The modern industrial plant rely on instrumentation as or regular part of its

production equipment.in few, it is simple but in vast majority it is more elaborate.

Recording instruments
It should be employed when a permanent record of the variable is desirable.
Record is useful for 3 reason:
1 process operator may refer to the instrument to observe the trend of the
variable as a guide to process operation.
2 record maybe usefull in locating trouble on the job
3 record may be required for reference to past performance.

It should not be used when any of these functions are not required. Since, these
are more expensive and require more maintenance than indicating types.

Recording type instruments employ two different styles of recording charts:

1 circular recording chart
2 strip recording chart

Indicating and signalling instruments

Indicating instrument
It is used when only the present value of the variable has meaning and the past
record is of no consequence.
Indicating scale is of 3 types
Ecentric scale - commonly used on mechanical instruments such as pressure
thermometer, flowmeters and pressure gauges. scale Length is about 8 inches.
Concentric scale - used for nearly all kinds of instruments. Scale length is about
25 inches in Precision type instrument and maybe as small as inches in simple dial
type pressure gauges and thermometer.
Linear scale - used only on the Potentiometer resistance thermometer type
instrument.
For such instruments indicator is made simply by omiting stripchart, chart
drive and pen.
Their use is restricted because a free choice of scale types is not possible.
Concentric scale offers greater scale length in the smallest space.

Signalling instruments
Effective when it is only necessary to indicate that the variable is within certain
limits.
Accomplished by electric contacts or switches suitably operated from a measuring
means such as a thermometer pressure spring, liquid level float or Thermocouple
pyrometer. Signal lights or horns are used for visual audible signal.
Signalling system should be positive. That is a system should require an operator
to look for a specific combination of signals before performing any operation.
Common signalling systems are 1 hi Low system - useful for indicating when a
variable has passed a given point. 2 Hi low neutral system - used to indicate that
process operation may proceed only when the Amber light is on. 3 the 5 Position
System - provides more information on the value of the variable .

Transmission of instrument readings

It is necessary to measure a variable at one point and to indicate its value at
another point located a considerable distance from the first.
Consideration of the distance
1. for mechanical instruments transmission of readings must be considered at
distances greater than 50 feet. Because additional measuring lag and temperature
errors increase with distance.
2. For differential pressure instruments, connecting lines should not be longer
than 50 feet. Because long lines cause difficulty with spurious liquid heads and
errors maybe large.
3. pressure spring thermometer with capillary greater than 150 feet in length is
costly.
4. Pressure gauge connecting lines should be short. Because long lines cause
damping.

Pneumatic transmission
It is generally updated on the transmitted pressures of about 0 to 20 pound per
square inch gauge. the receiver is simply a pressure gauge of 10 to 20 pound force
square inch calibration. Actually calibration can be made in terms of temperature,
flow, liquid level or whatever variable is desirable.
Limitation to the distance between transmitter and receiver in pneumatic
transmission is the lag caused by the resistance and volume of the connecting
tube.
To reduce lag to a minimum install booster pilots at intervals of 200 to 500 feet
along the transmission line.

Electric transmission
It is illustrated by the inductance Bridge system used in the differential Pressure
transmitter, gravity metre and viscosity metre.
Electric transmission can be considered in herent in such instruments
Thermocouple pyrometer, resistance thermometer and other electric measuring
instruments Where are reasonable distance May separate the measuring element
and the instrument.
Inductance Bridge system the only limitation to the distance of transmission is the
increasing dead zone caused by the reduced current in the bridge when line
resistance is high

Electric pulse system

It employees a constantly rotating cam at the transmitter
operator switch.percentage time on the switch is determined by the position of
the transmitter pen. Duration of each cycle is determined by the speed after
rotating cam. A square wave voltage is passed over to connecting wires to the
receiver. Then the receiver employs a constantly rotating cam and an
Electromagnet operating the receiver pen through a clutch mechanism.

Automatic controllers
An additional element is introduced into the problem of Transmission by the
consideration of the automatic control circuit.
When the transmission line is included in the automatic control circuit, measuring
lag and controlling leg can become very great.this point is of consequence in
pneumatic transmission.

Measurement of viscosity
Viscosity is important in many fluid operations and it is sometimes necessary to
attempt measurement. Viscosity is a characteristic sometimes called fluid friction.
It can be measured by measuring friction or actually Shear force. The internal
friction or resistance to flow within a fluid is due to viscosity of the fluid.
1 viscosity meters of Brabender corporation
A Bowl containing the liquid is rotated at constant speed by the synchronous
drive motor. Paddle wheel is supported in the bowl nd is free to turn with the
liquid, the rotation of the paddle wheel opposed to by the spring.
For low viscosity fluid shearor drag horses are low. For high viscosity fluid the
forces r greater.
Bowl is enclosed by a housing which has Thermostatic temperature control
because viscosity is greatly affected by temperatures.

Continuous viscosity meter by Fischer and Porter company

It uses the fact that flow rate for fluid in an area Meter is depending on viscosity.
A tapered tube, throgh which the fluid flows, contains two floats. Lower float is
shaped so as to be immune to viscosity changes. Fluid rate is controlled to a
constant values So that lower float remains at the flow Set mark.
Upper float is constant, and is sensitive to viscosity changes, changes position
with changing fluid viscosity.
Therefore, distance between float is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid at
existing temperature. This instrument is made aa a recorder by electrical
transmitting the position of the upper float to a recorder.

Measurement of Conductivity
Gas Analysis by Thermal Methods for determining quantitatively the composition of gases in a
mixture are important for industrial operations.

Thermal-conductivity measurement is very commonly employed in carbon dioxide recorders for

combustion control. It is also used for determining the amount of hydrogen in nitrogen, air, and
oxygen, and for determination of ammonia, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and argon. In addition, it is also used for determining the amount of water vapor in
air (humidity measurement).

Thermal-conductivity determination of efficiency of combustion of fuels is a very common

application. In such cases it is not always necessary to know the exact quantity of each component,
such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Often the instrument can be
calibrated directly in the terms of fuel-air mixture for proper combustion, in terms of reducing-
oxidizing effect, or even in terms of oxygen excess or deficiency.

Carbon dioxide meters (thermal-conductivity type) often are used in this manner, simply indicating
an arbitrary per cent of carbon dioxide which produces efficient combustion. Thermal-conductivity
measurement is a very simple means of analyzing certain gas mixtures. For example, a mixture of
hydrogen and dry air produces relative thermal conductivity from 1 for 100 % air to about 6.98 for
100% hydrogen. thermal conductivity of the mixture of gases be related to the concentration of each
component.

It is assumed that water vapor in a gas mixture is counted as one component. Thereby, a mixture of
oxygen, water vapor, and hydrogen would have three components. In thermal-conductivity
measurement of multicomponent mixtures where one component is water vapor, the amount of
water vapor must be constant. This is usually accomplished by either drying the gas by desiccation
before measurement or by saturating the gas with a wet wick before measurement. Either method
requires some maintenance to insure constant conditions. Also it is usually assumed that the
thermal conductivity of a gas mixture is a linear function of the thermal conductivity and
concentration of each component. However, this is not valid assumption for such mixtures as air—
water, air-ammonia, which do not combine linearly.

Thermal-conductivity cell is made of glass. The right-hand tube contains a platinum filament held
under constant tension by a spring. The filament and spring are glass-coated. The gas flow occurs at
a constant rate by natural convection through the filament cell. When a current flows through the
filament. The heating and consequent temperature rise of the filament depends mainly on the
thermal conductivity the gas.