4.

s-Domain Analysis of Continuous-Time

Signals and Systems

4.1. Definition of Laplace Transform (9.0-9.3)

4.2. Properties of Laplace Transform (9.5)
4.3. System Function (9.7)
4.4. Classification of a Linear Time-Invariant Continuous-
Time System by its System Function (9.7)
4.5. Linear Constant-Coefficient Differential Equations (9.7)
4.6. Implementation of Continuous-Time Systems (9.8)
4.1. Definition of Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform of a continuous-time signal x(t) is defined
as

X(s)   x(t ) exp(st)dt, (4.1)


where s is a complex variable. x(t) can be recovered from X(s) by

1   j
x(t) 
2j   j 
X (s) exp(st )ds . (4.2)

(4.2) is called the inverse Laplace transform.

4.1.1. Derivation of Inverse Laplace Transform
Letting s=+j in (4.1), we obtain

X(  j)   x(t ) exp(t ) exp( jt )dt. (4.3)

That is, X(+j) is the Fourier transform of x(t)exp(t). Thus,
1 
x ( t ) exp(t ) 
2  
X (  j) exp( jt )d. (4.4)

Multiplying both the sides of (4.4) by exp(t), we obtain

X(  j) exp(  j) t d

1 
x(t) 
2  
(4.5)

and thus (4.2).

4.1.2. Relation of Laplace Transform to Fourier Transform
The Laplace transform of x(t) on the line Re(s)= is the Fourier
transform of x(t)exp(t), i.e.,
X(+j)=FT[x(t)exp(t)]. (4.6)
Especially, the Laplace transform of x(t) on the line Re(s)=0 is the
Fourier transform of x(t), i.e.,
 X(j)=FT[x(t)]. (4.7)
4.1.3. Zeros and Poles of Laplace Transform
Suppose that X(s) is rational, i.e., X(s)=P1(s)/P2(s), where P1(s)
and P2(s) are two polynomials. The roots of P1(s)=0 are called the
zeros of X(s), and the roots of P2(s)=0 are called the poles of X(s).
Zeros and poles are indicated with  and  in the complex plane,
respectively.
The algebraic expression of X(s) can be specified by its zeros and
poles except for a scale factor.
4.1.4. Region of Convergence of Laplace Transform
The open region where X(s) converges is referred to as the region
of convergence (ROC) of X(s). In other discussions, the ROC may
mean the region where X(s) converges. Note that both the algebraic
expression and the ROC of X(s) are required to specify x(t) uniquely.
 Let us assume that a signal has the Laplace transform. Then, for
different types of the signal, the ROC of the Laplace transform has
different types.
(1) If the signal is of finite duration, the ROC is the entire plane,
i.e., sC.
(2) If the signal is right-sided, the ROC is a right-half plane, i.e.,
Re(s)>0.
(3) If the signal is left-sided, the ROC is a left-half plane, i.e.,
Re(s)<0.
(4) If the signal is two-sided, the ROC is an upright strip, i.e.,
1<Re(s)<2.
In addition, if the Laplace transform is rational and has poles, the
ROC is bounded by the poles.
Example. For each of the following signals, determine the Laplace
transform.
(1) x(t)=(t).
e at , 0  t  T
(2) x(t)   .
0, otherwise
(3) x(t)=eatu(t).
(4) x(t)=eatu(t).
(5) x(t)=e2tu(t)+etcos(3t)u(t).
(6) x(t)=ea|t|, Re(a)<0.
4.2. Properties of Laplace Transform
4.2.1. Linearity
If x1(t)X1(s) and x2(t)X2(s), then
 a1x1(t)+a2x2(t)a1X1(s)+a2X2(s), (4.8)
where a1 and a2 are two arbitrary constants.
4.2.2. Differentiation
If x(t)X(s), then
dx ( t )
 sX (s). (4.9)
dt
If x(t)X(s), then
dX (s)
 tx( t )  . (4.10)
ds
Example. Determine the inverse Laplace transform for each of the
following signals:
1
(1) X(s)  , Re (s)  Re( a ).
(s  a ) n
 1
(2) X(s)  , Re (s)  Re( a ).
(s  a ) n

4.2.3. Shifting
If x(t)X(s), then
x(tt0)X(s)exp(st0), (4.11)
where t0 is an arbitrary real number.
If x(t)X(s), then
x(t)exp(s0t)X(ss0), (4.12)
where s0 is an arbitrary complex number.
4.2.4. Scaling
If x(t)X(s), then
 1 s
x (at )  X , (4.13)
|a| a
where a is a nonzero real number.
Letting a=1 in (4.13), we obtain
x(t)X(s), (4.14)
the reversal property of the Laplace transform.
From (4.14), the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) x(t) even  X(s) even.
(2) x(t) odd  X(s) odd.
4.2.5. Conjugation
If x(t)X(s), then
x*(t)X*(s*). (4.15)
 From (4.15), the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Im[x(t)]=0  X(s)=X*(s*).
(2) Re[x(t)]=0  X(s)=X*(s*).
4.2.6. Convolution
If x1(t)X1(s) and x2(t)X2(s), then
x1(t)x2(t)X1(s)X2(s). (4.16)
Example. Find the convolution integral of x1(t) and x2(t). Assume
x1(t)=eatu(t), x2(t)=ebtu(t) and ab.
4.2.7. Initial-Value Theorem and Final-Value Theorem
Assume x(t)=0 for t<0. If x(t)X(s), then
x (0 )  lim sX (s). (4.17)
s 

Assume x(t)=0 for t<0. If x(t)X(s), then

 x()  lim sX (s). (4.18)
s0

Proof. sX(s) can be expressed as

 dx ( t )
sX(s)   exp(st )dt
  dt

0  dx ( t )  dx ( t )
 exp(st )dt    exp(st )dt
0 dt 0 dt
0  dx ( t )  dx ( t )
 dt    exp(st )dt
0 dt 0 dt
 dx ( t )
 x (0 )   

exp(st )dt . (4.19)
0 dt
Letting s, we obtain (4.17). Letting s0, we obtain (4.18).
4.2.8. Inverse of Rational Laplace Transforms
We discuss how to find x(t) when X(s) is a rational function. This
can be carried out by the partial-fraction expansion.
 (1) By the long division or inspection, expand X(s) into
X(s)=P0(s)+ P1(s)/P2(s), (4.20)
where P0(s), P1(s) and P2(s) are polynomials and the order of P1(s) is
lower than that of P2(s).
(2) Expand P1(s)/P2(s) into partial fractions. An Nth-order root of
P2(s)=0, a, corresponds to N terms in the expansion, i.e.,
N
P1 (s) An
       , (4.21)
n 1 (s  a )
n
P2 (s)
where An is calculated by the comparison method or the elimination
method (multiplying (4.21) by (sa)N, taking the derivative of order
Nn, and substituting a for s to obtain An).
(3) Determine x(t) based on the basic Laplace-transform pairs and
the properties of the Laplace transform. The basic Laplace-transform
pairs are given next:
 (t)1. (4.22)
1 n 1 at 1
t e u(t)  , Re (s)  Re( a ). (4.23)
(n  1)! (s  a ) n

1 n 1 at 1
 t e u ( t )  , Re (s)  Re( a ). (4.24)
(n  1)! (s  a ) n

When n=1, (4.23) and (4.24) become, respectively,

1
e u(t) 
at
, Re (s)  Re( a ), (4.25)
sa
1
 e u ( t ) 
at
, Re (s)  Re( a ). (4.26)
sa
Example. Determine the inverse Laplace transform for each of the
following signals:
1
(1) X(s)  .
(s  1)(s  2)
 2s 2  5s  5
(2) X(s)  , Re (s)  1.
(s  1) (s  2)
2

4.3. System Function

A linear time-invariant continuous-time system can be described
by the system function, which is defined as the Laplace transform of
the impulse response.
The input-output relation of a linear time-invariant continuous-
time system can be expressed by the system function, i.e.,
Y(s)=X(s)H(s), (4.27)
where X(s) and Y(s) are the Laplace transforms of the input and the
output, respectively, and H(s) is the system function.
The frequency response H() is actually the system function H(s)
on the line Re(s)=0, i.e.,
 H()=H(j). (4.28)
4.4. Classification of a Linear Time-Invariant Continuous-Time
System by its System Function
4.4.1. Memoryless Systems versus Systems with Memory
Assume that H(s) is the system function of a linear time-invariant
continuous-time system. The system is memoryless if and only if H(s)
is a constant.
4.4.2. Causal Systems versus Noncausal Systems
Assume that H(s) is the system function of a linear time-invariant
continuous-time system. Then, the system is causal if and only if H(s)
converges as s.
Example. Determine the causality of the following systems.
1
(1) H(s)  , Re (s)  1.
s 1
 2
(2) H(s)  2 ,  1  Re (s)  1.
s 1
es
(3) H(s)  , Re (s)  1.
s 1
4.4.3. Stable Systems versus Unstable Systems
Assume that H(s) is the system function of a linear time-invariant
continuous-time system. The system is stable if and only if the ROC
of H(s) includes the imaginary axis.
Example. Determine the stability of the following systems:
1
(1) H(s)  , Re (s)  1.
s 1
1
(2) H(s)  , Re (s)  2.
s2
s 1
(3) H(s)  .
(s  1)(s  2)
4.4.4. Invertible Systems versus Noninvertible Systems
Assume that two linear time-invariant continuous-time systems A
and B have the system functions G(s) and H(s), respectively. Then, A
and B are mutually inverse if and only if
G(s)H(s)=1. (4.29)
(4.29) can be used to construct the inverse of a given system.
4.5. Linear Constant-Coefficient Differential Equations
The solution to a linear constant-coefficient differential equation
equals the zero-input response plus the zero-state response. The zero-
state response can also be found using the Laplace transform.
Example. A causal continuous-time system is given by
dy ( t )
 2 y( t )  x ( t ), (4.30)
dt
where x(t)=etu(t) and y(0)=2. Find the zero-input response, the
zero-state response and the complete response.
First, using the method in section 2.5, we can obtain the zero-input
response
yzi(t)=2e2t. (4.31)
Then, let us consider the zero-state response. The zero-state response
satisfies (4.30), i.e.,
dy zs ( t )
 2 y zs ( t )  x ( t ). (4.32)
dt
Taking the Laplace transform of (4.32), we obtain
1
sYzs (s)  2Yzs (s)  . (4.33)
s 1
From (4.33), we obtain
 1 1
Yzs (s)   . (4.34)
s  2 s 1
The ROC of 1/(s+2) is determined by the system. Since the system
is causal, the ROC of 1/(s+2) is Re(s)>2. The ROC of 1/(s+1) is
determined by the input. Since the input is right-sided, the ROC of
1/(s+1) is Re(s)>1. Thus, the inverse Laplace transform of Yzs(s) is
yzs(t)=(e2t+et)u(t). (4.35)
The complete response equals the sum of the zero-input response and
the zero-state response, i.e.,
y(t)=2e2t+(e2t+et)u(t). (4.36)
Example. A causal continuous-time system is given by
dy ( t )
 2 y( t )  x ( t ). (4.37)
dt
Find the impulse response.
 The zero-state response satisfies (4.37), i.e.,
dy zs ( t )
 2 y zs ( t )  x ( t ). (4.38)
dt
Taking the Laplace transform of (4.38), we obtain
Yzs (s) 1
 . (4.39)
X(s) s  2
Thus,
1
H (s )  . (4.40)
s2
Since the system is causal, the inverse Laplace transform of H(s) is
h(t)=e2tu(t). (4.41)
Example. Consider a linear time-invariant continuous-time system.
when the input is
 x(t)=e3tu(t), (4.42)
the output is
y(t)=(ete2t)u(t). (4.43)
Use a differential equation to characterize the system.
4.6. Implementation of Continuous-Time Systems
Let us discuss the implementation of a causal linear time-invariant
continuous-time system characterized by a rational system function.
We only consider the implementation using adders, coefficient
multipliers and integrators. In the implementation, various structures
can be chosen. These structures are different in accuracy, speed, cost,
and others.
A structure can be described by a block diagram. A block diagram
consists of three elements, that is, the adder, the coefficient multiplier
and the integrator. Figure 4.1 shows these elements.
 X2(s)

X1(s) + X1(s)+X2(s)

Adder

X(s) a aX(s)

Coefficient Multiplier

X(s) s1 s1X(s)

Integrator

Figure 4.1. Elements of a Block Diagram.

 X(s) 2 + + Y(s)

s1 s1
4 + + 3
s1 s1
6 2
Figure 4.2. Direct Form I.

Example. A causal linear time-invariant continuous-time system is

characterized by
2  4s 1  6s 2
H(s)  1 2
. (4.44)
1  3s  2s
From (4.44), we obtain
 Y(s)=3s1Y(s)2s2Y(s)+2X(s)+4s1X(s)6s2X(s). (4.45)
The direct-form I structure of the system is based on (4.45). Draw the
block diagram.
The block diagram is shown in figure 4.2.
Example. From (4.44), we obtain
2  4s 1  6s 2
Y (s)  1 2
X (s). (4.46)
1  3s  2s
(4.46) is also written as
Y(s)=(2+4s16s2)W(s), (4.47)
where
1
W (s)  1 2
X(s). (4.48)
1  3s  2s
Thus,
 W(s)=3s1W(s)2s2W(s)+X(s), (4.49)
Y(s)=2W(s)+4s1W(s)6s2W(s). (4.50)
The direct-form II structure of the system is obtained from (4.49) and
(4.50). Draw the block diagram.
The block diagram is shown in figure 4.3.

W(s)
X(s) + 2 + Y(s)

s1
+ 3 4 +
s1
2 6
Figure 4.3. Direct Form II.
 Example. (4.44) is also written as
 1  s 1  1  3s 1 
H(s)  2 
1  1 
. (4.51)
 1  2s  1  s 
A cascade-form structure of the system is obtained from (4.51). The
system is expressed as the cascade of 3 subsystems. Each subsystem
is implemented in direct form I or II. Draw the block diagram.
Example. (4.44) is also written as
8 3
H(s)  3  1
 1
. (4.52)
1 s 1  2s
A parallel-form structure of the system is obtained from (4.52). The
system is expressed as the parallel of 3 subsystems. Each subsystem
is implemented in direct form I or II. Draw the block diagram.