dryer is high and
with steam heating, the steam consumption for heating the drying gas can be as low as 1.5 kg per kg of

Figure 2.6: Screen conveyor dryer

water evaporated. Only disadvantage of this type of dryer are high initial cost and high maintenance cost
due to the mechanical belt.

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CHAPTER THREE

THERMAL DESIGN OF DRYER

3.1 THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF DRYE

Design of a rotary dryer only on the basis of fundamental principle is very difficult. Few of
correlations that are available for design may not prove to be satisfactory for many systems. The
design of a rotary dryer is better done by using pilot plant test data and the full scale operating
data of dryer of similar type if available, together with the available design equations. A fairly
large number of variables are involved such as solid to be dried per hour, the inlet and exit
moisture contents of the solid, the critical and equilibrium moisture contents, temperature and
humidity of the drying gas. The design procedure based on the basic principles and available
correlations is discussed below. In this case we assume that the solid has only unbound moisture
and as shown in fig 2.7 in stage II the solid is at the wet bulb temperature of the gas

Figure 3.1: Temperature profile for solid and gas in a counter current rotary dryer
1. Heat losses from dryer surfaces are neglected.
2. Once the capacity of the dryer is known, the drying gas flow rate, its temperature and humidity are
decided considering a number of factors. And the following moisture & enthalpy balances need to be
satisfied.
Gs (Y1 - Y2) = Ms (X1 – X2) Gs

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(Hg2 – Hg1) = Ms (HS2 – Hs1)
Here, Gs = flow rate of air (dry basis, kg/h), Ms = flow rate of solid (kg/h, dry basis), Hs = humidity of
air (kg/H2O/kg dry air)
3. The gas and solid temperatures at the stage boundaries are obtained by moisture and energy (enthalpy)
balances. The number of heat transfer unit for each zone is calculated. For the stage II. The number of
heat transfer units is given by
(NtG) h, II × ∆Tm = (TGB – TGA)
4. The total length of dryer is given by
L = (LT) 1 (NtG) 1 + (LT) II (NtG) II + (LT) III (NtG) III
5. The shell diameter is calculated from the dry gas flow rate (from step I) and suitable gas flow velocity
or gas mass flow rate
Some useful correlations for the design of a rotary dryer are given below.
Volumetric gas-solid heat transfer coefficient.
Ūa = (W/m3.K) = 237 (G‟) 0.67/d
Here, G‟ = gas mass flow rate (kg/m2.h) and d, dryer diameter
Length of transfer unit LT = G‟CH / Ūa
LT = 0.0063 CH. d. G0.84
Here, cH = average humid heat and d = dryer diameter Solid retention time

Where,
θ = retention time (min);
L = dryer length (m) S = slope of the dryer (m/m);
N = speed (rpm
G‟ = gas mass flow rate (Kg/m2.h)
F = feed rate (Kg/m2. h) dry basis B = 5 (dp)-0.5
dp = weight average particle diameter (micron)
d = dryer diameter (m)

3.2 GENERAL PROCESS (THERMAL) DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR ALL TYPES OF DRYER
Process Design: process design establishes the sequence of chemical and physical operations; operating
conditions; the duties, major specifications, and materials of construction (where critical) of all process
equipment (as distinguished from utilities and building auxiliaries); the general arrangement of
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equipment needed to ensure proper functioning of the dryer plant; line sizes; and principal
instrumentation. The process design is summarized by a process flow sheet. Process design is intended
to include:
1. Flow sheet development.
2. Process material and heat balances.
3. Auxiliary services material and heat balances (utilities requirements).
4. Chemical engineering performance design for specific items of equipments required for a flow sheet.

3.2.1 PROCESS DESIGN CALCOLATION

Example 3.1: (Process design)
A rotary drier using counter current flow is to be used to dry 25000 lb/hr of wet solid (PTA) containing 5 weight
percent water to a water content of 0.10 weight per cent. The wet solid enters at 30 oC (860F). Ambient air at 300C
(860F) will be heated to 1560C (3130F). Specific heat of solid is 0.2871. Estimate the length and diameter of the
drier.

Feed to the drier: Condition of inlet air:

Water content in the feed = 25000 × 0.05 Ambient temp. of air (dry bulb) = 300C
= 1250 lb/Hr = 860F
Dry solid in feed = 25000 – 1250 = 23,750 Wet bulb temp. (wet bulb)= 220C =
lb/Hr 710F
Water content in Product = 24 lb/Hr Water Heated Inlet temp. of air = 1560C =
removed by the drier = 1226 lb/Hr Steam 3130F
pressure = 150 psig Humidity HmW = 0.002 lb water/lb dry
air.
φ = HmG - HmW =hG (TG -TW )/ (mλWPkG )
HmG Humidity of air at temperature TG 0F
HmW Humidity of air at temperature TW0F
TG Temperature of inlet air 0F; TW Wet bulb temperature 0F
M Molecular weight of air; λW Latent heat of vaporization at
TW 0F hG/ (mPkG) = 0.26 for air at TW and here m = 29.
First Trial: assume wet bulb temperature is 900C = 194oF
Hence at TW = 194oF, HmW = 0.046 HmW - HmG = 0.046- 0.002 = 0.044;
λw = 547.3
25
φ = (0.26(313-194)/547.3) = 0.056 φ > HmW - HmG

Since Φ> HmW – HmG therefore the temperature assumed is high

Second Trial: Assume a wet bulb temperature of 1800 F
HmW = 0.065 HmW - HmG = 0.065 – 0.002 = 0.063; λw = 532
φ = (0.26 (313-180)/532) = 0.063
Therefore wet bulb temperature assumed is true i.e. TW = 1800 F

The temperature of the outlet air should be selected on the basis of an economic balance between dryer
and the fuel costs. Empirically it is found that drier operates economically when total number of transfer
units (NTU) is between 1.5 to 2. (Badger and Banchero, Pg 508)
NTU = ln (TG1- TW)/ (TG2- TW)
Take NTU = 1.5 = ln (313 -180)/ (TG2- 180) TG2 = 209 0F
Energy balance:
CP (PTA) = 0.2871Btu/lb0F; CP (Water) = 1 Btu/lb0F Product discharge temperature = (313 + 209)/2
=2610F
Temperature of feed = 1760F
Heat required raising the product to discharged temp.

= 23705 x 0.2871(261-176) + 24 (261-176) = 5.8143 x 105Btu/Hr

Heat required to remove the water = 1226 [(180-176) + 0.45 (209-180) + 550]
= 6.952 x105 Btu/Hr
Total Heat = 1.27 x 106 Btu/Hr Air Required:
SH-Humid Heat of inlet air = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.002 = 0.2409 Use average humid heat = 0.242
GG‟.S x Humid heat of air x Temperature= Total Heat, here S = cross sectional area, sq ft
GG‟. S × (0.242) × (313-209) = 1.27 × 106
GG‟.S=50723.27lb/Hr

Humid heat = 0.24 + 0.45 × 0.02617 = 0.2517 and SHavg = (0.2409 + 0.2517)/2 = 0.2463
Therefore the average humidity taken above is valid

26
Mean temperature difference across the rotary drier can be calculated by using following formulae
Let qp = heat required to preheat the feed from inlet to wet bulb temperature.
qs= heat required to heat product from wet bulb temperature to discharge temperature.
qv= heat required to evaporate water at wet bulb temperature.
Preheating period: qp= 23705 x 0.2871(180-176) + 1250 (180-176) = 3.2274 × 104 Btu/hr
Change in air temp. Is = [(3.2274 × 104)/ (1.27 × 106)] × (313 - 176) = 2.67 0F
Air temperature at the end of preheat = 209 + 2.67 = 212 0F

Heating period:
qs = 23705 × 0.2871 (261-180) + 24 (261-180) = 5.542 x 105 Btu/hr

Air temperature at the start of heating = 313 – 45.38 = 267 0F

Evaporating period:
qp= 1.27 x 106 – 5.542 x 105 – 3.2274 x 104 = 6.83 x 105 Btu/hr

The mean temperature difference given as

NTU Check:
27
According to the condition NTU should be between 1.5 to 2. Therefore the above mean temperature
value can be accepted.
TRIAL 1: To Calculate the Diameter of the Drier Air entering the drier is 50723.27 lbs/h. But for
designing purpose air is taken in excess so that the loss of heat from the drier is compensated. Air
entering the drier can be taken as ~ 51000 lb/hr. Assume that the maximum superficial air mass velocity
to be = 1000 lb/ (hr ft2) G 50723.27 G S = 51000 1+0.0165 x = 51836.93 lb/Hr

Ua = Overall heat transfer coefficient (volumetric), Btu/Hr ft3 0F

D = Diameter of the drier in ft.

 Length of the drier

Z/D ratio check:

28
To calculate the speed of the rotation of the drier; Assume the peripheral speed of rotation to be
30feet/min Revolution per min = peripheral speed / diameter
RPM = 30/8.07 = 3.7
The revolution of the drier varies between 2 and 5. Therefore the above value can be accepted
Flight design:
Number of flights in the drier = 3 x D Where D is the diameter of the drier in feet
Number of flights = 3 x 8.07 = 24.21, say 24
Radial height of the flight:
The radial height of the flight taken as 1/8th of the diameter of the drier the radial height of the flight =
(1/8) x 8.07 = 12.18 inches, say 12.25”
DRIER DETAILS:
Drier Type: Counter Current Rotary Drier Diameter of the drier = 8.07 ft = 2.46 m Length of the Drier =
73.3 ft = 2.34 m
RPM of the drier = 3.7 rpm
Number of Flights = 24
Radial height of the flights = 12.25 inches
Temperature of the inlet air = 156oC = 3130F Temperature of the inlet wet solid = 90oC = 1940F
Mean temperature Difference =600F
Air mass flow rate = 51000 lb/hr
Moisture removed by the drier = 1226 lb/hr
The volumetric heat transfer coefficient of drier = 5.57 Btu/Hr ft3oF

3.3 DESIGN CALCALATION OF DRYER

Example 3.2: Size of the rotary dryer can be estimated for the following case. A moist non hygroscopic
granular solid at 260C is to be dried from 20% initial moisture to 0.3% final moisture in a rotary dryer at
a rate of 1500 kg/h. The hot air enters the dryer at 1350C with a humidity of 0.015. With condition that
the temperature of the solid leaving the dryer must not exceed 1100C and the air velocity must not
exceed 1.5 m/s in order to avoid dust carry over? Cps = 0.85 kJ/kg.K. Recommend the diameter, length
and other parameters of the dryer.
Solution:
Basis of calculation is 1 hr operation
Solid contains 20% initial moisture
29
Mass of dry solid = MS = 1500 (1-0.2) = 1200 kg/hr
Moisture in the wet solid = X1 = 20/80 = 0.25
Moisture in the dry solid = X2 = 0.3/99.7 = 0.00301
Water evaporated, mS, evaporated = MS (X1 – X2) = 1200 (0.25 – 0.00301) = 296.4 Kg
Given data:
TS1 = 260C; TG2 = 1350C; Y2 = 0.015
Let us assume that the exit temperature of the gas is TG1 = 60 oC and for solid TS2 = 100oC Now
enthalpy of different streams (suppose ref temp = 0oC)
Now enthalpy of different streams (suppose ref temp = 0oC)
HS1 = [CPS + (4.187) X1] [TS1– 0] = [0.85 + (4.187) 0.25] [26 – 0] = 49.31 KJ/kg dry air
HS2 = [CPS + (4.187) X1] [TS1 – 0] = [0.85 + (4.187) 0.0.00301] [100 – 0] = 86.2 KJ/kg dry solid
Hg2 = [1.005 + (1.88) 0.015] [135 – 0] + (0.015) (2500) = 177 KJ/kg Hg1 = [1.005 + (1.88) Y1] [60 –
0] + Y1 (2500) = 60.3 + 2613 Y1
Overall mass balance

GS = 296.4/ (Y1 – 0.015)

MS [HS2 – HS1] = GS [Hg2 – Hg1]

Y1 = 0.04306 and Gs = 296.4/(Y1 – 0.015) = 10560 Kg/h

Shell Diameter:
Volume of humid inlet gas (1350C and Y2 = 0.015)
VH2 = 1.183 m3 /Kg dry air
Volume of humid exit gas (600C and Y1 = 0.04306)
VH1 = 1.008 m3 /Kg dry air
The max. Volumetric gas flow rate = Gs.
H2 = 10560 × 1.183 = 12490 m3 /h
The working velocity i.e. superficial velocity = 1.5 – 0.2 × 1.5 = 1.2 m/s   / 4 × d 2 (1.2) = d = 1.98
m, say 2.0 m
Heat Transfer Unit:
Dryer is divided into three zones and therefore, the stage wise calculation of temperature and humidity
of the stream can be obtained by material and energy balance.
Very less water left for vaporization in stage III. Consider solid is at TSB, the wet bulb temperature of
30
the air at location between III & II.
Assume TSB = TSA = 410C
Enthalpy of solid at the inlet to stage III
HSB = [0.85 + (0.00301) (4.187)] (41-0) = 35.37 KJ/kg dry solid
Humid heat of gas entering stage III
CHB = [1.005 + (1.88) (0.015)] = 1.003 KJ/kg.K
Heat balance over stage III
MS [HS2 - HSB] = GS (CHB) III (135 – TGB)
TGB = 1290C
Adiabatic saturation temperature of air entering stage II (1290C & humidity of 0.015) is 41.30C.
At the boundary B, ∆TB = 129 -41 = 880C
At end 2, ∆T2 = 135 -100 = 350C
LMTDIII = (∆T) m = 88-35/ln (88/35) = 57.50C
(NtG)III = T2 –TGB/(∆T)m = 135 -129/57.5 = 0.104
Stage II
 Use heat balance equation over stage II to calculate the value of TGA. The calculated TGA value can
be use to estimate the number of transfer units.
Since YB = 0.015
HGB = [1.005 + 1.88 YB] (129-0) + 2500 (YB) = 170.8 KJ/Kg
HAS = [0.85 + CPS X1] (TSA -0) = [0.85 + (4.187) (0.25)] (41) = 77.77 KJ/(Kg dry solid)
Enthalpy balance:
MS (HSB – HSA) = GS (HGB – HGA)
1200 (35.37 – 77.77) = 10560 (170.8 - HGA)
 HGA = 175.6 KJ/Kg
Once HGA value is known then TGA can be calculated using the following equation HGA = 175.6 =
[1.005 + 0.04306 (1.88)] [TGA - 0] + 0.04306 (2500)
 TGA = 630C
At section A temp diff. ∆TA = 63 -41 = 220C and
∆TB = 880C (∆T) M = (88-22)/ ln (88/22) = 47.60C
Number of transfer unit = (NtG) II = TGB – TGA/(∆T)M = (129 – 63)/47.6 = 1.386
To validate the assumed value of exit gas temperature i.e. TG1 = 600C, first do an energy balance over
stage I.
GS (Hg2 – Hg1) = MS (HS2 – HS2)
31
10560 (175.6 – Hg1) = 1200 (77.77 – 49.31)
 Hg1 = TG1 = 59.60C
Stage I
(∆T) 1 = 60-26 = 340C
(∆T)A = 220C
(∆T)M = 34-22/long (34/22) = 27.5
Number of transfer unit, NtG = 0.104 + 1.386 + 0.109 = 1.53
Length of Transfer Unit: Avg. mass flow rate = [10560 (1.015) + 10560 (1.04306)]/2
= 10867 Kg/h
The gas mass flow rate, G‟ = (10867/3600)/  / 4 × (2)2 = 0.961 Kg/m2 .S

32
33
CHAPTER FOUR

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DRYER

4.1 THEAORETICAL MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DRYER

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
There are three generic forms of mechanical dryer commonly found in use today. The vertical dryer, the
horizontal dryer and the silo or stationary bed dryer. These are batch dryers which naturally fit the batch
pattern dictated by coffee processing, following, as it does, daily (or less frequent) harvesting. The first
two stir the coffee during drying whereas silo dryers tend not to.
Generally, one can say there is no consensus as to which of these designs produces the best or most
efficient drying. The following remarks apply to all three types of dryer:
 Pre-drying is required because the handling and drying requirements of fully wet coffee and
substantially dry coffee (to 11- 13% mc), whether cherry or parchment, cannot be accommodated
in one piece of equipment;
 Control of the drying operation is exerted through controlling the moisture content of the entry
coffee, the loading rate, inlet air temperature and the duration of the run;
 Drying at excessive temperatures generates black beans and reduces cup test quality. A grain
temperature of about 45OC is generally taken as the safe upper limit; and
 Evaporative cooling can be quite marked, and the temperature of the grain increases toward that
of the drying air as it becomes dryer.
4.1.2 Main Features of Dryer Design:

 Capacity
 Airflow – rate of flow, counter/co- current
 Furnace type – temperatures, fuel source
 Type of fans
 Coffee mixing – not just rate – but also whether continuous or intermittent, maybe
method (dead zones possible?)
 Gauges
4.1.3 Main ‘Performance Criteria’s:
 Energy efficiency;
 Time to dryness; and
 Uniformity of drying.

34
4.1.4 Main Types of mechanical Driers in use in the Coffee Industry:

Vertical dryers
The typical vertical dryer operates as a strictly counter-current dryer with the grain moving downward
against a stream of hot air that exits primarily at the top of the hopper. The grain moves through the
hopper as it falls through a restricting funnel at the base and is returned to the top via a grain elevator.
Air temperature is regulated as input temperature by a thermometer inserted so that the air is measured as
it enters the grain column and is controlled by balancing the mix of air between that from the heat
exchanger and ambient air. Recommendations vary between 45 and 65OC for the input air though some
workers have reported satisfactory results using much higher temperatures. Because the balance of
residence time in the stream of air to that in the elevator is favorable over a wide range of batch sizes
below the maximum load, vertical dryers can be used relatively efficiently over a greater range of
loadings than is the case with the horizontal dryer. Input moisture content is typically less than 35%
moisture content and full drying requires 15 to 24h.

A B

Restricting funnel
C Grain elevator Thermometer

Hot air input manifold Silos

Fan housing

35
 D
Fig. 4.1: Vertical dryers:
A. The flow-restricting funnel is a fixed orifice and the elevator runs at a fixed rate thus residence time
in the drying column is fixed at a given load;
B.Ambient and heated air is mixed at the input manifold and the input temperature is adjusted to the
manufacturer’s recommendation;
C.Both cubic and circular cross sections are available in this approach to drying;
D.Dryers at exporters and large traders, as opposed to farmers, are of a different scale.

Horizontal dryers
The flow of air in the horizontal dryer is introduced along the axis of the grain chamber and is directed
out along the length of it. The path is relatively short, a maximum of the chamber radius, and drying
efficiency is sensitive to loading. Rotation speed is not normally adjustable so the control parameters for
the operator comprise initial moisture content of the grain, loading (as near to design capacity as
possible) and inlet temperature.
Input moisture content is typically less than 35% and the drying period is similar to that of vertical
dryers – 15 to 24h.

A B

Loading platform
Rotation drive gear

Hot air input

Unloading hopper

Fig. 4.2: Horizontal dryers:

Unloading hopper
A. Small unit designed for the farm;
B.Large unit designed for exporters or very large estates;
Unloading hopper
36
C.Detail of the wall of the dryer showing the perforations through which the air exits - because the
housing rotates, loading equipment is usually not fixed as with vertical dryers.

Silo Dryers
The silo or fixed bed dryer is well suited for parchment coffee and can be built with a minimum of technical input
since the bulk of the fabric can be constructed in common building materials. The only moving part is the
centrifugal fan and by combining pre-drying with final drying, the efficiency is good. A typical drying
programmed is as follows:

 Day 1: pre-dried coffee loaded into drying chamber in the afternoon and the furnace started;
next batch of washed parchment is loaded onto ceiling;
 Day 2: furnace is closed down first thing in the morning; late afternoon dry coffee is
removed from chamber and the pre-dried coffee loaded through ceiling port; furnace fired
up and next batch of washed parchment loaded for pre-drying.
 Silo dryers have also been built in steel in cylindrical form with stirring devices. However,
reports from farmers have suggested that damage to the coffee and non-uniform mixing
often finds the mixing gear abandoned in the field.

37
 Fig. 3: Silo dryers:

A. Silo dryer with a solid fuel furnace.

The chamber floor is a suspended perforated steel so that the space between the
chamber floor and the building floor becomes the plenum chamber or inlet manifold;
B. Typically the bed thickness should not exceed 40cm - the loading port is just visible in
the ceiling.
C. Parchment being loaded onto the roof of a silo dryer for pre-drying;
D. A silo dryer with a fuel oil furnace;
E. A small silo dryer designed for smallholders.
However, the farmer reported this dryer lost heat out of the sides and was expensive to operate.

4.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN CALCULATION ON DRYER

Example: 4.1 the drier has a uniform temperature of around 150oC at any point of time (working
pressure in the drier is 0.1013 N/mm2). So the material used for the construction of the dryer
should withstand the high (operating) temperature. Since mild steel withstand high temperature of

38
200 0C. The material used to construct the dryer is mild steel and permissible pressure of material
used is 124 N/mm2.

Length of drier = 22.34 m; Inner diameter of the drier = 2.46 m

Design pressure = 1.5 x W P = 1.5 x 0.1013 0.152
Thickness of the drier shell:

For the shell minimum thickness is given as 8 mm. Consider corrosion allowance of 2 mm therefore,
including the C.A. the thickness can be taken as 10 mm.
Diameter = 2460 + 2 × 10 D0 = 2480 mm = 2.480 m
The thickness of the insulation:
From the heat balance it is clear that there is some heat lost into the atmosphere. To limit the heat loss to
the same figure insulation is to be given to the drier.
The insulation material can be chosen as asbestos. Density of asbestos

Thermal conductivity of asbestos

Thermal conductivity of mild steel = Convective heat transfer coefficient =
From heat balance,
Heat loss from the drier= 97.006 KW

Inner diameter of the drier shell, D1 = 2.46 m

Outer diameter of the drier shell, D2 = 2.48 m and t1 = 10 mm
Let „y‟ be the thickness of insulation.

Both T1 and T2 are in 0C and also we have from continuity equation,

39
After solving the final equation obtained as follows
y2 + 1.42 y - 0.0654 = 0 y = 0.04 m
Therefore the thickness of the insulation should be 40 mm

Where r rpm of the drier d shell diameter, ft

w live load, Ib W total rotating load, Ib D riding ring

diameter, ft (d + 2)
To calculate the live load and the rotating load;

Density of mild steel

40
 = 56 ft3

Weight of the drier= Volume of shell material × density

= 56 × 480

= 26859.71 lbs

Assume Hold up = 0.1

Weight of material in drier at any time, w = Volume x Density

= 628.41 × 94.07

= 35.268 × 103 lbs

41
Weight of the insulating material = Volume x Density

= 122.21 × 36

= 4399.62 lbs

Total weight,

= 26859.71 + 35.268 × 103 + 4399.62 = 6.652 × 104 lbs

W = weight of the material w = 35.268 × 103 lbs

To calculate the power required by the Blower: Temperature of the inlet air = 30oC
Humidity of inlet air
Total quantity of air handled = 23512.83 Kg/hr

Use equation (6-34a) from Perry,

Where
Q Fan volume,
P Fan operating pressure, cm water column p = 20 cm water column
Power = 2.72 × 10-5 × 18.466 × 103 × 20 = 10 KW
To calculate the power required by the Exhaust fan:

Temperature of outlet air = 87oC

Humidity of the outlet air
Total quantity of air handled =
42
Power = 2.72 × 10-5 × 42.64 × 103 × 20= 23.19 KW
To find the diameter of the feed pipe:

Feed Rate= 25000 lb/hr Volumetric feed rat

Assume the velocity of the feed to be 100
Cross sectional area of the feed pipe

Diameter of the feed pipe

To find the diameter of the air inlet and outlet pipe:
INLET:
Temperature of air= 156oC
Humidity of inlet air
Volumetric flow rate of air
Assume the velocity of the air entering to be 20
Cross sectional area of the inlet air pipe

Diameter of the inlet pipe

OUTLET:

Temperature of air= 156oC

Humidity of outlet air
Volumetric flow rate of air

Cross sectional area of the outlet air pipe =

Diameter of the outlet pipe

43
With corrosion allowance diameter
DRIER DETAILS

Length of the Drier = 22.34 m

Inner diameter of the drier = 2.46 m

Outer diameter of the drier = 2.48 m

The thickness of the shell = 10 mm

The thickness of the insulation = 40 mm Power required to drive the Drier = 33.62 KW
Power of the Blower = 10 KW
Power of the Exhaust fan = 23.19 KW Diameter of the feed pipe
Diameter of the inlet pipe
Diameter of the outlet pipe
Rotation of the Drier =3rp

44
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Main conclusions drawn from the results of this study may be listed as follows;
 Particle size analysis shows that cinnamon chips available in local market
were, in the range from less than 1/8 inches to greater than 6 inches lengthwise
and among them about 29.7% of cinnamon chips were in the range of 1 inch
to 2 inches.
 Moisture content (dry basis) of cinnamon chips available in the market was in
the range from 14.12% to 28.56%.
 Tendency for non-uniform drying is observed with the tray dryer used in the
present study. Adequate measures have to be taken to achieve uniformity in
drying in case tray dryers are used to dry cinnamon chips as non-uniform
drying of cinnamon chips considerably affect the yield and the quality of bark
oil.
 It is recommended to use drying temperature of less than 350C for cinnamon
chips to achieve moisture content (dry basis) of 20% at the end of 8 hour
drying period. This low temperature drying will result in a cinnamon oil yield
of more than 0.33 % (kg oil per kg of dried cinnamon chips).
 Drying affects the composition of the extracted oil. The results of GC analysis
show that there was a significant percentage drop of high volatile components;
alpha-pining, camphene, β-pining and Mycenae, as the drying temperature
was increased. Thin layer drying models such as two term, Henderson &
Pubis and logarithmic can be used to model drying behavior of cinnamon in
tray dryers.
 Cinnamon chips cannot be stored in wet condition without drying for more
than-3 days, as it may significantly affect the oil yield.

5.2 Recommendations
Dryer must be modified to achieve uniformity in drying by first identifying its
drawbacks. A possible option is to model the dryer using computational fluid
dynamics software in order to recognize the velocity distribution inside the drying
45
chamber. A survey should be done in order to identify the practical problems of
preprocessing of cinnamon chips and how to acceptability of proposed supply chain
to the major stake holder; farmers, peelers, collectors, traders and oil producers.
The performance of existing solar food dryers can still be improved upon especially in
the aspect of reducing the drying time and probably storage of heat energy within the
system. Also, meteorological data should be readily available to users of solar
products to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness of the system. Such
information will probably guide a local farmer on when to dry his agricultural
produce and when not to dry them

46
References:
APV Dryer Handbook-Invensys APV Technical Centre, USA
Geankoplis, C.J., 1993, Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3 rd Edition,
Prentice-Hall
International, Inc., New Jersey.
Dutta, B. K., 2010, Principles of Mass Transfer and Separation Processes, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
McCabe, W.L., Smith, J. C., Harriott, P., 1987, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering,
Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Singapore.
Sinnott, R. K., 2005, Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Series,
Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann An Imprint of
Elsevier, Oxford.
Trey bal, R. E., 1981, Mass Transfer Operations, International Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Singapore.
Mahajani, V V., Umarji, S.B., 2009, Process Equipment Design, Fourth Edition,
McMillan Publishers India Ltd., India.
Perry, R. H., Green, D. W., Maloney, J. O., 1997, Parry’s Chemical Engineers‟
Handbook, Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, USA.
Ludwig, E. E., 1999, Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical, Third
Edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX.
Speight, J. G., 2002, Chemical and Process Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
USA.
Walas, S. M., 1990, Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design, Butterworth-
Heinemann, a division of Reed Publishing, USA.

47
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A

CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS
A-1 Tray dryer
A-2 Counter current direct heat rotary dryer
Table-2.1 Rotary dryer’s practical ranges of dimension and operating parameters
A-3 Single drum dryer
A-4 Double drum dryer
A-5 Flash dryer
A-6 Continuous fluidized bed dryer
A-7 Screen conveyor dryer

APPENDIX B

Temperature profile for solid and gas in a counter current rotary dryer
B-1 heat transfer units is given by
B-2 volumetric gas-solid heat transfer coefficient.
APPENDIX C
Main Types of mechanical Driers in use in the Coffee Industry diagrams
C-1 Vertical dryers
C-2 Horizontal dryers
C-3 Silo dryers

48
49