Accurate Polarization Control in Nonorthogonal Two-Axis Lloyd 'S Mirror Interferometer For Fabrication of Two-Dimensional Scale Gratings

Accurate polarization control in
nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s

mirror interferometer for fabrication
of two-dimensional scale gratings
Yuki Shimizu
Kazuki Mano
Kai Zhang
Hiraku Matsukuma
Wei Gao
Yuki Shimizu, Kazuki Mano, Kai Zhang, Hiraku Matsukuma, Wei Gao, “Accurate polarization
control in nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication of two-dimensional
scale gratings,” Opt. Eng. 58(9), 092611 (2019), doi: 10.1117/1.OE.58.9.092611.
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Optical Engineering 58(9), 092611 (September 2019)
Accurate polarization control in nonorthogonal

two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication
of two-dimensional scale gratings
Yuki Shimizu,* Kazuki Mano, Kai Zhang, Hiraku Matsukuma, and Wei Gao
Tohoku University, Department of Fine Mechanics, Sendai, Japan
Abstract. An optical setup for the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, which is composed of a
nonorthogonal type of mirror-substrate assembly and a newly designed beam expansion assembly, is proposed
to fabricate highly precise two-dimensional (2-D) diffraction scale gratings having uniform pattern structures over
a wide area. The beam expansion assembly is designed in such a way that a thin collimated laser beam is at first
generated by a small collimating lens to carry out a precise polarization modulation control of subdivided wave-
fronts in the beam, followed by the generation of a collimated laser beam with the expansion of the thin collimated
laser beam by using a beam expander. Since a pair of high-precision half-wavelength plates made of crystalline
quartz can be employed in the newly designed optical setup, a much better polarization modulation control can
be expected, compared to the conventional optical setup in which low-precision large-size half-wavelength
plates made of polycarbonate should have been employed. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed optical
setup, theoretical calculations and some basic experiments are carried out by using a prototype optical setup
to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed optical setup for fabrication of highly precise 2-D scale gratings.
© 2019 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) [DOI: 10.1117/1.OE.58.9.092611]
Keywords: scale grating; Lloyd’s mirror interferometer; polarization modulation control; interference; diffraction.
Paper 190145SS received Jan. 30, 2019; accepted for publication Apr. 11, 2019; published online Apr. 27, 2019.
1 Introduction In principle, measurement ranges of the surface encoders

A diffraction grating, which is one of the important optical along the X- and Y-directions depend on the size of 2-D scale
components widely employed in many precision instru- grating to be employed in the system. For the use in the state-
ments, is expanding its application in scientific and industrial of-the-art industrial fields such as the semiconductor industry,
fields.1 One of the most common usages of diffraction gra- a measurement range of over 500 ðXÞ × 500 mm ðYÞ is
tings in measuring instruments is represented by the scale for desired to be achieved. However, it is not so easy to fabricate
measurement of a displacement in optical linear encoders.2 such a large 2-D scale grating from the viewpoint of equip-
In one-axis optical linear encoders, gratings having line pat- ment and cost to be required for the grating fabrication. To
tern structures with a micrometric period are employed as the overcome this problem, the concept of mosaic surface encoder
scale for measurement of a displacement, whereas an optical has been proposed.9 In the concept, an optical head having
head is employed to read the scale. By generating interfer- multiple measurement laser beams is employed, whereas sev-
ence signals with the diffracted beams from the scale grating, eral small 2-D gratings aligned in a matrix (mosaic grating)
a relative displacement between the scale grating and the are employed as the scale for measurement. By stitching the
optical head can be detected. With an appropriate signal readings from the optical head with multiple measurement
interpolation, even a subnanometric resolution can be beams, the mosaic grating can be treated as a large 2-D scale
achieved over a wide measurement range.3,4 Recently, grating.9 The mosaic scale grating can also reduce the influ-
multiaxis optical planar encoders capable of measuring ence of gravitational deformation of a scale, which could be
multiaxis displacements of a target of interest, on which a significant in the case of a surface encoder system with a large
two-dimensional (2-D) scale grating is equipped, have also 2-D scale grating. Meanwhile, too much stitching process
been developed.5–8 A commercially available multiaxis with small 2-D scale gratings could induce an increase in
encoder system has achieved simultaneous measurement of measurement uncertainty.9 Regarding the required measure-
the X- and Y-directional displacements.5 Furthermore, the ment accuracy and strokes along the X- and/or Y-directions,
surface encoder, which is capable of carrying out simultane- it is desired to establish a method to fabricate 2-D scale gra-
ous measurement of six-degree-of-freedom displacements,5 ting over a large area of 100 × 100 mm or more in research
has also been developed with a combination of a three-axis laboratories or a small-scale manufacturing facilities.5,8–10
surface encoder6 capable of measuring three-dimensional Although it is possible to fabricate a 2-D scale grating by
translational motions along the X-, Y-, and Z-directions mechanical cutting based on the fast tool servo technol-
and a three-axis laser autocollimator7 capable of measuring ogy,11,12 interference lithography6,13–20 is a more promising
three-degree-of-freedom angular displacements about the technique from the viewpoint of fabrication cost and its
X-, Y-, and Z-axes.8 maskless principle. Many interferometers based on the divi-
sion of amplitude system6,13,14,20 or the division of wavefront
*Address all correspondence to Yuki Shimizu, E-mail: yuki.shimizu@nano

.mech.tohoku.ac.jp 0091-3286/2019/$28.00 © 2019 SPIE
Optical Engineering 092611-1 September 2019 • Vol. 58(9)

Shimizu et al.: Accurate polarization control in nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. . .
system15–19 have, therefore, been proposed so far. Among which has been induced by nonflat light intensity distribution
them, the interferometers based on the Lloyd’s in the collimated laser beam made incident to the mirror-
mirror interferometer,15 which is a kind of the division of substrate assembly, has been found over the surface of fab-
wavefront systems, are considered as the most appropriate, ricated large 2-D scale grating. Since the variation of pattern
ones since stable interference lithography can be carried out amplitude could influence the uniformity of the diffraction
with the enhancement of its stable optical setup having efficiency and could hence degrade the uniformity of the
shorter optical path differences between the divided sub- resolution of position detection in the multiaxis planar
beams for the generation of interference fringes. Based on encoders,6 the pattern amplitude on the grating surface is pre-
the conventional one-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, a ferred to be as flat as possible over the entire grating surface.
concept of the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror inter- Therefore, the nonflat light intensity distribution in the
ferometer, in which the unique optical designs of a mirror- collimated laser beam is another issue that remains to be
substrate assembly and a polarization modulation control addressed in the conventional nonorthogonal two-axis
unit make it possible to fabricate a 2-D scale grating in a Lloyd’s mirror interferometer.
single pattern exposure, has been proposed.21 The feasibility In responding to the background described above, in this
of the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer paper, a beam expansion assembly, which is expected to
for the fabrication of large scale gratings having a size of address the above-mentioned issues, is proposed for the non-
100 mm × 100 mm has successfully been demonstrated orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. The
through some experiments by using a prototype optical effectiveness of the improvement of polarization modulation
setup.22 Meanwhile, a position-dependent amplitude devia- control and the flattened light intensity distribution in the
tion of the fabricated 2-D pattern structures has been found collimated laser beam, both of which can be realized by the
over the surface of fabricated large 2-D scale grating.22 The newly proposed beam expansion assembly, is at first esti-
amplitude deviation is mainly caused by the imperfect polari- mated based on theoretical calculations of 2-D interference
zation modulation control of the sub-beams in the interfer- fringe patterns to be generated by the interferometer.
ometer. Although a pair of half-wavelength plates having a Experiments are also carried out by using a prototype optical
size equal to or larger than the 2-D scale grating is required to setup with the proposed beam expansion assembly to dem-
carry out the polarization modulation control,21 it is not so onstrate the feasibility of the fabrication of highly precise
easy to prepare for such highly precise large half-wavelength 2-D scale gratings.
plates. Therefore, in the conventional nonorthogonal two-
axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, a pair of low-precision 2 Principle of the Nonorthogonal Two-Axis Lloyd’s
large half-wavelength plates made of polycarbonate has been Mirror Interferometer
applied to the system, resulting in the imperfect polarization The nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer is
modulation control of the sub-beams and hence the distorted based on the traditional one-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferom-
2-D pattern structures on the fabricated 2-D scale grating.22 eter,20 a schematic of which is shown in Fig. 1(a). A mirror-
Since the distorted 2-D pattern structures could result in the substrate assembly is composed of a mirror (referred to as the
light intensity difference between the positive and the neg- X-mirror in the following) and a substrate aligned in such a
ative diffracted beams and hence degrade signal-to-noise way that the X-mirror is placed perpendicular with respect to
ratio of the interference signal in the multiaxis optical planar the substrate. By making a collimated laser beam incident to
encoders,6,21 further better polarization modulation control is the mirror-substrate assembly, line fringe patterns having a
required to be achieved. In addition, a position-dependent constant period g can be generated on the substrate surface.
amplitude deviation of the fabricated 2-D pattern structures, The period g is determined by the following equation:15
(a) (b) Z Incident

laser beam
Half-wavelength Half-wavelength
plate with plate with
fast axis of 45 deg fast axis of
(HWP2) 22.5 deg (HWP1)
Z
X-mirror
Y-mirror
Incident laser beam X-mirror
90 deg+TX
X I X 90 deg+TY
Y
Y
Substrate Substrate
Fig. 1 Principles of the Lloyd’s mirror interferometers. (a) The traditional one-axis Lloyd’s mirror
interferometer and (b) the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer.

λ (a) Position A Position B

g¼ ; (1)
2 sin ϕ (X=10 mm, Y=10 mm) (X=90 mm, Y=90 mm)
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e001;63;752
X y X y
where λ is a light wavelength of the laser beam, and ϕ is the x x’
angle of the collimated laser beam with respect to the sub- x x’
strate surface. The one-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer is
based on the wavefront-division system. Compared to the y’ y’
interferometers based on the amplitude-division system, the Y Y
optical path difference between the sub-beam directly inci-
dent to the substrate and that incident to the substrate after (b) Position A (X=10 mm, Y=10 mm)
being reflected by the X-mirror can be reduced; this enables x-x’ y-y’
100 nm/div.
the Lloyd’s mirror interferometer to carry out stable lithog-
Height
raphy process, which is an important aspect for the fabrica-
tion of large scale gratings. Simply adding another mirror
(Y-mirror) perpendicular to the substrate in the mirror-
substrate assembly of the conventional one-axis Lloyd’s X/Y position 2 P m/div.
mirror interferometer, which is referred to as the orthogonal Position B (X=90 mm, Y=90 mm)
two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer,17 can generate 2-D
x-x’ y-y’
100 nm/div.
scale gratings in a single exposure. However, on the other
Height
hand, this optical setup generates fringe patterns by the inter-
ference among five sub-beams including two sub-beams
that experience multiple reflections between the X- and
Y-mirrors. As a result, the interferometer becomes sensitive X/Y position 2 P m/div.
against misalignments of the optical components in the mir-
ror-substrate assembly.18 Influences of the misalignments of Fig. 2 The 2-D pattern structures fabricated by the conventional non-
the angle of incidence and azimuthal angle of the collimated orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. (a) Fabricated 2-D
pattern structures measured by AFM. (b) Cross sections of the AFM
laser beam also become significant.18 Furthermore, the mir- images shown in (a).
ror-substrate assembly becomes bulky when designed for the
fabrication of large 2-D grating, which prevents the whole
interferometer system from being designed in a compact size shows the atomic force microscope (AFM) images of 2-D
and makes the alignments of the optical components and the pattern structures fabricated simultaneously by the conven-
laser beam difficult in the optical system. tional nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer
To overcome these drawbacks of the conventional at the center and outer positions in the collimated laser
orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, the non- beam. As can be seen in the figure, a significant distortion
orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer has been in the pattern structures, which is mainly due to the imperfect
developed.21 Figure 1(b) shows a schematic of the optical polarization modulation control, can be found. Another
configuration for the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror drawback of the conventional nonorthogonal two-axis
interferometer. The optical configuration is designed in such Lloyd’s mirror interferometer is the light intensity distribu-
a way that the X- and Y-mirrors are placed to have angles of tion in the collimated laser beam. In general-purpose optical
90 deg þθX and 90 deg þθY (θX ≠ 0; θY ≠ 0), respectively, setups for the interference lithography, a laser beam gener-
with respect to the substrate, whereas the collimated laser ated by expanding a point light source has often been
beam is made incident perpendicularly to the substrate. This employed to obtain a well-collimated laser beam. This will
optical configuration can suppress the multiple reflections not affect the case of fabricating small 2-D scale gratings.21
of sub-beams in the mirror-substrate assembly, in principle. However, on the other hand, in the case of fabricating large
In addition, the mirror-substrate assembly can be designed in 2-D scale gratings, the difference of light intensities at the
a more compact size, compared to the one in the orthogonal center and the outer positions in the collimated laser beam
two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer.22 Furthermore, this becomes significant, resulting in the amplitude difference of
optical configuration makes the alignments of the X- and the light intensity in the obtained 2-D interference fringe
Y-mirrors and the incident collimated laser beam simpler and patterns.22 In the case where the exposure time for the lithog-
easier. It should be noted that the interference between the raphy is adjusted with respect to the outer position, the center
X-beam and the Y-beam, which are the sub-beams reflected position becomes over-exposed, resulting in the appearance
by the X- and Y-mirrors, respectively, generates unwanted of the substrate surface at several locations after the develop-
interference fringe components. However, the influence of ment process, as shown in Fig. 2.
this can be reduced by introducing the polarization modula- To address the above-mentioned issues in the conven-
tion control to the sub-beams,21 in principle. A feasibility of tional nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer,
the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer in this paper, an optical setup is proposed for the beam
for the fabrication of a large 2-D scale grating having a size expansion assembly. Figure 3 compares the difference be-
of 100 mm × 100 mm has successfully been demonstrated tween the (a) conventional beam expansion assembly and the
in experiments.22 Meanwhile, in the conventional nonorthog- (b) newly proposed beam expansion assembly for the non-
onal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, the generated orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. In the
2-D pattern structures on the scale grating have been affected newly proposed beam expansion assembly, a thin collimated
by the nonperfect polarization modulation control.22 Figure 2 beam is at first generated from the point light source by using

(a) 3 Theoretical Calculations of Two-Dimensional

Collimating Interferometer Fringe Patterns
Laser Pinhole lens
Y
source 3.1 Simulation on the Influence of Imperfect
Z Polarization Modulation Control
X To verify the feasibility of the newly proposed beam expan-
Objective sion assembly in the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror
lens interferometer, theoretical calculations of the 2-D fringe pat-
Polarization control unit
terns to be generated by the optical setups are carried out.
Figure 4 shows optical configurations for the conventional
(b)
Polarization and the newly proposed nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s
control Interferometer mirror interferometers employed in the calculations. In the
Laser unit Y conventional nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror inter-
source Pinhole
ferometer, polarization states of the direct beam and the
Z Y-beam are modulated by using half-wavelength plates in the
X polarization modulation control unit, as shown in Fig. 4(a).
Objective Plano- Plano- However, in general, it is not so easy to prepare for such
lens convex concave Collimating large half-wavelength plates with a small retarder. As a com-
lens lens lens promise, only low-precision half-wavelength plates made of
polycarbonate could be available. This results in the imper-
Fig. 3 A comparison between the conventional and the newly pro-
posed beam expansion assemblies. (a) The conventional beam fect polarization modulation control and hence both the
expansion assembly based on the Keplerian configuration. (b) The direct beam and the Y-beam after the polarization modula-
newly proposed beam expansion assembly based on the Galilean tion control become elliptically polarized beams, which
configuration. could affect the fabrication accuracy of the 2-D pattern
structures.
a small collimating lens, which makes it possible to apply Now the electric field on the substrate surface e can be
for a pair of high-quality half-wavelength plates for the obtained as a sum of the X-beam, the direct beam, and the
polarization modulation control. After that, the polarization- Y-beam and can be described as follows:
modulated thin collimated beam is expanded by a plano- X
3
concave lens and a large-diameter collimating lens arranged eðrÞ ¼
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e002;326;442 Ei expð−jkki rÞ; (2)
in the Galilean configuration. By using this setup, a colli- i¼1
mated laser beam having a more flattened light intensity
distribution compared to the conventional beam expansion where r ¼ ½x; y; zT is the position vector, Ei ¼
assembly can be obtained, while achieving further better ½Exi ; Eyi ; Ezi T is the complex amplitude containing polariza-
polarization modulation control. tion state of the laser beam, k ¼ 2πn∕λ is the wavenumber in
(a) (b) Z
HWP2 with HWP1 with

fast axis of fast axis of
Z Incident 45 deg 22.5 deg
laser beam
HWP2 with
fast axis of HWP1 with
45 deg fast axis of
22.5 deg
Y-mirror Y-mirror
X -mirror X -mirror
90 deg+TX 90 deg+TX
X 90 deg+TY X 90 deg+TY
Y Y
Substrate Substrate
Fig. 4 Polarization states of the wavefronts in the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer;
(a) with an imperfect polarization modulation control in the conventional setup and (b) with a perfect
polarization modulation control in the newly proposed setup.

a medium with a refractive index n, and λ is the light wave- T0 r1

Air
length. Here, the subscription i denotes the number of sub- (N0)
beams. In the following, the Y-beam, the direct beam, and r2
the y-beam are represented as Beam1, Beam2, and Beam3,
T1 T1
d1
respectively. Here, ki is a unit vector along the light propa- SiO2
(N1)
gation direction23 that can be expressed as follows, in regard Protection
to the setup shown in Fig. 4: T2 r3 layer
Al2O3
d2
T2 (N2)
k1 ¼ f sin 2θY
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e003;63;675 0 − cos 2θY g; (3)
T3 Al Mirror
k2 ¼ f 0 0
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e004;63;633 −1 g; (4) (N3) substrate
k3 ¼ f 0 sin 2θX
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e005;63;612 −cos 2θX g: (5) Fig. 5 Layer structure of the mirror employed in this paper.
In the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferom- pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

eter, Beam1 is made incident to the mirror-substrate cos ϕ −
N 2 − sin2 ϕ
rs ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; (10)
assembly without the polarization modulation control, cos ϕ þ N 2 − sin2 ϕ
whereas Beam2 and Beam3 experience the polarization

modulation control by half-wavelength plates in the polari- where the real part n is the refractive index indicating the
zation modulation control unit. The polarization modulation phase velocity, and the imaginary part k is referred to as the
control of a laser beam having a wavelength λ by using a extinction coefficient. In this paper, aluminum mirrors hav-
half-wavelength plate designed with respect to the wave- ing a protective layer made of SiO2 with a thickness of
length λ0 can be expressed by the following Jones matrix 151.82 nm with an intermediate layer of Al2 O3 with a thick-
J 0 ðθÞ:23–25 ness of 7.60 nm are employed. Figure 5 shows a schematic of
! the layer structure of the mirrors. In this case, rp and rs in
cos2 θ þ eiΔ sin2 θ ð1 − eiΔ Þ sin θ cos θ 0 Eq. (8) can be expressed as follows:
J 0 ðθÞ ¼
ð1 − eiΔ Þ sin θ cos θ sin2 θ þ eiΔ cos2 θ 0 ;

0 0 1 r1p þ r2p e−2iβ1 þ ðr2p r1p þ e−2iβ1 Þr3p e−2iβ2
rp ¼ ; (11)
1 þ r2p r1p e−2iβ1 þ ðr2p þ r1p e−2iβ1 Þr3p e−2iβ2
(6)
where θ is the polarization direction of the laser beam with r1s þ r2s e−2iβ1 þ ðr2s r1s þ e−2iβ1 Þr3s e−2iβ2
respect to the fast axis of the half-wavelength plate. Here, rs ¼ ; (12)
1 þ r2s r1s e−2iβ1 þ ðr2s þ r1s e−2iβ1 Þr3s e−2iβ2
Δ is a phase difference given to the laser beam by the

half-wavelength plate that can be represented as follows: 2πd1 2πd2
β1 ¼ N 1 cos θ1 ; β1 ¼ N 2 cos θ2 (13)
λ λ
λ
Δ ¼ 0 π: (7)
λ In the above equations, rmp and rms (m ¼ 1; 2; 3) can be
expressed as follows:23
Beam1 without the polarization modulation control and
Beam3 with the polarization modulation control are made N 1 cos θ0 − N 0 cos θ1
incident to the substrate surface after the reflection by the ; r1p ¼
N 1 cos θ0 þ N 0 cos θ1
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e014a;326;325
X-mirror and the Y-mirror, respectively. In the case where (14a)

N cos θ0 − N 1 cos θ1
the laser beam made incident to the mirror surface is S-polar- r1s ¼ 0 ;
ized, the reflected laser beam will maintain the polarization N 0 cos θ0 − N 1 cos θ1
state. Meanwhile, in the case where the laser beam incident
N 2 cos θ1 − N 1 cos θ2
to the mirror surface is elliptically polarized, the polarization ; r2p ¼
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e014b;326;243
state of the laser beam will be affected by the reflection. On

(14b)
the assumption that the mirror is an isotropic interface with- N cos θ1 − N 2 cos θ2
out any protective layers, the Jones matrix of the mirror r2s ¼ 1 ;
N 1 cos θ1 − N 2 cos θ2
reflection J1 can be expressed by the following equation:23,26
! N 3 cos θ2 − N 2 cos θ3
−rp 0 0 ; r3p ¼
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e014c;326;181
J1 ¼ 0 −rs 0 ; (8) (14c)

N cos θ2 − N 3 cos θ3
0 0 1 r3s ¼ 2 ;
where rp and rs can be expressed as follows by using the
angle of incidence of the laser beam ϕ and a complex refrac- where N 0 ; N 1 ; N 2 , and N 3 are the refractive indices of the air,
tive index N ¼ n þ ik23 SiO2 , Al2 O3 , and Al, respectively, whereas θ1 , θ2 , and θ3 are
the angles of incidence of the laser beam to the SiO2 layer,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi the Al2 O3 layer, and the Al layer, respectively. It should be
N 2 − sin2 ϕ − N 2 cos ϕ
rp ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; (9) noted that the Jones matrix of the mirror reflection should be
N 2 cos ϕ þ N 2 − sin2 ϕ
applied after projecting the complex amplitude Ei defined in

the global coordinate system into the local coordinate system assumption that the incident laser beam has a flat light inten-
by the following matrix: sity distribution.
Calculations are carried out for the cases with and without
T 1in ¼ ðp^ s^ kÞ;
^ (15) the protective layers on the mirror substrates. Figure 6(a)
shows the light intensity distributions of the 2-D interference
where p;^ s^ , and k^ are unit vectors in the local coordinate fringe patterns in the case without the polarization modula-
systems. In addition, the complex amplitude after applying tion control. In this case, a structure in the fringe patterns
the Jones matrix of the mirror reflection should also be has an elliptical shape as the consequence of interference
brought back to the global coordinate systems by applying between Beam1 and Beam3. Almost the same interference
the following matrix: fringe patterns can be obtained, regardless of the existence
of protective layer on the mirror substrate, since both the
T 1out ¼ ðp^ 0 ; s^ 0 ; k^ 0 Þ;
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e016;63;642 (16) polarization states of Beam1 and Beam3 are not affected
by the mirror reflections. Figure 6(b) shows the case with
where p^ 0 ; s^ 0 k^ 0 are the unit vectors in the local coordinate an imperfect polarization modulation control of Beam2 and
systems.27 By using the above Jones matrices, the complex Beam3, which corresponds to the optical setup of the con-
amplitudes of Beam1 (E11 ), Beam2 (E12 ), and Beam3 (E13 ) ventional nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror inter-
made incident to the substrate surface can be represented as ferometer.22 In this case, the existence of protective layers
follows: affect the polarization states of the reflected laser beam with
imperfect polarization control. As a result, the polarization
E11 ¼ T 1out · J 1 · T 1in · E01 ;
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e017;63;554 (17) states of Beam2 and Beam3 become elliptical, resulting in
the distortion of a structure in the fringe patterns. However,
E12 ¼ J 0 ðθ2 Þ · E02 ; (18)
in the case of perfect polarization modulation control, the
E13 ¼ T 3out · J 1 · T 3in · J0 ðθ3 Þ · E03 ; (19) above-mentioned distortions of a structure in the fringe pat-
terns can be avoided. Figure 6(c) shows the case with the
where E01 ; E02 , and E03 are the initial polarization states of almost perfect polarization modulation control (with a retard-
Beam1, Beam2, and Beam3, respectively, before passing ance of 5 nm), which corresponds to the proposed optical
through the polarization modulation control unit. In the non- setup with the high-precision half-wavelength plates. As can
orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, all the be seen in the figure, the influence of the retardance of the
sub-beams made incident to the polarization modulation half-wavelength plates is negligibly small, and the proposed
control unit are S-polarized beams. Namely, the initial polari- optical setup is therefore expected to realize further precise
zation state of each laser beam can be expressed as follows: fabrication of the 2-D scale gratings.
E01 ¼ E02 ¼ E03 ¼ ½ 0

EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e020;63;404 1 0 : (20)
(a)
Based on Eq. (2), the intensity distributions of the 2-D Intensity
500 nm/div.
500 nm/div.
fringe patterns are calculated. For the calculations, the High
Y-position
Y-position
parameters summarized in Table 1 are employed. It should

be noted that the following calculations are carried out on the Low
X-position X-position
500 nm/div. 500 nm/div.
Table 1 Parameters employed for the theoretical calculations of the (b)
influence of imperfect polarization modulation control on the intensity
500 nm/div.
500 nm/div.
Y-position
Y-position
distribution of the 2-D interference fringe patterns.
Item Number Unit
Light wavelength 441.6 nm X-position X-position

(c) 500 nm/div. 500 nm/div.
Design wavelength of the 550 nm
half-wavelength plates in
500 nm/div.
500 nm/div.
Y-position
Y-position
the conventional setup
Design wavelength of the 441.6 nm

half-wavelength plates in
the newly designed setup
X-position X-position
500 nm/div. 500 nm/div.
Refractive index of air (N 0 ) 1.0000 —
Fig. 6 Calculated normalized intensity distributions of the inter-
Refractive index of SiO2 (N 1 ) 1.4662
ference fringe patterns; (a) without the polarization modulation
control; (b) with an imperfect polarization modulation control by the
Refractive index of Al2 O3 (N 2 ) 1.7810
half-wavelength plates with a designed light wavelength of 550 nm;
and (c) with a perfect polarization control in the modified setup
Refractive index of Al mirror 0.5952 − 5.3671j —
having the half-wavelength plates with a designed light wavelength
substrate (N 3 )
of 441.6 nm

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3.2 Effect of the Flat Light Intensity Distribution of I XY ðx; yÞ þ 2 I X ðxX-beam ; yX-beam Þ · I Y ðxY-beam ;yY-beam Þ
the Collimated Laser Beam (25)

2π 2π
So far the theoretical calculations of the light intensity dis- · cos y sin 2θY − x sin 2θX cos δXY ;
tributions of 2-D interference fringe patterns are carried out λ λ
based on the assumption that the laser beam made incident
to the mirror-substrate assembly has a flat light intensity dis- 8P −8ðx2 þ y2 Þ
I D ðx; yÞ ¼ exp ; (26)
πD2Laser D2Laser
tribution. Meanwhile, in a practical case, the laser beam has

a nonflat intensity distribution, as shown in Fig. 7. The in-
fluence of the nonflat intensity distribution of the laser beam Here, I DC ðx; yÞ corresponds to the DC component, I DX ðI DY Þ
is therefore estimated based on theoretical calculations. corresponds to the component generated by the interference
It should be noted that, in regard to the practical case,22 the between the direct beam and the X-ðY-Þbeam, and I XY ðx; yÞ
following calculations are carried out on the assumption that corresponds to the component generated by the interference
the collimated laser beam has the Gaussian light intensity between the X- and Y-beams. Here, I D ðx; yÞ is the light
distribution. The parameters employed in the calculations are intensity distribution of the incident collimated laser beam
summarized in Table 2. with a beam diameter DLaser. In the above equations, P is the
The light intensity Iðx; yÞ of the fringe patterns at the total power of the laser beam. The parameters δDX , δDY , and
position (x; y) on the substrate surface can be calculated δXY are the angles between the polarization directions of the
by the following equation:21,22 corresponding light rays, respectively. In the following cal-
culations, δDX , δDY , and δXY are treated to be 45 deg, 45 deg,
Iðx;yÞ ¼ I DC ðx;yÞ þ I DX ðx;yÞ þ I DY ðx;yÞ þ I XY ðx;yÞ;
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e021;63;551 (21) and 90 deg, corresponding to the perfect polarization modu-
lation control.
where
Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show the light intensity distributions
I DC ðx; yÞ þ I D ðx; yÞ þ I X ðxX-beam ; yX-beam Þ
of the collimated laser beams with DLaser of 300 and
600 mm, respectively, and the corresponding light intensity
þ I Y ðxY-beam ; yY-beam Þ; (22) distributions of the 2-D interference fringe patterns at the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi center position [position A, (x; y) = (10 mm, 10 mm)] and
I DX ðx; yÞ þ 2 I D ðx; yÞ · I X ðxX-beam ; yX-beam Þ
the outer position [position B, (x; y) = (90 mm, 90 mm)] in
the collimated laser beam on a substrate surface. Since P is
2π
× cos x sin 2θX cos δDX ; (23)
λ
(a)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I DY ðx; yÞ þ 2 I D ðx; yÞ · I Y ðxY-beam ; yY-beam Þ

2π
× cos y sin 2θy cos δDy ; (24)
λ
Z
Normalized
intensity
High
Position
A
Low
X
Position B
Y (b)
Substrate
Fig. 7 A schematic representation of the light intensity distribution of

the collimated laser beam directly incident to the substrate surface.
Table 2 Parameters employed for the theoretical calculations of the

intensity distribution of the 2-D interference fringe patterns.
Item Number Unit
Light wavelength 441.6 nm
Mirror angle θX and θY 13.1 deg
Mesh size on the substrate surface 0.02 (X ; Y ) μm Fig. 8 Intensity distributions of the incident laser beam and the inter-
ference fringe patterns to be generated on the substrate surface
Total light power 100 mW obtained by the theoretical calculations. (a) Beam diameter of
300 mm and (b) beam diameter of 600 mm.

set to be the same value (100 mW) in the calculations, the Table 3 Design parameters for the newly proposed optical design.
light intensity distribution of the collimated laser beam
becomes flatter as DLaser increases. The difference in the con-
Item Number Unit
trasts of 2-D interference fringe patterns at the center and the
outer positions also becomes smaller as DLaser increases. As Beam diameter from the light source d 1 1.2 mm
can be seen in these results, the proposed beam expansion
assembly is expected to contribute to the fabrication of Lens 1
2-D pattern structures having uniform amplitudes over a Focal length f 1 2.1 mm
wide exposure area. Meanwhile, the light intensity of the
2-D interference fringe patterns becomes weak as the conse- Effective diameter 3.4 mm
quence of the increase in DLaser ; this fact means that the
Lens 2
exposure time required for the fabrication of the 2-D scale
gratings becomes longer, and attentions should be paid for Focal length f 2 60 mm
the stability of the whole interferometer system, although the
optimization of develop time could suppress the increase of Effective diameter 24 mm
exposure time. In this paper, this issue has been addressed by
Lens 3
carrying out exposure experiments by using a prototype opti-
cal setup, the details of which are described in the following Focal length f 3 -25 mm
experiment section.
Effective diameter 24 mm
4 Design and Construction of the Optical Setup and Lens 4
Basic Experiments
A major modification is made to the conventional nonorthog- Focal length f 4 677 mm
onal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer,22 based on the Effective diameter 350 mm
proposed concept of the beam expansion assembly. Figure 9
shows a schematic of the newly designed beam expansion Size of the substrate 100 × 100 mm2
assembly. Denoting the focal lengths of the objective lens
(L1 ) in the spatial filter and the plano-convex lens (L2 ) as
f 1 and f 2 , respectively, a diameter of the thin collimated be noted that the diameter of the lens L2 is smaller than
laser beam d2 can be expressed as follows:23 d2 , and the diameter of the large collimating lens L4 is
smaller than d4 . As a result, a diameter of the collimated laser
f2
d2 ¼ d ; (27) beam for the interference lithography becomes 350 mm,
f1 1
whereas the light intensity distribution in the generated col-

limated laser beam corresponds to the laser beam having a
where d1 is a diameter of the laser beam made incident to the diameter of 541.6 mm.
objective lens L1 . After the polarization modulation control, Figures 10(a) and 10(b) show a schematic and a photo-
the thin collimated laser beam is expanded by the plano- graph of the optical setup for the nonorthogonal two-axis
concave lens (L3 ) with a focal length of f 3 and the large- Lloyd’s mirror interferometer, respectively, in which the
diameter collimating lens (L4 ) with a focal length of f 4 newly designed beam expansion assembly is integrated. A
arranged in the Galilean configuration. A diameter of the He-Cd laser with a wavelength λ of 441.6 nm and a power
expanded laser beam d4 can be expressed as follows: of 180 mW is employed as the light source for the interfer-
f4 ometer. A polarization modulation control unit composed of
d4 ¼ d : (28) a pair of crystalline quartz half-wavelength plates, which are
jf 3 j 1
specially designed for the laser beam with a wavelength of

441.6 nm, is inserted between L2 and L3 in the beam expan-
The parameters of the lenses employed in the beam
sion assembly. Figure 11 compares the sizes of polarization
expansion assembly are summarized in Table 3. The beam
modulation control units in the conventional setup and the
expansion assembly is designed to generate the collimated
proposed optical setup. As can be seen in the figure, the con-
laser beam with a large diameter of 541.6 mm. It should
ventional polarization modulation control unit is designed in
a size of ∼125 mm × 250 mm by using a pair of large half-
wavelength plates. Since the large half-wavelength plates
L4 are thin films made of polycarbonate, they are mounted on
D a homemade aluminum holder. Although attention is paid
d1 L 2 d2 d3 L3
2
L1 when mounting the waveplates onto the holder, it is difficult
D2 d4 to avoid the misalignments of fast axes and surface distor-
f1 f2 f3 tions of the waveplates. Meanwhile, in the newly proposed
Polarization design, the polarization modulation control unit is designed
modulation f4 in a compact size of 24 mm × 11 mm by using a pair of
control unit
quarts half-wavelength plates directly joined side by side
Fig. 9 The beam expansion assembly newly designed for the non-
with an optic adhesive. Owing to their compact sizes, high
orthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer based on the rigidity, and well-finished side faces, the misalignments of
Galilean configuration. fast axes and surface distortions of the waveplates are

(a) decreased in the newly designed polarization modulation

Polarization modulation control unit
Plano-concave Plano-convex
control unit. Fast axes of the half-wavelength plates are
lens lens aligned to have angles of 22.5 deg and 45 deg with respect
Collimating to the polarization direction of the incident laser beam to
Y-mirror lens modulate the polarization direction of Beam2 and Beam3
to be 45 deg and 90 deg, respectively. The polarization-
Substrate
modulated thin collimated laser beam is expanded again and
X -mirror
Spatial filter is made incident to the mirror-substrate assembly. The colli-
mated laser beam is aligned to be parallel with the normal
of the substrate. In the mirror-substrate assembly, the X- and
Y-mirrors are aligned to have angles θX and θY , respectively,
X
with respect to the substrate surface. The periods of the 2-D
Y Z fringe patterns along the X-direction gX and the Y-direction
Laser source
gY can be calculated as follows:21
(b) λ λ
Substrate gX ¼
EQ-TARGET;temp:intralink-;e029;326;598 ; gY ¼ : (29)
X -mirror Y-mirror Collimating lens sin 2θX sin 2θY
In this paper, θX and θY are set to be 11.3 deg to obtain the

2-D interference fringe patterns with a period of 1 μm along
the X- and Y-directions. As can be seen in the figure, all the
optical components including the He-Cd laser source are
placed on a general-purpose 1000 mm × 1500 mm vibration-
isolation table to minimize the influences of external
disturbances.
X At first, the light intensity distribution of the generated
Y Z collimated laser beam is evaluated by using a commercially
available power meter (Advantest, Q8230) over an area of
Laser source Spatial filter
195 mm × 193 mm at the substrate position. Figure 12(a)
Fig. 10 Developed optical setup of the newly designed two-axis
shows the light intensity distribution of the collimated
Lloyd’s mirror interferometer. (a) A schematic representation of the laser beam obtained by the conventional beam expansion
optical setup and (b) a photograph of the optical setup. assembly,22 whereas Fig. 12(b) shows the one obtained by
the newly developed beam expansion assembly. It should
(a) Polarization modulation control unit (b) Polarization modulation control unit
in the conventional setup in the newly proposed setup
Polycarbonate half-wavelength plates
Quartz half-wavelength plates
Aluminum frame
X
X
100 Y
Y mm
250 mm
Half-wavelength plates
made of crystalline quartz
125 mm
Fast g g
22.5 deg axis de de
11 mm
.5
Fast 45 deg 22 45
axis Fast Fast
axis axis
12 mm 12 mm
Half-wavelength plates X
made of polycarbonate Y
Aluminum frame
Fig. 11 The polarization modulation control units. (a) In the conventional setup and (b) in the newly
designed setup.

(a) Normalized (a) Position A Position B

Intensity
X distribution X y X y
1.0
x x’
x x’
193 mm
Y
0.0
y’ y’
Y Y
(b)
Position A x-x’ y-y’
200 nm/div.
Height
195 mm
(b) Normalized
Intensity X/Y position 1 P m/div.
X distribution
1.0
Position B x-x’ y-y’
200 nm/div.
Height
193 mm
Y
0.0
X/Y position 1 P m/div.
Fig. 13 Fabricated by the conventional nonorthogonal two-axis

195 mm Lloyd’s mirror interferometer (exposure time: 1000 s, develop time:
5 s). (a) Fabricated 2-D pattern structures measured by AFM.
(b) Cross sections of the AFM images shown in (a).
Fig. 12 Intensity distributions of the collimated laser beams.
(a) Conventional optical design with the beam expansion assembly
based on the Keplerian configuration and (b) newly proposed optical (a)
design with the beam expansion assembly based on the Galilean Position A Position B
configuration.
X y X y
x x’ x x’
be noted that both the intensity distributions are the normal-
ized ones in the figures. The light intensity distribution is
flattened in the newly proposed design, compared to the con- y’ y’
ventional design. Y Y
Following the verification of the light intensity distribu-
tion of the collimated laser beam, a pattern exposure tests are (b)
Position A x-x’ y-y’
200 nm/div.
carried out by using the conventional optical setup and the

Height
newly developed optical setup. The substrates coated with a

photoresist (Shipley S1805) are exposed to the 2-D inter-
ference fringe patterns, and the exposed substrates are devel-
oped in NaOH solution.21,22 It should be noted that the expo- X/Y position 1 P m/div.
sure tests are carried out without the polarization modulation
controls. In the newly developed optical setup, the develop Position B x-x’ y-y’
200 nm/div.
time was extended from 5 to 15 s to cover the decrease of the

Height
exposure dose, which is the product of light intensity and

time. Figures 13 and 14 show the profiles of the 2-D pattern
structures on the substrates at the center position (Position A:
X ¼ 10 mm, Y ¼ 10 mm) and the outer position (Position X/Y position 1 P m/div.
B: X ¼ 90 mm, Y ¼ 90 mm) by the conventional optical
setup and the newly developed optical setup, respectively. Fig. 14 Fabricated by the newly proposed nonorthogonal two-axis
In the case of conventional setup, the amplitudes of pattern Lloyd’s mirror interferometer (exposure time: 900 s, develop time:
15 s). (a) Fabricated 2-D pattern structures measured by AFM.
structures at the outer position are smaller than those at the (b) Cross sections of the AFM images shown in (a).
center position due to the influence of the light intensity dis-
tribution in the collimated laser beam. On the other hand, as
can be seen in Fig. 14, in the case of the newly developed optical design. Based on the optical setup developed in this
optical setup, the amplitudes of the pattern structures at the paper, pattern exposure tests are carried out for the cases
center and outer positions are almost the same. These results (a) without the polarization modulation control unit, (b) with
demonstrate that the flat light intensity distribution contrib- the polarization modulation control unit having low-
uted to obtain 2-D pattern structures with uniform ampli- precision half-wavelength plates made of polycarbonate
tudes. In addition, these results demonstrate the feasibility of (employed in the conventional setup22), and (c) with the
the long-term exposure in the proposed optical setup. polarization modulation control unit having high-precision
Experiments are extended to verify the improvement of quarts half-wavelength plates. Figure 15 shows the AFM
polarization modulation control in the newly proposed images of 2-D pattern structures fabricated by the setups

Intensity
Simulation Simulation Simulation High
500 nm/div.
500 nm/div.
500 nm/div.
Y-position
Y-position
Y-position
Low
X-position X-position X-position

500 nm/div. 500 nm/div. 500 nm/div.
X y X y X y Height nm
x x’ x x’ 171.6
x x’
AFM AFM AFM -322.3

y’ y’ y’
Y Y Y
200 nm/div.
200 nm/div.
200 nm/div.
X -X’ Y-Y’ X -X’ Y-Y’ X -X’ Y-Y’
Height
Height
Height
X/Y position 1 P m/div. X/Y position 1 P m/div. X/Y position 1 P m/div.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 15 Profiles of the 2-D pattern structures fabricated at the position of X ¼ 90 mm and Y ¼ 90 mm
measured by the AFM; (a) without the polarization modulation control; (b) with an imperfect polarization
modulation control by the half-wavelength plates designed for a light wavelength of 550 nm; and (c) with
a perfect polarization control in the modified setup having the half-wavelength plates with a designed
wavelength of 441.6 nm.
at the outer position (X ¼ 90 mm, Y ¼ 90 mm) of the colli- achieve both a further precise polarization modulation con-
mated laser beam. As can be seen in Fig. 15(b), imperfect trol of subdivided laser beams and a flat light intensity dis-
polarization modulation control results in the distorted 2-D tribution in the laser beams. To verify the feasibility of the
pattern structures. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 15(c), proposed optical setup, theoretical calculations of the light
the proper polarization modulation control is found to be intensity distributions of 2-D fringe patterns to be obtained
effective in reducing the influence of interference between by the setup have been carried out. It has been revealed in the
the X- and Y-beams. The amplitudes of pattern structures theoretical calculations of the electric fields of the fringe pat-
fabricated through the polarization modulation control are terns on the substrate surface that the influence of imperfect
found to be smaller than those that are fabricated without polarization modulation control can be reduced by the high-
the polarization modulation control; this is due the decrease precision polarization modulation control to be achieved by
of light intensity in the generated interference fringe fields the proposed optical setup. In addition, the flattened light
induced by the polarization modulation control and could intensity distribution in the collimated laser beam contributes
be explained by Eqs. (23), (24), and (25). From these exper- to reduce the difference of the amplitude of pattern structures
imental results, the feasibility of the newly proposed beam at the center and outer positions in the collimated laser beam.
expansion assembly for the nonorthogonal two-axis Lloyd’s To further verify the feasibility of the proposed method,
mirror interferometer is successfully verified. a prototype optical setup for the nonorthogonal two-axis
It should be noted that attentions have been paid in this Lloyd’s mirror interferometer has been developed. It has
paper to correct the pattern distortion induced by the incom- been confirmed that the collimated laser beam with further
plete polarization modulation control and the position- flattened light intensity distribution has successfully been
dependent amplitude deviation of the 2-D pattern structures. obtained by the proposed setup. In addition, results of
The evaluation of the pitch deviations in the 2-D scale gra- some basic experiments by using the developed setup have
ting, which is another important issue to be addressed, can demonstrated that the flat light intensity distribution in the
be conducted by techniques based on the 2-D Fourier
collimated laser beam has contributed to obtain 2-D pattern
transform11 or Fizeau interferometer28,29 and will be carried
structures having uniform amplitudes. Furthermore, the
out in future work.
improved polarization modulation control in the newly
developed optical setup has also been found to improve the
5 Summary quality of 2-D pattern structures.
A optical setup based on the conventional nonorthogonal It should be noted that this paper has focused on the veri-
two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer has been proposed fication of the feasibility of newly proposed beam expansion
to achieve the fabrication of further accurate 2-D scale gra- assembly, including the configuration of polarization modu-
ting having uniform pattern structures over a wide area. lation control unit for the quality improvement of the 2-D
In the proposed optical setup, a beam expansion assembly scale grating. Fabrication of large 2-D scale gratings having
based on the Galilean configuration has been designed to a size of over 100 mm × 100 mm, an improvement of the

light intensity uniformity of the collimated laser beam pro- 17. M. Vala and J. Homola, “Flexible method based on four-beam inter-
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This research was supported by the Japan Society for the 21. X. Li et al., “A two-axis Lloyd’s mirror interferometer for fabrication of
Promotion of Science. two-dimensional diffraction gratings,” CIRP Ann.-Manuf. Technol.
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Accurate Polarization Control in Nonorthogonal Two-Axis Lloyd 'S Mirror Interferometer For Fabrication of Two-Dimensional Scale Gratings

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