Technical Guide

for Football
Schools

First English Language Edition

Preface

I t is very gratifying for me to go ahead with the first of the English

Language Edition and with the re-printing of the third edition of
the Technical Guide for Football Schools.
I participated, as Vice President of the Juvenile and Scholastic
Sector, to the drafting of the first edition, which had been strongly
supported by the President at the time, Antonio Papponetti, who
was the first to believe in this project.
Having reached the third edition of this book and the first edition in
English is the confirmation of how much this tool has been
appreciated and deemed useful by all the operators in this sector.
We hope that the technical Guide will continue to be a valid working
tool, without pretending to have been exhaustive on all the
knowledge and teaching methods of the Instructors of the Football
School. It is intended as an opportunity to compare the different
experiences of the operators in the sector, which, with passion and
competence, are on the field everyday with the children who…” are
taking their first kicks to a football”.
The Guide should be consulted periodically for its pedagogical as
well as its technical-didactical value. Let's not forget that, if it is
important to improve the locomotor and technical qualities of the
children, it is just as important to highlight the values that the game
of football expresses.
It is training for freedom, autonomy, creativity and imagination; it
induces the child to reflection, to socialisation and aggregation.
The simple, clear language makes it an adequate tool for the
Instructors of the Juvenile Sector, for Manager as well as for parents.
I would like to mention President Agnolin with the utmost esteem,
who oversaw the third edition, to which I am grateful for having
always stressed the importance of cultur, values, and ethics in the
field of juvenile sport.
For his priceless contribution, I thank Professor Stefano D'Ottavio,
whom, with the experience and enthusiasm of Secretary Barbara
Benedetti, who has always supported this project.
For the important contribution of the many operators in our field, I
express my gratitude to Sergio Campana, President of the A.I.C., to
Azeglio Vicini, President of the Technical Sector of the F.I.G.C., and
to Renzo Ulivieri, President of the A.I.A.C.

President of the Juvenile and Scholastic Sector

Massimo Giacomini
3
4
Index page

A Coach for the Young: 12

1. Profile of a Juvenile Coach
1.1. The Football Coach 13
1.1.1. Why be a coach? 14
1.1.2. Creating and Managing the Group 16
1.1.3. The Ideal Coach: 22
Here is how the boys would like him to be
1.1.4. The Football School Coach's Diary 23
1.2. Other roles within the Football School 24
1.2.1. The young goalkeepers' coach 24
1.2.2. Physical and Locomotor Instructor 26
1.2.3. The Club Doctor 32
1.2.4. The Psychologist of the Football Club 33
1.2.5. The Referee 38
1.2.6. The Secretary 39

2.
This is What They are Like: the Phases 41
of Development and Learning Motor Skills
2.1. Biological and Chronological Age 42
2.2. The Key Phases 43
2.3. Lateralisation and Ambidexterity 46
2.4. From basic movement patterns to technical abilities 47
2.5. Football and Little Girls 50
2.5.1. Methodological suggestions 58

3.
Between Fact and Theory: Techniques 62
and Other Factors of Juvenile Football.
3.1. Technical skills in football 66
3.1.1. Overview of Technical Moves 67
Controlling the ball 67
Dribbling 67
Passing the ball 68
Receiving the ball: the stop 70
Covering the ball 71
Goal Shooting 71
Head play 72
Tackle 74
Throw-in 75
Goal keeper technique 75
3.1.2. Thoughts on the technical move of dribbling: 77
teaching suggestions
Technique and Learning how to Dribble 79

5
 3.1.3. Thoughts on training young goal keepers: 81
teaching suggestions
The characteristics of the role of goal keeper 81
Second-guessing skills 83
The choice of role 83
Didactics 84
Learning material 86
3.2. Second-guessing skills and Faking 86
Second guessing 86
Complex second-guessing 87
Faking 89
3.3. Coordination Skills 91
3.3.1. Reciprocity: sensory - perceptive 92
and coordination skills
3.3.2. General Coordination Skills 93
3.3.3. Special coordination skills 95
3.3.4. The Technical and Coordinative Factor 98
3.4. Assumptions of Collective Play: Tactical Components 99
3.4.1. Tactics in Football 102
3.4.2. Cultural Considerations and References 103
3.4.3. Tactics and the Team - Organising Cooperation 106
3.4.4. The tactical objectives of the game 107
3.4.5. Juvenile tactical training 108
3.4.6. Space control in defensive training 118
3.5. Genetic and morphological components 122
3.5.1. Characteristics of the Training Stimulus 123
3.5.2. Conditional Skills: Muscular Strength 124
3.5.3. Conditional skills: Speed and Movement Rapidity 129
3.5.4. Conditional Skills: Resistance 132
3.5.5. Articular mobility 135
3.6. “Selection, specification and promotion of football talent” 135
3.7. The Psychological and Social Components 141

4.
Let's Organise a Work Plan: 143
the Various Phases of Forming
a Didactical Programme
4.1. Planning 144
4.1.1. Initial Situation and Situation Analysis 145
4.1.2. General Didactical Objectives 145
4.1.3. Didactical Objectives 146
4.1.4. Method and Didactical Content 147
4.1.5. Teaching Material 149
4.2. How do we learn? The methods to qualify teaching 162
4.2.1. Practical guidelines and operational strategies 166
4.2.2. The Cognitive Method (Problem Solving) 171
4.3. Were We Good or Were They Good? 173
Let's Check Through Observation and Evaluation
4.3.1. Control and evaluation of the didactical programme 175
4.3.2. The Technical-Evaluation Protocol 178

6
 Finally we move on to the field: 188
5. to the football lesson
5.1. Didactical Unit and Training Session 189
5.1.1. From Theory to Practice 189
5.2. The Worksheets: how to “read” them 190
5.2.1. The Module 191
5.2.2. The Lesson 192

A.
appendix: The Application of Psychology 198
in Football Schools

B.
appendix: To Let Them Grow Healthily 203
in a Football School

C.
appendix: For an Adequate Medical Assistance 209
During Training Sessions and Matches

LITTLE FRIENDS CATEGORY

6.
The Psycho-Motor profile 221
of a 6-8 year old Child and his Relationships
6.1. How 6-8 year old children think 221
6.2. The Role of Adults 222

Play as a Fundamental Element 224

7. of Discovery of a New World
7.1. An Example of Programming in the Little Friends Category 225

The First Day of School… Football School: 235

8. The Approach to the Rules
8.1. Official Activities of Little Friends 237
8.2. Fun Football: Football that Entertains 238

Operational Sheets Little Friends Category 242

7
 CUBS CATEGORY

The Psycho-Motor Profile 300

9. of the 8-10 Year Old Child and his Relationships
9.1. What Children are Looking for in Football 300
9.2. The Rules 301
9.3. Accepting Defeat or Making Objections 302
to the Referee or the Coach
9.4. How to Experience the Match 303

10.
Particular Aspects 303
of the 8-10 year old Child
10.1. Basic Principles for Planning in the Cubs Category 304
10.2. The Didactical Objectives 306

The Aspect of Regulation 307

11. and the Didactical Rules of the Game
in the Cubs Category
11.1. 5 - a Side in the First Year 308
11.2. 6 - a Side 309
11.3. 7vs7 310
11.4. The “Sei Bravo a… Scuola Calcio” 310
11.4.1. A Bit of History 312
11.4.2. The Formula 314
11.4.3. The Organisation of Activities 314
11.4.4. Didactical Principles and Participation Methods 315
11.4.5. Formation and Reading Classifications 316
11.5. The Extra Player 316
11.6. The Measurements of the Football Field 317
and Penalty Areas, the Ball ad the Dimensions of the Goals
11.7. Compulsory Participation to the Competition 317
11.8. Three Times of Play 318
11.9. Change driver - Quick Substituitions 319
11.10.Time-Out 319
11.11.The “Green Card” 319
11.12.The Figure of the Manager - Referee 320
11.13.Conclusions 321

Operational Sheets - Cubs Category 324

Operational Sheets - Goalkeepers Cubs Category 381

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 BEGINNERS CATEGORY

12 .
The Psycho-motory Profile of the 423
10-12 Year Old Child and his Relationships
12.1. What is Important to Become a Football Player 423
12.2. The Motivations of Beginners 424

13 .
Peculiar Aspects and Characteristics 426
of the Beginner Category
13.1. Basic Principles for Programming in the Beginner Category 427
13.1.1. The Technical-Coordinative Factor 427
13.1.2. The Tactical-Cognitive Factor 430
13.1.3. The Physical-Motory Factor 432

14 .
The Organisational Aspects 433
and the Didactical- Regulatory Rules that
Discipline the Game in the Beginner Category
14.1. 7vs7 434
14.2. 9vs9 440
14.3. First Contact with the rules of 11 - a side football 441
14.4. 11vs11 on a smaller side on a smaller field 442
14.5. The “Fair Play” Tournament 442
14.6. Three times of play and compulsory 443
participation in the competition
14.7. Change driver - Quick Substituitions 444
14.8. Time-Out 444
14.9. The “Green Card” 444
14.10.The Dimensions of the Goals 445
14.11.Refereeing 446
14.11.1.Knowing the Rules of the Game 446
14.11.2.The Approach to the Referee 446
14.11.3.A Suggestion for the Referees 447

Operational Sheets Beginner Category 450

Operational Sheets Goalkeeper Beginner Category 507

Bibliography 548

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 Legend

Football Coach Psychologist

Football School Parents

“Little Friends” Girls

6-8 year olds

“Cubs” Fair Play

8-10 year olds

“Beginners” Education
10-12 year olds

“Very Young” Ambidexterity

12-14 year olds

“Pupils” Equipment
14-16 year olds

Goal keepers Sport Justice

Goal keeper coaches Five-a-side football

Physical coach Tournaments

Referee Membership

Company Doctor Summer Schools

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Football Shooting
Coach the ball

Student Run without

the ball

Opponent Goal

Evaluated
student Wickets

Tackling Belts/
student Obstacles

Captain Obstacles to
jump/avoid

Captain of
opponent Wooden
team edge

Supporting Target
player

Hand ball Tilting table

All-round “Jellyfish”
player

Ball Operation
area

Jack Shape

Cone Rolling
mattress

Frequency
Pin coordinator

Control
of the ball

11
1.
A Coach
for the Young:
Profile of
a Juvenile Coach
 the football coach
1.1

T o coach and educate the young in the game of football is

not a simple task. The coach needs to be able to mix
technical, tactical, educational, psychological and
communicational qualities, whilst bearing the age of his audience in
mind. His skills regard teaching at a scholastic level as well as
sufficient knowledge of issues linked to physical learning dynamics.
Furthermore, the coach must know and bear the processes that
regulate physical maturity in mind, as well as the key phases that are
at the basis of the biological development of the learning process,
especially coordination skills, which are an essential support to the
execution of technical moves. For any coach of young players, to
possess these characteristic qualities is obviously necessary to obtain
gratifying results, but above all, we believe, to reduce mistakes and
to avoid compromising the growth of the child.
Therefore, in spite of the fact that the role coach is one that was
conceived and consolidated in the realm of voluntary work, the
professional qualities asked of him are many and just as significant
on a cultural level.
The coach to juvenile teams must be aware that his work has a
formative value and must be able to impart his knowledge whilst
keeping the characteristics of the age group he is working with.
Treating children and boys as little adults (proposing an
educational programme as one would for adults and reducing
only the quantity of content), harms not only the students'
technical, but also psychological growth.
There are still all too many coaches that are obsessed with
competitiveness and are unaware assertors of precocious
specialisations! The reality of training programmes in juvenile
teaching cannot, on the other hand, be considered independently
from its educational origin, which dramatically distances it from
methods traditionally used with adults.
It is therefore becoming clear that, in the continuous evolution of
football and pedagogical knowledge relating to teaching
programmes, the coach must keep up with the changes.
The coach must train young ones from an educational stand-
point, developing and training the technical and tactical skills as
well as the physical ones that the game demands.
A good coach for the young, and football school in particular,
must teach the individual and team didactical objectives with
ease and method. The sole ability to show technical moves is not
13
 enough, he must know the best way to transmit his knowledge
and provide a stable learning process.
He must also prove to be sensible in changing and re-adapting his
programme to the new abilities and progress of his team.
During his training, the coach must take the following factors into
account:
• maintain high motivation in pursuing the necessary
improvements, by enriching his methodological, didactical and
psycho-social (interpersonal) skills;
• be aware of his limits and try to remove relevant difficulties;
• accentuate his own personal qualities;
• develop his own personal philosophy of working, seeking, if
possible, original and creative solutions;
• be sensitive and adapt himself to the context he is working in.

Why be a coach?
1.1.1
W hoever decides to dedicate one's time to training boys
must have a strong passion for juvenile football, seeing
as one may find oneself in discomforting conditions such as, for
example: managing a group that is too large or diverse, missing
facilities and equipment, etc. Motivation is a psychological
dimension that allows one to overcome obstacles and
disappointments, and may be reinforced and generate
enthusiasm, by observing obtained improvements with the
children.
A person who carries out a job regarding the physical education
of young people is definitely involved in a delicate task, as with his
“educational action”, he acts directly upon the psycho-physical
development of the subjects and on the development of their
personality.
One who begins to carry out such a delicate role as training
young football players, must possess some fundamental requisites
of which some may only be improved, others, fortunately, can be
learnt. (TABLE 1)
A fundamental step for the coach is to take a step back from fixed
routines and stereotypes for training adults, elements that could
obstruct the necessary creativity to grow as an individual as well as
at group level. The operational proposals must be easily understood
and easy to assimilate on the basis of the child's real needs and
designed appropriately for the various needs.
14
The pupil must be considered the subject and not the object of
the coach's attention and workflow.

Intrinsic qualities that can Qualities that can be learned

only be improved
• Passion for football and for • Technical demonstration
young people in general qualities
• Interpersonal skills • Skills relating to didactical
organisation: In training as well
• Balanced personality
as during matches
• Sufficient self-esteem
• Communication skills
• Pedagogical knowledge
• Knowledge of technical,
tactical and motor skills.
• Awareness of competitive
characteristics of the Football
School with particular
reference to the FIGC
programmes in the Juvenile
and Scholastic sector.
TABLE 1 – Fundamental requisites and qualities of the coach

Every session, every exercise, every phase of the programme in

general must have the ability to trigger a positive adaptation in
the children's behaviour, as well as an active involvement that
facilitates their global growth, their progress and their desire to
continue to practice this wonderful game. They must feel
increasing satisfaction from their growing ability to dominate the
ball, to know how to use it during play, to comprehend the
evolution of the game and to be able to cooperate with team
mates more efficiently.

The Coach is the director of the primary needs of the young

player, who must:

using your head

to have fun (cognitive activity)

be with others
PLAY
(socialisation)

to learn
using your body
(motor skills)

ILLUSTRATION 1 - The needs of the young football player

15
 By respecting the natural needs of the young player, the coach
allows him to feed his passion for the game of football in the most
natural way. As a good player knows how to find a response to
every situation of a game, so the good coach will be careful in
reading the situation during a training session. In training as in a
competition, to respond to the needs shown by his pupils with the
appropriate choices. The pleasure of coaching is then to be
found in the most appropriate organisation, timing and methods
to effectively intervene in every situation.

.1. 2 Creating and Managing the Group

1
E very team is always linked to the concept of the game and
to the philosophy of its coach.
All the more reason because, in juvenile football, the first goal,
fundamental for all juvenile coaches, is to build a positive mentality
and spirit towards the game, which, in turn, he will have to transmit
to his players.

Animator/ Teacher
Entertainer

Educator Coach in Juvenile Teams Organiser

and Football Schools

Technical
Psychologist Coach

ILLUSTRATION 2 - The role of the Coach in the Juvenile Sector

The coach must be able to: evaluate, choose, decide and act. It is
in any case necessary for his authority to be based on his skills,
which the children are in some way able to recognise. Its also true
that the relationship between the coach and the children should
not always be based on “authority” in the “strict” sense of the term.
On the contrary, it is a guidance open to dialogue with the pupils,
even if it is directed and conveyed via pre-established didactical
plans and pathways, the allow him to obtain the best of the
individual potential of each child.
His actions cannot go without conveying trust to his pupils. This
represents the essential requisite for the children to properly express
all of their will to learn.
16
Coaches in football and team sports in general, compared to
tennis or swimming coaches (individual sports), must be able to
deal with a complex series of issues, as they interact with a group of
individuals, as opposed to one person, each with their own
characteristics, such as:
• Technical characteristics, seeing as performance entails the
integration of the technical behaviour of each member of the
team: it is therefore necessary to teach several individuals to
execute various moves well, together and at the same time;
• Psychological problems dictated by the different personalities of
the children in the group and that need to interact positively. The
coach must be able to provide games and technical objectives
that are satisfactory for the whole group.

The role of the coach is to direct the activities of the group towards
the fulfilment of a common goal, and to draw out the best of each
boy's potential. At the basis of his actions the coach must be able to:
• Single out problems and find didactical solutions for them;
• Motivate all the components of the group in the many phases of
activity;
• Provide psychological support in a crisis to individuals as well as
the whole group.

It will therefore be essential from the very beginning to establish an

excellent relationship with the team and the individuals, to create
a relationship based on trust and mutual respect, which must then
be maintained and reinforced throughout the entire season.
With the smaller ones one must immediately put the children at
ease, by organising fun and interesting activities from the first
session. With the older children, since as dialogue is easier, one must
also obtain their full attention and conquer their will, by finding out
appropriate motivations for goals and objectives to work on
together.
The coach must make sure that his pupils understand and adopt
the following types of behaviour:
• Talking about their activity expressing themselves in the plural
form, as components of a team and a group;
• Showing enthusiasm (for belonging to the team), to friends, family
and teachers;
• Talking about problems that may arise, of any nature, with the
teacher and team-mates;
• Actively seeking, together if possible, the solution to a problem;
17
 • Understanding and “treasuring” the philosophy that “you win and
you loose together”;
• Being aware that one learns from one's mistakes.

To reach these objectives the coach of the Football School must

try, by setting a good example, to influence the attention of the
children with the following communicational and behavioural
strategies:
• Always speak in the plural form: “We lost”, “We want to obtain..”,
“We need to improve..”,
• Give the group milestones to reach, over a training session, over
a competition or over a given period of time,
• Establish the rules of working together: such rules will have to be
appropriately adapted according to the different age groups,
the characteristics of the sports facility, and be integrated with
the other educational components (school and family) that
make up, with football, the educational and developmental
process of the children's personalities.
• Instead of underlining mistakes, praise positive behaviour with
approval: “Well done, good solution”, “great header”, “Very good,
you did it exactly the way I wanted it”. The use of positive
reinforcement helps to maintain a high level of stimuli and
produces the effect in the boys of setting higher and higher goals
for themselves compared to their abilities. By underlining errors one
creates a limited mentality whereby one plays to avoid mistakes.
• Encourage altruistic behaviour: the assist, a good pass, a
defensive recovery, a move that creates space, covering etc…
Whomever has sacrificed himself gets public reward, so the other
members of the team get a significant message from the coach
as it made clear.
• Discourage selfish behaviour: in a game like ours where there is
one ball for 22 players it is important to guarantee that everyone
gets the satisfaction of managing the ball.
• Stimulate involvement: in decisions regarding the whole team in
general, make sure that everyone has their say.
• Create opportunities to spend time together: its extremely useful to
give the children time-out to see each other in other contexts,
especially with the smaller ones with the families. During the past
few years we have heard more and more of juvenile teams that
spend a few days in the mountains at the beginning of the season,
before school. It may seem that these initiatives seem to imitate
the professional team retreats, it is also true that during this period,
18
 even if for only 2 or 3 days, the kids have the chance to integrate
and get to know each other better to improve teamwork.

“THE COACH EXPLAINS THE LESSON TO THE YOUNG PUPILS…”

During lessons the coach must be careful to provide equal learning

opportunities to all and to not act upon personal preferences. He
must also allow the kids to express themselves freely during the
game and avoid penalising possible personal interpretations.

• Provide feedback that reinforces the commitment of the child.

This important pedagogical aspect is surely present in all age
groups, but it becomes essential with beginners, who like to try
and try technical moves even if they don't master them
particularly well. If they are praised only when the technical
moves are executed correctly, it is likely that they will only do
what they are sure of doing right, thereby reducing their
commitment and their attention level, but above all they will limit
their possibility of obtaining goals that initially seemed more
complex.
• Aim the kids towards the appreciation of moral values that are
significant on the field of play as in life, this must be one of the
general objectives of juvenile activities that the coach much take
19
 into account. A boy that acts with fair play on the field, will
probably act with the same ethical and social attitude more often
and will bear it in mind in day to day behaviour outside the field.

On a purely didactical basis, the primary tasks of a coach of the

Football School consist in the promotion of training young athletes
with precise organisational choices, therefore:
• Activities must be carried out with educational continuity, so as to
develop the training processes that influence the development
of their personality.
• The coach must allow the young athletes to be active
participants, providing them with a series of increasing positive
experiences and stimulating their emotions and motivation.
• The coach's work must be agreed with the Head of the team and
the club in general so as to share a common language.

The coach must, therefore:

• Know the techniques of the game and the educational phases
through which to convey them.
• Motivate and support the interests of the individual and of the
group, by creating situations that favour the fulfilment of the
planned milestones by controlling time and spaces, and creating
a cooperative environment.
• Encourage the mix between motor skills, personal cultural
background , to develop forms of language that exalt expression
and creativity.
• Maximise every experience by giving full attention to individual
gratification as well as that of the group.
• Let the children interact throughout the game, praising the
psychological characteristics of each individual and letting the
uniqueness of the group.
• Set out a work plan that provides for goals to be reached, content
and didactical methods to propose, variables that may be
inserted, tests and evaluations to carry out at appropriate times.

Among the fundamental tasks of the coach of young people from

a technical and organisational point of view, he must be aware:
• Of the rules that regulate participation in the official activities of
FIGC-SGS, at Beginner and Cub tournaments, and Little Friend, as
well as have control over the planning of matches, tournaments
and events.

20
Furthermore, the coach must, with the Head of the Football School:
• Organise meetings with parents, where he can illustrate the
organisation and the objectives of the group, the strategies to
reach these objectives, the season plan.
• Establish a synergy regarding the educational objectives to
pursue with the other members of the Football School, specifying
the roles and functions of each of them and, if possible, in such a
way as to make them clear to the children and their families.

The coach must also:

• Participate in technical and organisational meetings organised
by the club
• Constantly inform and update the head of the team and the
managing director of the FC of the situation of his group, facing
problems with the other members of staff and making
agreements on the relevant solution strategies.
• Produce elaborate documentation regarding the general and
periodical didactical programme, as well as on specific issues
regarding the group.

1. To educate the children to commitment, reciprocal respect and

cooperation.
2. Not to favour any pupil in particular, be coherent with the rules
provided and maintain promises he has made.
3. To encourage and motivate, not reprimand
4. Not to over-rejoice in victories, not to be discouraged by losses.
5. Transmit enthusiasm, joy, trust and optimism.
6. Respect the need of the kids to have fun.
7. Offer problems to solve not solutions to remember.
8. Pursue one objective at a time, remembering that too many stimuli
create confusion.
9. Summarise what he wants to say in a few significant sentences.
10. Plan the activities coherently according to age groups.
11. Pay as much attention to individual growth as to that of the team.
12. Infuse the team spirit, stimulate generosity towards team mates.
13. Commit to limiting the number of kids who leave the school during
the season.
14. Let all the pupils play during competitive activities.
ILLUSTRATION 3 - The rules of the Football School coach

21
 3 The Ideal Coach:
1.1. Here is how the boys would like him to be

F rom a survey conducted in a few regions of Italy, on young

people belonging to the National Amateur League, the
following ideal profile of a coach emerged for each category:

Category Know how to be Know how to do

Little Friends • Fun Love the children
• Young Make them have fun
Let the children play
Help with problems
Encourage
Believe in the children's abilities
Give suggestions
Cubs • Fun Teach
• Friendly Help with problems
• Young Correct mistakes
Make improvements
Love the children
Encourage
Believe in the children's abilities
Give suggestions
Reprimand gently
Beginners • Fun Well prepared
• Comprehensive Know when to reprimand and praise
• Sensitive according to the situation
Transmit bravery
Not have preferences
Teach techniques
Transmit enthusiasm and trust
TABLE 2 - The ideal profile of a Football School coach

From the summarised data in the table above it clearly emerges

how the needs and expectations of the subjects of a young age
such as those who belong to the Football School, are many and
varied. These indications are without a doubt purely indicative in
value, but important in any case to make it possible for adults that
interact with the children to keep them in mind to meet the
expectations and needs of the young players.

22
 4 The Football School Coach's Diary
1.1.
W e have already mentioned that the growth of young
players is directly linked to the growth of their coach. It is
important to be aware of this statement, so that the coach that is
interested in the complete training of an individual, will always try to
enrich his knowledge and his methods of communication, to
always find new motivation and to aim for a greater professional
profile. For this reason, keeping a diary in order to take note of his
observations on the applied teaching method, on classes and
matches, is a valid tool to retain the facts of the day, or possible
mistakes, as well as the most significant positive experiences.

The questions below can be adapted to the various needs of the

group and are guidelines that allow the coach to organise his diary
more effectively.

After each training session:

1) How did I plan it? Have the objectives been fulfilled? Was the
choice of method appropriate for the objectives?
2) What were my initial feelings before beginning the session
(happiness, will to teach)?
3) What were the obstacles I found? How did I solve the problems I
encountered?
4) What reasons were behind my operational choices?
5) How much time did I dedicate to the development:
• Of conditional skills?
• Of coordination skills?
• Of technical skills?
• Of the cooperation skills during the two phases of the game?
6) How positive were my comments during the session? Did I set a
good example?
7) How much did I contribute to the improvement of the group and
interpersonal relationships?
23
 8) How much time did I dedicate to free play?
9) What was the psychological environment like?
10) Individual notes for next time and the future.

Other roles within the Football School

1.2

T his part is dedicated to discovering the tasks and functions of

the people who have roles in various aspects of the Football
School, so that we can suggest how to maximise existing resources,
and how to avoid the spill-over and mixing between the various roles
within the club. The integration between the various components, as
well as team work facilitates the right positive environment that is
fundamental for the young people's learning process.

1 The young goalkeepers' coach

1.2.
A mong the people that make up the technical staff of a
Football School, the goalkeeper coach has an extremely
important and complex role. It requires very specific knowledge to
be integrated with the club's general technical project, and is in
constant contact with the coaches of each team. The group of
goalkeepers may be divided into subgroups if necessary, of up to 6
students each, of the same age and technical abilities, for example
by merging the goalkeepers from the Cubs and those from the
Beginners. For the moment, the Little Friends category should be
excluded from this specialisation process. So, referring to the 8-12
year olds in particular, this group must always be open to other
children that express their will to play goalkeeper. The group should
be just as flexible to allow children to go back to the playing field if

“THE SPECIFIC EXERCISE CARRIED OUT SAFELY MAKES IT EASIER TO LEARN”

24
they wish. The instructor should try not to influence the child, and
the child should be spontaneously drawn to the role. Only if there
are obviously visible strong abilities in this specific role, the instructor
may, with the necessary tact, offer the child this new technical
opportunity (without forcing him). One must never forget,
especially during the initial learning phases, to provide a correct
didactical assistance to the student (choice of exercises and
teaching methods), in order to avoid injury or traumas that could
precociously avert him from the role of goalkeeper. This is why it is
particularly appropriate to use rubber balls and mattresses to soften
falls during practice (see paragraph “Teaching Material”).
Once the group of goalkeepers has been formed, a programme
can be developed, centred mainly on the consolidation of
coordination skills, which are fundamental pre-requisites to learn
the technical skills. The role of the goal-keeper's coach appears to
be quite complex and requires various skills. The coach must try and
stimulate the establishment of a critical yet open approach, to be
able to decide the operational strategies and consider each
student for his own specific qualities. Last but not least he will have
to praise the efforts well before the results of the students, thereby
stimulating creative involvement and personal initiatives.

It is very important for the instructor to have a very deep technical

and tactical knowledge as well as of the relevant models of
performance. The coach must also be able to observe the situation
closely, placing himself appropriately to evaluate a particular
technical move.
Furthermore, once a move has been corrected, it is best to carry
out the previous incorrect move, so as to compare the different

“GRADUALLY THE CONDITIONS OF THE EXERCISE GET CLOSER TO REAL CONDITIONS”

25
 physical sensations of the two movements. A part from the coach's
evaluation, a useful correction tool is auto-evaluation that is carried
out with the continuous stimuli the student receives during the
move (positive feed-back).

Briefly, the tasks of the coach of young goalkeepers in the Football

School:

Didactical Tasks Carries out the technical programme of the

Football School on the field with his group of
goalkeepers.
Organizational Tasks With the Head Coach, to coordinate and
control the organisational and educational
aspects that support his activity.
Relationship with coaches To constantly liaise with coaches of the team
groups to reach technical objectives.
Relationship with Liaises with head coach regarding fulfilled
Club management goals and improvement areas and
strategies for future didactic activities.
Relationship with parents Is involved in dialogue with parents on
educational issues of the activities and
contributes to problem solving.
TABLE 3

In the worksheets, you will find specific teaching units for the role of
goal keeper.

2 Physical and Locomotor Instructor

1.2.
A s the athletic coach and the goalkeeper coach have
enabled a qualitative improvement in specific football
training, more so in professional clubs, we think it is appropriate to
provide a specifically specialised resource that can “help” to plan
a teaching programme referred to auxological development
(auxology is a science that studies human growth).
To act in accordance with phases of growth in the various age
groups, the Physical and Locomotor Instructor of the Football School,
who works transversally with all the teams (or groups), should provide
the coach with a working plan and the specific knowledge that is
needed to create coordinative and locomotor requisites that are
necessary to plan the annual cycles of the teaching plan and to
design the sequence and methods of each teaching unit.
It is clear how the role of this professional resource is to convey his
skills and knowledge regarding the phases of juvenile growth into
practical teaching plans, that translate into training exercises,
aimed at improving motory skills. The physical instructor's role (PI) or
26
athletic instructor (AI), depending on whether we are talking about
basic categories of activity or competitive categories such as the
very young and pupils, is to support the work of the coaches with
specific or general advice, at an individual or team level. This
provides the coaches with specialised support to provide the kids
with units that are more appropriate from a physical and motory, or
from a technical and coordinative point of view. Briefly, the
purpose of the Physical and Locomotor Instructor is to:
1. Reinforce health
2. Prevent and correct imbalances on a morphological and
structural level
3. Maximise physiological functions
4. Develop basic motor skills: coordination and condition
5. Encourage a vast selection of non-specific and specific football
movements, beginning from basic motor patterns.
The main-stay of preparing young athletes is to adapt the methods
and means of athletic training in general to the needs of the young
children or boys. Carrying out these intents can only be possible if
we are aware of the issues and general aspects that characterise
the athletic training of young people.
Athletic preparation for young people, these days, is a very popular
issue, as the awareness of the role it plays in maintaining the athletes'
health and in promoting their development. It is thus necessary to
have a global view of athletic preparation, and to distinguish it from
the simple sub-product of training of an elite of athletes by simply
reducing in terms of quantity. On the other hand, one must use it as
an awareness tool, and as the answer to the needs of the child,
referring it to a long-term perspective of the goals the young person
will have to achieve. Starting from the consolidation of the basic
motor skills, the dilution of the milestones over a long-term period will
allow the child to reach ever-improving levels of technical and motor
ability. A correctly planned long-term preparation will begin by setting
the foundations, on which the young athlete, will build his specific
athletic performance as an adults, by gradually specialising and
progressively changing his work load in terms of volume and intensity.
To defend the correct physical and emotional balance, one pinpoints
purposes and milestones for each phase of the player's development,
and acts in complete abidance of the principle of multilateral
preparation (see paragraph “Practical guidelines and operational
strategies”). In practical terms, this is possible by using a vast selection
of exercises that will develop the coordination of movement and the
execution speed, according to the natural workload of the player.
27
 Phases and stages of juvenile development
The path to juvenile football training can be temporally defined in
the bracket of a decade between 6-7 years old to 16-17 years old.
It is fairly simple and intuitive to understand how, during this long
period, the children undergo various changes from a whole range
of aspects. These include an anthropometric point of view (weight,
height etc.), physiological aspects (cardio-respiratory system,
neuromuscular, endocrine etc.) as well as psychological ones. The
growth of these various characteristics also occurs in phases, so
that there are moments in which growth in terms of height prevails
(proceritas), and moments in which growth in terms of breadth is
more important (turgor). According to this progression the PI and
the AI will have the opportunity to act by choosing the appropriate
exercises and assessing the adaptive potential according to the
level of maturity.
In general, more simple terms we can state that these ten years of
activity can be divided into two fundamental stages: pre-
pubescence and post-pubescence. In the former one must favour
technical and coordinative preparation (development of the
specific skills of football) and physical growth is achieved by
practicing football, whilst in the latter technical and tactical
training must go hand in hand with training criteria that specifically
favour the development of the various physical qualities that are
mostly used during the game of football. (ILLUSTRATION 4)
Another aspect that we must always bear in mind is the imperfect
synchrony between chronological and biological age. In other
words, we must often deal with children and boys that may
achieve maturity later than their peers, as well as children that are
precocious compared to most of the group. Therefore, before
dispensing exercises for the whole group, it is necessary for the PI
and the AI to check if all the players are able to assimilate the same
workload as the others and to reach the desired targets. (TABLE 4)
During the past few years, in the Juvenile and Scholastic sector of
the CONI-FIGC and Basic Coaching courses, the coaches that
participate in these courses have expressed a real need for support
in facing issues that are particularly trying regarding the
development of motor skills of children between 6 and 12 years old
(football school age).
Most of the coaches and course participants who work in the world
of juvenile football face these problems with a constant fear of
making mistakes, i.e. choosing the wrong exercises that could
damage the boys' health; an altogether understandable fear,
28
ILLUSTRATION 4 - Evolution of physical qualities and other factors in relation to morphological
and functional growth - D'Ottavio, 2000 - Intercampus Conference, Milan

considering the “more technical” characteristics of juvenile

coaches, of which the majority cannot refer to a certain
educational background (i.e. Diploma in Physical Science or ISEF
Diploma) acquired from a university education. This is why the PI is
responsible for the coordination of juvenile training methods within
football schools. For this reason it would be preferable to have a
Physical Instructor (commonly and mistakenly known as an Athletic
Instructor), at least as a coordinator for several groups, if it is not
possible to have one per group.

Role and tasks of the PI in the Football School:

• Continuous contact with the technical coaches regarding the
didactical plan
• Planning and organising physical activities for each category of
the Football School
• Selecting, administering and analysing physical and coordination
evaluation tests

Desirable qualities that a PI should possess:

• Degree in Physical Science
• Specific training acquired during progression to official role in the
technical staff of FIGC
• University specialisation regarding Athletic Games and football in
particular (Masters, etc.)
29
 Little Friends (6-8 yrs old) Cubs (8-10 yrs old) Beginners (10-12 years old) Very Young (12-14 yrs) Pupils (14-16 yrs)

30
Phase of maximum growth Good for strength-leverage Phase of maximum growth Phase of maximum growth Phase of maximum growth in
in height in breadth (less in height) in height breadth (return to proportion)
Irrational and disorganised Better concentration Functional maturity of Negative leverage-muscular Maximum trainability
movement sensorial analysers (almost system ratio (difficulty in development
at adult level) coordination control)
Limited Attention Better coordination Acquisition of complex Difficulty in athletic Phase of hormonal stability
(comprehension of simple rules) movements performance (greater psychological control)
Prevalence of sensorial and Positive age for learning Accentuated development Phase of strong excretion of Further phase of testosterone
motor control (internal of coordination skills - very testosterone and GH: increase
attention) - transition from sensitive period to learning possible to increase
preparatory phase to (can rarely be caught up trainability and strength
concrete operation phase later on) (especially in arms or legs)
(representation of body)
Phase of great stabilisation Muscular development (in The “quantity of workload”
and increase of technical length) factor gives way to the
skills “intensity of workload” factor
Spatial and temporal Low gycolysis level The volume of strength, in terms of number of sessions, Performance and work loads
organisation affects performance are comparable to adult levels
Phase of comprehension of Greater oxidisation of fatty The multilateral development of strength increases Muscle development (in
gross (synthetic solutions to acids ( glycolic economy) gradually by inserting gradually more specific exercises. The terms of breadth)
locomotor tasks) more efficient coordinative conditions allow an increase in
work load (medicine balls, rings and heavy weights etc.)
Ego centric and syncretic Very modest level of lactic It is possible to propose: jumping exercises; exercises for arm A good pre-disposition for
mind frame acid disposal (aerobic support; exercises for the trunk strength and abdomen) anaerobic exercise involves
exercises are preferable) knowledge of various phases
Pre-disposition to high frequency training and speed of movement Period of marked of exhaustion.
development of
Training of resistance in infancy age must not be unilateral. This would mean to slow conditional qualities (but Running and exercises with
down the possibility of learning the various forms of basic motor skills (multi-laterality) check actual level of rhythmic variation (intensive)
maturity)
Intensive repetition method
From six to eleven years old, the systolic volume increases drastically. The cardiac and intervals
frequency falls brusquely. This is due to the greater density of the peripheral blood vessels
(less resistance), as well as to the morphological and functional growth of the heart
Use of athletic games (traditional or adapted). Alternated runs and games: phases 1-3 Similar training to adults:
mins alternated by 1-2 mins rec.; up to 25 mins run for a total of 40-45 mins - Fartlek Long runs (medium to long special strength training;
adapted and simple: at intervals (slight slopes) resistance) functional strength training
The principle of variation of stimuli, due also to scarce concentration span in children of
this age, suggests the use of circuit training (strength speed and resistance to strength
speed) i.e. length of exercise 20 secs, pause 40 secs (1:2 ratio) x 5-6 stops

TABLE 4 - Biophysical Characteristics and examples of training session at a young age (Weineck, 2001 adapted by d'Ottavio, 2003)
• Participation in refresher courses in the Juvenile and Scholastic
sector and the technical sector of the FIGC; Juvenile Centres
Division of CONI; AIAC.

Interaction and specific skills among the instructor and the coach
It seems logical to suppose that if one speaks of interaction, one takes
for granted that in the team or football school a specific resource will
deal with physical preparation in particular. This is because, so far, in
most cases it is the coach that is responsible for both aspects: physical
and technical. However, we think that the contribution of specific
experiences, that obviously come from different educational
backgrounds, are able to effectively interact during the didactical
planning process and during the various training units. What must be
immediately established is a form of hierarchy of roles, and the
efficiency of such a structure, which must be clear in a juvenile
context to avoid conflict that could potentially be harmful, above all
to the young athletes. Even if in people in a developmental phase,
physical preparation is the key to harmonically following the
processes of biological growth, and to guarantee the optimal use of
the organic and muscular potential, the exercises must nevertheless
go hand in hand with other planned activities by acting as tools for
the fulfilment of the technical goals established by the coach. In other
words, the management of the team must first of all depend on the
coach, who will then cooperate with the PI and the AI to prepare the
work plan. The constant exchange of ideas and opinions among
these elements will be just as important as the organisation of
differentiated work plans for individuals who need more care.

In brief the tasks of the Physical and Locomotor Instructor in the

Football School:
Didactical tasks Carries out programmes on motor skill
development on the field: coordinative and
conditional
Organizational tasks In cooperation with the technical coach,
he coordinates and checks organisational
and educational aspects of activities
Relationship with coaches Liaises constantly with the coaches of the
Club management team groups in order to find areas of
improvement with them
Relationship with Liaises with management with the coach
regarding fulfilled objectives and possible
strategies to improve didactical activities
Relationship with parents Is involved in dialogue with parents on
educational aspects regarding his activities
TABLE 5

31
 3
1.2.
The Club Doctor

T he interdisciplinary role taken on nowadays by sports

medicine, is a reality destined to increase in the future in
terms of commitment as well as organised services.

This means that every athletic organisation, even at juvenile level,

must possess an adequate health service that is able to follow the
young athletes during their athletic training on the field, in the gym,
during training session as well as in competitions.

In this health service, the club doctor is a key figure that

coordinates all the issues that we could classify as the protection of
health during athletic activities. A form of control and maintenance
that must be carried out in close contact with general
management and above all with the coaches via:

a) Coordination of the medical exams to assess general fitness

(good health) of little friends, cubs and beginners;
b) Organisation of health services during training sessions,
competitions and tournaments
c) Medical and traumatic assistance in case of sickness or injury
d) Statements of claim to insurance companies for injuries during
activities
e) Organisation of training and refresher meetings, to inform
management, coaches, athletes and families on issues such as
personal hygiene, nutrition etc.
f) Preparing medical files for each player

The Football School doctor must act as a point of reference for the
young athletes, in order to protect their health acting as a
confidant, who is there to listen to their problems and worries, and
to give advise regarding healthy lifestyles, i.e. potential risks of
smoking, alcohol and pharmaceuticals (DOPING) and acting as a
link between management, the coach and the families.

A proper medical structure is an index of high quality of the club,

and we think it is useful to remind people of the recommendations
of the European Council and Unesco: development through sport,
if it is meant to be an effective way to increase the preventive
actions for the health of all citizens.

32
In brief the tasks of the Doctor in the Football School:
Didactical tasks Participates in company meetings to
improve the medical knowledge of
management and coaches
Organisational tasks In cooperation with the technical coach, he
coordinates the medical check-ups to
establish good health
Relationship with coaches Liaises constantly with the coaches in order to
monitor the health of the young players
Relationship with Liaises with management with the coach
Club management regarding medical and sanitary objectives
and possible strategies of improvement
Relationship with parents Is involved in dialogue with parents on
educational aspects regarding health,
particularly regarding prevention, hygiene,
nutrition and pharmaceutical use and abuse
TABLE 6

4
1.2.
The Psychologist of the Football Club

F or parents and children alike, the creation of an information

and training network means to make the choice of
pathways for the psychophysical development of the individual
easier. The people involved (teachers, instructors, paediatricians,
psychologists) have the delicate task of taking conscious action in
the development process, acknowledging the complete
responsibility of their role.
It is therefore important for the people who work with the children,
young people and their families in various contexts, to constantly
improve their technical, didactical, psychological and social skills.
Therefore every action needs to tend to facilitate and promote a
condition of wellbeing of the young person, and at the same time
support the educational functions of their families.
A psychologist who is called to a football school or club on
sporadic occasions or for a more structured consultation, must
have the primary objective of correctly understanding the context
in which he is operating, so as to promote the full development of
the human resources that are put to the service of the young
athletes by the football club. This is possible if the psychologist is fully
takes a few aspects of the context into account when providing his
services to the football club or schools.
The first question that must be asked is, therefore: “What educational
background must the psychologist have?” One answer is that he
must be able to facilitate human relationships among the people
33
 who work in the football club (for example, managers, chaperons,
instructors, doctor) and the users of the football club (parents,
children, young boys) and promote the exchange between external
bodies of the relevant territories (A.S.L. - local health organisations,
parishes, cultural associations) , and schools in particular. Bateson's
studies provide us with an approach to social psychology according
to which it is “the study of individual reactions of individuals to the
reactions of other individuals” and also adding that “one must not
only consider the reactions of A to B's behaviour, but also how these
reactions influence the B's behaviour in the future and the effect that
this behaviour will have on A” (Bateson G., “Steps toward an ecology
of mind”, Adelphi Milano, 1986).

The psychologist, therefore, must:

• Support management in the management and organisation of
the activities of the club
• Help to improve the relationship and cooperation among the
technical members of staff, between the coaches and
pupils/athletes, between the coach and the parents;
• Improve communication processes in order to correctly receive
the children and their parents as well as to improve cooperation
with the technical staff
• Help the coaches to choose and target the situations on which to
focus their work;
• Increase the ability to act upon specific interactions, by reading
the situation through the analysis of context and the cycle of
information, to capture the meaning of everyday experiences.

Strictly from the point of view of content, we can summarise the role
of the psychologist in the following three points:
• Provide information regarding the phases of growth and group
dynamics
• Emphasize the importance of the educational and recreational
value of the game;
• Emphasize the importance of keeping an open dialogue with the
families and to provide them with complete information
He must inform the children's entourage of the general growth
patterns of a child, which generally evolves from total dependence
to interaction with the family to a growing need to interact with
other social contexts.
This provides the instructor with the keys of interpretation of some of
his pupils' behaviours. From the child's point of view, meeting other
34
people that are not his parents is an important part of his growth. It
allows him to get to know other emotional, social and cultural
models that allow him to acquire other elements of knowledge on
which to build his growth, that will enable him to gradually
elaborate and reflect upon increasingly responsible and significant
choices he will have to make in the future. This is why it is extremely
important to be aware of the importance of group dynamics and
the cognitive development of children.
The instructor that adopts a cyclical interpretation of group
dynamics, which highlights how the members of a group end up by
reciprocally influencing each other, is able to understand the
importance of this way of thinking while working towards didactical
objectives. The role of the psychologist, in this context is:
• To support the instructor;
• Create a cooperative context among the members of the group;
• Stimulate cohesion;
• Develop the autonomy and differences among the components
of the group.

Emphasize the importance of the educational and recreational

value of the game
The word “game” implies curiosity, experimentation, will to risk,
discovery games. “Game” does not only mean what amuses us
and enables us to pass the time, but all the experiences a group
can have in various ways such as: structured exercises, experiments
of self-comparison, simulation games, role play etc. During play it is
possible to isolate some elements that occur in more complex real
life situations, and place them into an “artificial” context in a well
defined behaviour model, limited by clear rules.
Games allow pupils to improve their socialisation and the
development of their personalities, allowing them to examine,
develop further and integrate their comprehension skills and other
qualities they already posses.
One of the reasons of the game's success is its ability to motivate
participants and to make them curious by reducing the major
handicap that threatens every type of group: boredom and
apathy. The advantage that games have is that they are
adaptable to many group situations and can also be adapted to
several issues and problems. Practically, almost every possible
situation can be tried and tested or developed and refined in play
(Susanna Cielo: Luiano Viana; Urbino, September 1994).
35
 Basically the psychologist has to support the instructor in the
preparatory phases to activate group-play:
• Analysis of the group situation;
• Introduction to the game;
• Experimentation;
• Evaluation and in-depth examination

This all allows to:

• Build and/or re-build motivation
• Stimulate cognitive skills
• Acquire a better self awareness and awareness of others;
• Reach a better understanding of information that group
dynamics provide
• Acquire a better sensitivity to the feelings of the young athlete;
• Establish one's behaviour not on a preconceived ideas, but on
observed reality:
• Acquire the ability to activate the individual resources of each
member of the group.

Emphasize the importance of keeping an open dialogue with the

families and to provide them with complete information
An educational community that is able to create dialogue is a
fundamental starting point to facilitate the growth of the young,
whereas conflict between systems (football school-family, coach-
family, coach-pupil etc.) would generate confusion and problems.
In order to obtain the above, it is important to make the relationship
between the who transmits information and who receives it as easy
as possible, i.e. between the coach and the families or between the
coach and the pupils, so it is important to realise that
communication has a strong influence on the communicator's
behaviour, and make it easier to organise the actions that will follow,
from which the kids are supposed to benefit. An information and
communication network, that tends to facilitate and promote the
conditions for a person's well being makes it so that each part of the
system that is involved has to share the same goals and objectives
with the others, even if they are independent in their own specific
realm. Their purpose is to support the educational function of the
family and the psycho-physical development of the kids, by
knowing how to adopt an open and cooperative attitude. This
implies their ability to communicate and observe with empathy,
their social skills. This is why the coaches and managers that have to
interact with the children and their families need a permanent form
36
of support, a role in which the psychologist can be seen as a useful
resource. The psychologist can help to highlight the functionality
and productivity in his ability to observe the rules of communication
between two or more people, and the quality of the relationship
that is formed between people in a learning context.
A correct form of information is and the basis of an increasing
efficiency of the proposed action. Letting the families know what a
football school has to offer means to create a good starting point
for proper teamwork among the adults in the best interest of the
minors and, in perspective, of the entire community. The task of
promoting as many occasions as possible for parents, football club
or school to meet demands a figure that possesses a certain tact
and attitude that the psychologist can work with as a tool to aid
communication by shadowing management and or the coaches
in these tasks.
The psychologist must above all stimulate the discussion regarding
the philosophy that guides all the main actors of the school or club's
main activity, to produce a shared language and theory among
the actors to correctly apply the programmes of the club. As a
result, the educational goals and the main part of the football
school or club's programme should emerge more clearly.
Therefore athletic activities become a tool thanks to which the
young athletes are provided with the opportunity to learn in a
recreational context, in the absence of an exalted competitive by
virtue of a presumed and mistaken precocious search for the
champion.

In brief the tasks of the Psychologist in the Football School:

Regarding all components To activate the resources in every

of the Football School component and improve interpersonal
relations
Regarding the Young Players Create a cooperative environment
among the components of the group to
favour their development as people as
well as football players
Regarding coaches Helps to improve the relationship and
cooperation among coaches of the
same staff, among coaches/athletes,
coaches/parents
Regarding management Planning occasions that tend to improve
psycho-social environment
Regarding parents Improving communication by shadowing
management and coaches during meetings
TABLE 7

37
 5 The Referee
1.2.
A definition of refereeing of many years ago highlighted this
role as the guarantor of the spirit of the game. In turn the
spirit of the game means: safety of the players, equal opportunities
of play, continuity of play and the pleasure of the game. The rules
are therefore the tools of the referee and support him in this
delicate task.
This definition is still completely true in modern-day football, and
above all in a modern interpretation of the rules of the game.
Despite the fact that we are talking about matches with children,
these concepts can only remind us that in order to have fun:
1° No one must get hurt
2° The game has to be balanced
3° the game must go on with the least possible interruptions
However, before beginning to referee, it is best to ask oneself a few
questions.
What and how does one referee?
“What is the context in which one referees? Am I with children, with
young people, with adults, in a gym, on the field? Who must I take
into consideration? Just the players or am I also dealing with the
coaches or the spectators?
Are the rules that I'm enforcing appropriate in this moment? Am I
able to enforce them? Are the children able to respect them? Is the
environment in front of me asking me to help to learn and respect
the rules (main objective of the activities of the football school) or
are they asking me to lower the tension and stress of the
competition? Must I increase the tension and be strict with the rules
or must I let go and let the game continue?
How am I evaluating the situations of this game? By helping the
weaker side or the defending side?
When I arrived did I find a hostile or a welcoming situation? What
was my reaction and what did I do to change it? What happened
when I interrupted the game? What reactions did I produce?
These questions and the possible answers underline the fact that a
referee must know how to describe, analyse and be aware of his
experiences. It is important to understand that one must apply the
rules according to the context, which defines the meanings and
practical applications of the principles of refereeing.
For example a game between children from 6 to 12 years old has
to be interpreted differently compared to a match between young
people or adults.
38
One must always remember that a game played by little friends,
cubs, beginners, is intended to reinforce their knowledge of football
and the regulations of the game; so it is part of a learning context.

The purpose is to create a context, a football game, in which the

rules and everyone's role - referee, instructor, young players,
managers - are clear, and to try and share common behaviours,
each within the realm of their specific role. It is obviously important to
properly train referees nominated by the FIGC, as this gives them the
opportunity to not only learn and discuss the content of the subject -
the referee's role and the rules of football - but also to compare their
knowledge with others from the football school “planet”.

In brief the tasks of the Referee in the Football School:

Didactical tasks Must know the rules of the game and gather
information regarding relevant differences
and on ways to apply rules
Organisational tasks In cooperation with management, he
coordinates the organisation of
competitions and gathers information on
requirements pre, during and post match
Relationship with coaches Liaises constantly with the Head coach and
coaches regarding educational enforcement
and behaviour during matches in particular
Relationship with players Helps them to learn the rules of the game,
encouraging the respect of the regulations,
with an impartial attitude that represents a
positive example
TABLE 8

6 The Secretary
1.2.
T he secretary is a logistical coordinator of the Football School
that must above all be aware of the Federal regulations that
discipline its order. This implies an attentive and thorough study of
the N.1 Official Report of the Juvenile and Scholastic Sector that is
published in July and available through the Regional Committees
or on the web on the Federation's websites. This report contains
information on everything that regards the Juvenile and Scholastic
Sector, including the requirements for Football Clubs. Once the
secretary has acquired an overview of the activities of the season,
he should collect and read the Official Report that are released
every week from the various regional, provincial and local
39
 committees, where all the necessary information is contained
regarding the activities proposed by the committee ( match
programmes, variations, integrations, technical meetings,
informative meetings, courses and so on). This baggage of
information must be summarised and commented with the
technical staff of the FC, in order to translate the information into a
weekly plan. Another important task is to maintain relationships with
other clubs; last but not least is the daily contact with the parents.

In brief, the tasks of the Secretary in the Football School:

Organisational tasks Coordination of activities during the season

Relationship with Constant monitoring to have continuous
Federation and Club control on situations
Relationship with coaches Liaises constantly with coaches to get
precise reports on the running of the
Football School
Relationship with Periodical reports to have news on the
management of the Club progress of the whole club and to provide
updates on the problems of the FC
Relationship with parents Fundamentally important, allows them to
always have a realistic idea of the situation
and facilitates the resolution of possible
conflicts
TABLE 9

40
2.
This is what they are
like: the phases of
development and
learning motor skills
 Biological and Chronological Age
2.1

I n order to organise activities for growing individuals, one must

bear the physiological and psychological characteristics of the
little pupils in mind. This is essential, not only to establish the technical
activity programme, which must be in efficient and delivered in
correct doses to determine psychological and physical improvement,
but also to establish rational evaluation criteria and to recognise
particular talents. Knowledge of the various phases of development
and their order, even if they are subject to significant individual
differences, during the growing process, avoids the possibility of
making frequent mistakes such as penalising the physically smaller
children. The human being, like any other biological unit, from birth to
until reaching its definite structure, undergoes a mutation process
characterised by variations of quantity and form. The necessary
space and time for the expression of these mutations goes by the
name of development period. It has been classified in various ways
over the years, among which we prefer to refer to a model that
divides the period into two fundamental stages: infancy (from birth to
9-10 years) and adolescence (from 10 to 19 years). Infancy, in turn,
can be divided into: first infancy ( from birth to 4 years) and second
infancy (from 4 to 10 years), whilst adolescence is divided into: pre-
pubescence (from 10 to 13 years) and puberty (from 14 to 15 years)
and post-pubescence (from 16 to 19 years). Each of these simplified
periods correspond to a series of natural phenomena (auxological
development) which, normally, follow the abovementioned
chronological order however they sometimes may be late or
premature. Therefore, the biological age of an individual does not
always correspond to the chronological one. The question of when to
propose certain didactical stimuli needs to follow the principle of
matching the proposal of certain exercises and techniques to a
precise period of development and to the affective potential of the
child. Any parent knows perfectly well that it would be useless and
harmful to try and make a two or three month old baby to walk, or a
seven or eight month old baby to talk! The paediatrician knows that
to walk and talk are behaviours that are “biologically” second in line
to cranial and caudal development and to weaning. In fact, each
process is biologically determined. There is a “biological clock” that
determines our evolution and our involution.
A major task of each instructor is to follow the development of his
pupils closely and to offer what “they are able” to receive and have
to learn at the “appropriate” time. Skills and abilities develop
42
according to an order that depends on when they are solicited.
Physical capacities which, like the abilities, have their own biological
trend that has to be respected, they must therefore be solicited at the
appropriate time: not before because it isn't possible, and not before
because it isn't useful.
“By freeing them from their shell”: that is how Michelangelo replied
to whoever asked him how he managed to create such sublime
forms from irregular blocks of marble.
As a matter of fact, the term to educate - from Latin “ex ducere” -
meaning to pull out, that is to allow the pupil to express his
potential, according to his genetic heritage; and this can be best
achieved with educational programmes that above all respect the
auxological rhythms of each pupil. Only by knowing the phases of
their continuous evolution, we can facilitate and increase - in the
young - the development of their motor skills, by soliciting the
processes that are more sensitive to at that time. Also, to maintain
a certain level of physical training potential, the ideal would be to
stimulate various motor skills (that interact among each other) for
the athletic life of the athlete. It is also scientifically proven that
there are more favourable periods and more receptive phases to
solicit the developments of certain skills.

The Key Phases

2.2

I t is important to remember that the human organism, subject to

physical stimuli from the outside, tends to absorb the stimulus,
and create specific premises for adaptability. This means that the
psychological and motory learning process, even if it is based on
the individual's biological potential to acquire skills, also depend on
the individual's will, on the quality of the educational input and on
the support the social environment of the child has to offer. The
child, from the first months of his life, possesses a its own biological
itinerary, substantially characterised by factors determined by
belonging to the human species as well as by hereditary factors
from their parents. The support and guidance provided by their
social environment allows the child to face reality and to acquire a
gradually increasing psychological and physical autonomy.
Therefore, the more is the breadth of physical experiences the child
experiences in this environment, the more he will be able to adapt
and grow. The didactical teaching/learning process depends on
the relationship between the coach and pupil and will grow from
the correspondence between stimulus and response.
43
 It is clear though that the more a child is prone to a certain class of
sport or one specific sport (genetic factor), he will be more prone
to make the necessary adaptations. It is also true that certain
premises (potential) would remain hidden should the child not have
the opportunity to experience them.
During the past few years, the interest surrounding the study of
physical and juvenile athletic education have ever more been
focused on the specific knowledge of the various phases of
physical learning, and some studies on the subject have suggested
the existence of more favourable biological periods for the
development of specific abilities. In the relevant literature, various
authors agree on the definition of these periods as key phases or
magic moments. (See ILLUSTRATION 5).
The most favourable period, where one can observe a major
“growth spurt” of coordination skills, is from the ages of 7 to 12 years
old. The increase slows down after this phase, so the stimuli of
adaptation do not instigate the appropriate response. This
assumption, supported by experimental theses, must bring us to
reflect attentively upon the didactical plan to be applied during
this evolutionary period. We must therefore use working methods
that favour the general development of motor skills, broadening
the basis of opportunity, by proposing experiences in various sports
with multi functional value. The quantity and the quality of these
activities are decisive. “Many children that are considered clumsy
and not sufficiently coordinated are not born, but become that
way because their motor skills have been repressed by their
environment”. It also seems that speed develops quickly during the
same period of time, and reactivity and movement frequency in
particular, whereas a-cyclical speed and action speed achieve
their maximum development a few years later. At this point of our
scientific knowledge, one may speak of a key phase for speed and
strength resistance to strength around 9 years of age. For their
development, it is important that external resistance is so low that it
is possible to gain high contraction speed (it is advisable to use
natural weights). The trainability of maximum force begins with the
first pubescent phase. Aerobic resistance is a relatively neutral skill,
in terms of development. It can begin developing at a pre-scholar
age and continue for all the following phases. The main spurt is
however noticeable in the pubescent phase. On the other hand, it
is relatively more difficult in the pre-pubescent phase, to train
specific anaerobic resistance, because of biological limitations
(insufficient production of testosterone that is correlated with certain
44
 Key Phase Model
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Capability of
learning
Psychological and motor functions

movements
Capability of
differentiation
and control
coordination skills

Capability of
reacting to optical
and acoustic stimuli
Capability of
spatial
orientation
Rhythmical
capability
Balancing
capability
Resistance
Physical
abilities

Strength

Speed

Affective
cognitive skills
Affective and

and cognitive
qualities

Desire to learn

ILLUSTRATION 5 - Martin (in Hahn, 1986) in D'Ottavio, 1994

enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis), as well as the psychological

resistance required in certain forms of work. As far as articular
mobility is concerned, one must distinguish passive mobility from
active mobility. Passive mobility can be placed among the
precocious abilities: it begins to develop from the first years of life,
continues for the entire scholar age period and continues until the
pubescent phase. The most efficient development period for active
mobility, on the other hand, begins afterwards and is based on a
previously obtained degree of strength.
A greater “fertility” in learning athletic techniques can be observed
in correspondence with the development of coordination skills, but
it begins slightly later in comparison. This phase can be placed
between 8-10 years of age for girls and 11-12 years for boys. A
45
 secondary development spurt, that we can consider as a period of
technical consolidation, can be noticed at around 14-15 years
once the critical period of puberty, which produces differences in
height, mass and corporal proportions, is finished, with al the
consequent changes of strength-weight and strength-leverage
ratios. Further reading regarding the conditional abilities can be
consulted under paragraph “The genetic, morphological and
functional components”.

Lateralisation and Ambidexterity

2.3

F or whoever deals with sports it is easy to see, by observing

the athletes, that each of them according to the type of
sport they practice, prefers to react with one limb as opposed to
another. Or in specific sports such as running and jumps, better
results can be obtained by choosing the right or left foot, to jump
from or to push on to sprint. Other expressions of lateralisation in
sports happen when the athlete choose the direction of a rotation,
which inevitably involves choosing which foot to start from. This
characteristic, that is not limited to the world of sports, but can also
be found in other contexts such as the workplace etc., is a part of
the genetic characteristics of the individual, that is that they are
part of the chromosomal heredity of the parents (heredity).
However, some studies have proven that this theory does not
account for the entire population, and this is why some authors
refuse to accept this assumption without reservations, affirming that
it's the social environment (pre-established) that plays a
predominant role in the evolution of behaviour
and therefore also in the functional specialisation of a lateral or
counter-lateral dominance. This regards superior limbs as well as
inferior limbs. Normally, for about 90% and 75% for hands and feet
respectively, the dominant side is the right side. In certain athletic
disciplines, those who distinguish themselves from this trend of
46
majority, meaning those who prefer to use the left sided limbs, often
achieve better results. This occurs, for example, in boxing, fencing,
tennis, where the left-handed person is considered as deviant from
technical normality, therefore less controllable, against whom the
opponent takes longer to adapt. In team sports in general
ambidexterity seems to be the most favourable condition. In
football, it is a lot more difficult to predict what a player is about to
do if he is endowed with the ability to execute the same move, with
the same quality with right side of his body as with the left side. But
how do we deal with children?
One of the most interesting aspects of these issues regards neuro-
physiological process called “counter-lateral transfer”. Briefly, this
means that by exercising one limb on one side (i.e. right foot), one
can observe significant changes also on the other side (left foot).
This phenomenon occurs thanks to neural links that connect the
two hemispheres of the brain therefore the two halves of the body
as well. From a few scientific studies on the subject, it seems that
transfer is more “potent” from the weaker side to the stronger side,
compared to vice versa. Therefore, training with the right foot means
to exercise the left foot as well (at a neural level), even if to a lesser
degree. From a coordinative perspective, appropriate movement
patterns can be structured to be able to execute the same move
with the other foot. This aspect is not only valid as far as coordination
or technical skills are concerned. As a matter of fact, the
transferability of neuromuscular adaptations due to exercise can
also be observed in the production of muscular strength.
However, direct exercise will obviously produce the greater increase
in physical performance. In children, first of all one tries to build on the
execution of a movement pattern by maturing the experience in the
dominant limb. This practice is also to project a correct image of the
movement at cortical level. Afterwards, the use of methods that
develop ambidexterity seem to be more efficient.

From basic movement patterns

2.4 to technical abilities

A long-term athletic training process for young people cannot

forgo the effects of basic multilateral preparation. What we
intend for multilateral preparation is the structuring in a wider sense of
all the basic movements that are within the range of the child. For the
lower limbs the gross movement patterns are: walking, running,
jumping. For the upper limbs they are: grasping, throwing, catching.
47
 For the trunk or the body itself they are: rolling, crawling and climbing.
The evolution of gross motor skills will allow for the introduction of new
activities and more specifically oriented elements of movement in the
programme. For example we can make the lower limbs able to walk
on a balance beam, to run whilst kicking a ball, to jump whilst clearing
an obstacle. We can make the upper limbs carry out more complex
moves such as bouncing a ball on the ground or throwing it with one
hand. The body as a whole will be able to move within space and
time, according to rhythm etc. The concept of multi-laterality will
therefore have to gradually be oriented towards the characteristics of
the specific sport, activating the specific movements, and begin to
structure the technical abilities of the game. The complete affirmation
of athletic skills develops according to a pattern designed by Meinel
(1984), the stages of the coordinative development are represented
by a constructive phase of the rough gesture, a more evolved or
refined coordination, and a phase of variable availability of
movement where control and management of the movement will
begin to take on an automated appearance and consequently
more responsive to the specific needs. Years ago to dispute a match
or in any case to dedicate more time to collective activities of a
situational type, one would expect the fulfilment of a refined and
variable availability of techniques. Today, even if we recognise that
there is a certain theoretic logic in this itinerary, supported by
decades of practical experience, the global and situational activities
of the game have to begin precociously without having to wait for
technical consolidation, which will also be increased by preferential
mediation from the demands of the game. In the structural model, in
parallel, the phases between simple to complex activities of the
game underline a global and overlapping interpretation of the
elements that make up the overall performance. (See ILLUSTRATION 6).
The learning process is a complex activity that requires the analysis
and processing of a series of sensorial and perceptive information.
Further to information obtained from visual observation of certain

48
SENSORY AND LOCOMOTOR TRAINING
SIMPLE PLAYING ACTIVITIES
Gross locomotor

COGNITIVE TRAINING
patterns
Perception
General physical
Physical condition
coordination Technical abilities
Specific functional
orientation
Tactical abilities
Special physical
conditions Tactical skills

COMPLEX PLAYING ACTIVITIES

ILLUSTRATION 6 - Parallel structural Model, (D'Ottavio, 1994)

motor behaviour and from what the coach verbally expresses, all the
motion patterns acquired beforehand are of maximum importance.
A movement programme is not easy to stabilise, the learning an
ability requires a series of subsequent phases. The pupil that is trying
to build a new locomotor ability needs to consider the new
patterns, as well as the ones he already masters.
For example, running and walking are locomotor patterns children
effectively acquire during the first years of their life, but they are also

“PROPRIOCEPTIVITY AND TECHNICAL MOVE = SPECIFIC BALANCE”

49
 “LITTLE GIRLS AT COVERCIANO DURING THE 'SEI BRAVO A..' TOURNAMENT”

sub-elements of a great number of sports. During the phase in which

the child will begin to play football, he surely won't begin by learning
the gross motor skills all over again. On the contrary, he will use these
“locomotor sub-routines” (sub-programmes) to integrate them with
the other patterns he is trying to learn, such as managing the ball or
shooting. The new locomotor programme will be a result of the
integration of all those locomotor sub-routines. Many locomotor
programmes that we normally adapt are nothing more than
transformations of the most elementary locomotor patterns. It is
hardly random that, during locomotor development in the first years
of life: “A new action is mastered only to be replaced by an action
of a higher level that normally includes the previous one as a sub-
routine” Bruner, 1973. Locomotor practice will allow the various sub-
programmes to integrate with a gradually improving performance of
athletic techniques, securing the fluidity and agility of movement.

Football and Little Girls

2.5

A mong the purposes of the Juvenile and Scholastic sector,

the technical and didactical and cultural development
and promotion of feminine junior football activities, is particularly
important. An adequate and modern locomotor programme for
infantile and juvenile ages cannot go without the appropriate
awareness of the physiological characteristics and biological laws
50
of growth that express themselves differently in the two sexes.
This obviously offers scientific support to psycho-pedagogical
principles and methods, in the choice of objectives, content, means
and methods, as well as when it is necessary to fix some limits to best
define the most appropriate teaching methods. Overall, physical
growth and development are continuous processes, that progress
from birth to adulthood, but they are by no means regular and
certain differences among the sexes exist (GRAPHS 1, 2, 3 and 4).

100

80

60

40

20

% 0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Age
= Boys = Girls
Source: Hettinger, 1962
GRAPH 1 - Progress of maximum isometric strength shown in function of age

From the graphs above, one can deduct that boys and girls can
carry out the same physical activities, but from the tenth year,
changes in stature and weight must be taken into consideration in
one sex and the other. One need to reflect on these changes, as well
as consider above all the physical qualities in the developmental
phase, such as strength, speed and resistance.
From the conclusions drawn by the graphs that refer to coordination
skills, (ILLUSTRATION 7 AND GRAPHS 5 TO 12) the general evolution process
seems to be different for the two sexes. In particular, whilst the curves
show a similar pattern for skills like spatial orientation, reaction,
differentiation, and timed coordination, they differ in skills like rhythm,
balance and dexterity.
The latter skills in fact are accomplished first by the girls compared to
their male peers. This meets that, as far as the didactical plan is
concerned for girls, it will have a completely different layout
regarding coordination and situational skills, given their greater pre-
disposition to learn motor skills.
51
 Frequency (numbers/seconds)
5,6

5,4

5,2

5,0

4,8

4,6

4,4

4,2

4,0

3,8

3,6

3,4

3,2

3,0

Age 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

= Boys = Girls

Source: Farfel’ in Weineck 1992, 470

GRAPH 2 - Maximum frequency of different low-breadth movements

As far as the conditional aspects are concerned, among the various

age groups and the sexes, the differences can be justified by:
• different pubescent development phases (girls 10-11 yrs, boys 11-
12 yrs);
• production of sexual hormones (mainly testosterone, which is
much greater in boys than in girls);
• the volitional, motivational and personal characteristics (that also
derive from the production of androgens; i.e. aggressiveness);
• social stimuli that compel boys to do more sports.
This entails that initially, for the little girls, one can observe an
accentuated level of activities of precision, whereas in little boys,
who are more stimulated in physical activities and who are
continuously searching for competition, activities that regard
speed, situations and competition will prevail.
52
 Running times (seconds)
8

10

11

12

13

14
Age 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

= Boys = Girls
Source: Weineck 1990, according to Crasselt 1972, 543
GRAPH 3 - Running times of 60m, in various age groups

In the following years these activities will continuously become

more prevalent, but they will in any case have to be integrated
with executive precision, ensuring that the pupils of both sexes
receive adequate stimulation with maximum psycho-motor
potential.
The didactical programmes will then tend to become more similar
according to natural psychological development and with the
gradual physical and technical growth of the girls. The didactical
programme (see TABLE 10) indicates the main objectives that the
instructors will have to fulfil by providing the best possible conditions
to enrich the locomotor repertoire.
The illustrated didactical proposal is only an example of how
activities should be structured. It would be appropriate to change,
53
 Running distance result (metres)
3500

3000

2500

Age 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

= Boys = Girls
Source: Köhler
GRAPH 4 - Running distance result for school-aged boys and girls measured from a
timed period of 15 minutes

enlarge and adapt the content of the didactical units in order to

make the proposed exercises appropriate to the degree of
locomotor and cognitive maturity of the girls.
“In order to fulfil general objectives one must use minimal and
specific didactical units that will allow the gradual fulfilment of
higher locomotor skills without skipping the intermediate stages.
Therefore one should use working methods that favour the general
development of motor skills, by enlarging the base of possibilities,
i.e. by proposing experiences from multiple sports that have
multifunctional values. The kind, quantity and quality of the
activities is therefore decisive.
There will also be appropriate moments to test and evaluate
progress, through systematic observation of the locomotor
54
 Scholastic Year
Coordination skills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Coordination ability
under temporal pressure
Spatial, Temporal and kinesthetic
differentiation abilities

BOYS
Acoustic and optical
reaction abilities
Rhythmical abilities
Orientation abilities
Balancing abilities
Coordination ability
under temporal pressure
Spatial, Temporal and kinesthetic
differentiation abilities

GIRLS
Acoustic and optical
reaction abilities
Rhythmical abilities
Orientation abilities
Balancing abilities

ILLUSTRATION 7 - Main periods of development of coordination skills, during Physical

Education from the 1st year (six yrs old) to the 10th year ( 16 yrs old)

behaviour of the female pupils, bearing in mind that there will be

differences in starting points, learning rhythms as well as in terms of
previous experiences and situations they are familiar with.”
D'Ottavio 1994).

10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Age
= N° of female participants = 65 = N° of female participants = 42
= N° girls = 1250 = N° of male participants = 40 = N° boys = 1250
Source: Hirtz, 1979

GRAPH 5 - Development of dynamic Balancing skills from pre-scholar age to first

years of adulthood

55
 100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 6 – Dexterity (Stemmier)

100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 7 – Coordination under time limit

100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 8 – Reaction skills

100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 9 – Differentiation skills

56
 “DOUBLE-LAYERED RUBBER BALLS TO FACILITATE THE LEARNING PROCESS”

100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 10 – Rhythmical skills

100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 11 – Balancing skills

57
 100
80
60
40
20
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

= Boys = Girls

GRAPH 12 – Spatial orientation skills

.1 Methodological suggestions
2.5
N ormally little girls begin football later on in life, at an age in
which there is a lot of competition with other sports that
traditionally represent the parents' choice of sport (gymnastics,
dance, swimming, volleyball etc.). This means that the first
experiences should be able to generate enthusiasm so that they
don't give up at the first sign of technical difficulty. So our
suggestions, if slightly obvious but not to be neglected, are:
• Individual technique in simplified contexts
• Exercises and games with more complex rules, going from the use
of hands to feet
• Smaller areas and lower number of girls at a time during exercises
• Smaller matches (n° players and dimension of pitch)
• Rubber balls (double and triple layer - see paragraph “ Teaching
Equipment”) that facilitate certain technical moves (header, etc.)
• Mixed activities that don't change the technical balance between
boys and girls too much
• Continuous solicitation of reflection, memorisation, intuitive skills,
constant praise of successful attempts
• Constant verification of learning levels to avoid technical requests
that don't match the actual abilities
IN OTHER WORDS, MOTIVATION MUST ALWAYS BE HIGH AND NEEDS TO BE
SUPPORTED IN ORDER TO ENSURE CONSTANT PARTICIPATION IN ACTIVITIES
TO SUMARISE THE ABOVEMENTIONED CHARACTERISTICS, LITTLE GIRLS ARE:
• Precocious in coordination skills
• Less prone on a purely physical basis
• Tendency to be more precise in movement patterns
• Tendency to have higher levels of attention in general
• Strong motivation to learn due to spirit of emulation regarding their
male peers
58
• Socially less used to experiment the typical moves of football in
everyday life
• Less likely to find female role-models to refer to such as female
instructors or female football players.

WOMEN'S FOOTBALL: an international experience

With the UEFA Conference on welcome rather that exclude.
basic football, where fifty-two So the overall proposal was for
European Football Federations a game for everyone, without
were present, one of the sexual, racial, handicap
presentations was on women's discrimination. Women's
football, and described the football was treated, and
situations in which this activity justly so, with equal
is introduced in Northern opportunity, but above all
Europe in particular. Northern with equal dignity, so much so
Europe, thanks to its tradition and that an entire session was dedicated
history, and to its higher to this subject. The most important
demographic distribution compared presentation was given by the
to the territory, organises many Secretary of the Norwegian
opportunities for children's football. Federation, the ex national football
From the so-called “Festivals” to “Fun player Karen Espelund, who opened
football”, to week-ends with families the talk with this original statement
to get parents, siblings involved as “A minute without football is a lost
well as grandparents, considering minute”, which conveyed the level
the higher “resistance” of old-age of enthusiasm and strong emotional
people, to full immersion involvement of the experience of
tournaments that go from 2 vs 2 to 4 playing football. The programme of
vs 4 ( very popular) and to 7 vs 7. the Norwegian Federation was
During the various presentations, we summarised in the presentation of
heard about incredible experiences, some initiatives designed to
especially from Scandinavia and maximise participation, such as
Anglo-Saxon countries. Game- those mentioned above, but what
matches where parents played with gave us food for thought where the
their children for example, which is impressive numbers: an 18.4%
definitely far from our national increase of teams over 3 years.
standards and our habits above all. About 6000 female football teams
However, we must say that in our with over 10,000 members. Their
country over the past few years strategy is clear. More participation
many things have changed, due to equals more female supporters in
a greater awareness of the fact that the medium-long term, more
younger children that play sports participation of families in football
need different role-models on which (stadiums, TV), more induced
to base their experiences. The consumption of merchandising,
overall philosophy that came out more political weight in general.
from the conference was that Perhaps one should think about it a
football has to respect the bit more, naturally thinking of an
fundamental pedagogical principle educational form of football,
of “inclusion” and hold the needs designed on the needs of the girls,
and motivations of children in higher which, until the ages of 11-12, are
consideration by preparing not so different from their male peers
environments that are design to after all.

59
60
The following didactical plan is only intended as an example of how activities should be structured. It would be appropriate to change, enlarge and adapt
the content of the didactical units in order to make the proposed exercises appropriate to the degree of locomotor and cognitive maturity of the girls.

General Objectives: enrich and consolidate the locomotor experiences acquired so far; to build on the
technical abilities; to control and organise one's body in space; development of senso-perceptive skills.
1st-2nd-3rd week
Specific Objectives: development of differentiation skills, balance, orientation and rhythm in reference to the ball.
Dominant Factor in the Search of precision Search for Speed Presence Match Test
Development of the of the opponent
various didactical units
Movement circuits, Rubapalla, La frontiera 2vs2 Entry test: Organise
Contact games, La Rubapalla & shooting, La frontiera & shooting an entry test on
margherita, Bowling, Porta la palla a casa Techniques before
Vince chi rischia, beginning the
Circuits with stops, programme
Alfabeto, Labirinto o (choose the ones
Labirinto a colori you deem most
(guiding the ball) appropriate)

General Objectives: enrich and consolidate the locomotor experiences acquired so far; greater control of
movement and coordination skills; development of technical abilities; favour teamwork
4th-5th-6th week
Specific objectives: increase differentiation skills, balance, orientation and rhythm in reference to the ball and
team mates; development of technical abilities in terms of speed.
 Dominant Factor in the Search of precision Search for Speed Presence Match Test
Development of the of the opponent
various didactical units
Penalty competition Porta la palla a The frontier nella 3vs3 At the end of the 4th
casa with variations zona 2:1 + 4vs4 - week: precision and
Play and score goalkeeper 4goals speed test
Passing and Labirinto di colori (defender on the
reception in a (guide) line/then moving Everyone in
square Go for goal within the area)
Il gioco della tana
(rest)

General objectives: more control over movement and coordination skills in relation to the available space and
the opponent; more emphasis at a functional level and creative training of technical skills; development of
visual perception skills in relation to space, team mates and opponent.
7th-8th-9th week
Specific Objectives: adaptation of differentiation skills, balance, orientation and rhythm in relation to team
mates and opponents; increase of quick technical abilities, with active opposition of the opponent.
Dominant Factor in the Search of precision Search for Speed Presence Match Test
Development of the of the opponent
various didactical units
Passing and Coloured Labyrinth Il gioco della tana 4vs4 - At the end of the
receiving in the zone (passing) (passing) 4 goal ninth week carry out
Passing and Quadrato di 5vs5 speed tests and with
receiving - 4 goal Go for goal (with smarcamento Palla al opponents
game goalkeeper) Sei bravo a giocare in capitano
superiorità numerica
TABLE 10 – Example of didactical programme for football activities for Female Football Schools

61
3.
Between Fact
and Theory:
Techniques and Other
Factors of Juvenile
Football
A ll athletic games, including football, are a part of the so-
called “situational” sports. “The execution of techniques
depends on the competitive conditions, especially the technical
and tactical ones, and the conditions of the opponent and the
opponent team” (Manno, Beccarini, D'Ottavio, 1992).
Football at every level of qualification, from children to adults,
besides being defined as a situational game environment, is also
characterised by its invasive model of technical and tactical actions,
meaning that both teams are completely free to move within any
part of the field and may also evidently come into physical contact.
Football is also considered a sport with a high level of technical and
coordination skills, in which the foot is reserved a lot more activities
than usual Feet are generally used for support and movement,
having a different biological sensorial evolution compared to hands,
which normally have primary interactive functions with the
environment. In general terms, the football player's performance is
made up of the following components:
• Genetic and morphological/functional;
• Perceptive and sensorial;
• Technical and coordinative;
• Conditional;
• Tactical (cognitive processes);
• Psychological and social.
Therefore, the content and methods used in training and
development programmes for players will have to be selected
considering:
• primary requisites (hereditary factors, biological structures),
• perceptive requests, derived from the information available in an
extremely variable game environment,
• construction of technical moves that are directly linked to the
development of coordination skills,
• construction of an adequate organic and muscular metabolic
support,
• development of “tactical thought”, creating the necessary
decisional pre-requisites for the player,
• an appropriate psychological climate that stimulates motivation
and commitment to performance, during training as well as
during competitions, which favours a wider opportunity for social
interaction.
The expressions “functionality” and “situation” (see ILLUSTRATION 8 and 9,
D'Ottavio 1996) mean that the simple technical execution itself makes
no sense, if it is not linked (functional) to the context (situation) that
63
 justifies its use. It is therefore very important for the coach to teach the
techniques by putting the young player in the necessary conditions to
consciously perceive and evaluate the effects of their behaviour
(feed-back), thereby creating a higher motivation to learn.

TECHNIQUE FUNCTIONALITY SITUATION

use objective
ILLUSTRATION 8 - Relationship between technique, functionality and situation
(D'Ottavio 1998

conditional factors Interpretation of obtained effects

speed
strength objectives
resistance SITUATION
use
second-guessing
the game FUNCTIONALITY
prediction
TECHNIQUE
coordination factors
precision
economy tactical factors
speed cooperation in unit
conciseness cognitive factors
cooperation in team
adaptation creativity adapting to opponent/s
improvisation game tactics
field area
judgement coach's suggestions
field dimensions
weather conditions adapting to the game
type of ball adapting to environment

ILLUSTRATION 9 - Relationship between technique, functionality and situation

(D'Ottavio 1998)

One must also notice that the concepts of functionality, situation

and evaluation come from system theory, elaborated by the
Russian neuro-physiological P.K. Anochin (1957), who claims:
“Every functional, mechanical, or biological system that has been
created or that has evolved, in order to maintain a certain
degree of usefulness, must in any case have a cyclical aspect. It
cannot exist if no return is made on the degree of use of the
produced effect”.
64
As in other contexts in life, learning technical skills is a gradual
process, characterised by phases of training and based on the
principle of repetition. The learning-teaching process in football,
intended as a “situation” sport, cannot be exclusively characterised
as a didactical process that is strictly based on standard repetition
(even if this is inevitable in some cases), but it must necessarily offer
other factors that influence performance during training and during
competitions. The technical move needs to be functional and
adapt itself to changing situations and actions and is therefore
defined as an “open” skill, meaning that the technical skill is built in
a constantly changing environment. The various fundamental
techniques, such as controlling the ball, dribbling, reception and
passing, shooting, headers, throw-ins and the respective evolutions
of these moves, would become actual functional units in this case
(see Ottavio 1996) and not, as it sometimes occurs, pre-
programmed structures that are excluded from the context and
deprived of meaning. Further more, a technique that refers
excessively strictly to a theoretical technical model (even if correct),
runs the risk of not being adaptable to the pupil's evolutionary
dynamics, under a morphological and anthropometric perspective,
as well as a biological and locomotor one. This is why, for this very
reason, they should respond to a “flexible skill” principle during the
period of basic activity. On this subject, Schmidt R., 2002, underlines
in his statements the importance of recognising the invariable
characteristics at the core of each movement, as well as the
variable characteristics, which are on the superficial structure of the
movements. The former are not usually subject to change, whereas
the latter may be influenced by environmental factors.

“MATTRESSES TO HELP ACROBATIC PRACTICE”

65
 Technical skills in football
3.1
T echnical skills in football represent all forms of specific motory
communication provided for in the rules of the game. They
are the foundation of the game plan and the ability to obtain
tactical intentions, with a high possibility of success. Technique in
football must be considered as an element of transmission of the
players decisions into movement, therefore it represents the means
and not the end of the game. For the learning process to be
successful it must consider the element of economy, which is an
essential component of any game plan, as the reserve of physical
and mental energy equals better efficiency of decision making
and execution. The technical move, therefore, will be expressed
through variations of its execution according to variable
parameters, such as:
• Strength
• Direction of arrival of the ball
• Direction of exit of the ball
• Variation of speed, frequency and rhythm
• Balance conditions
• Presence of opponent/s
• Presence of team mate/s
• Available space for action
• Visual orientation (perceptive difficulties)
• Combination of contemporary or sequential movements
• Mental energy
• Physical tiredness
• Second-guessing before and after execution
• Regulative feed-back (control information during the execution)
The technical move, therefore, in football, is always expressed
under more or less complex conditions, most of the time caused by
the presence of one or more opponents, available space, speed
required by the situation and also by the technical precision
needed for success in a certain game-plan. This general condition,
that occurs constantly throughout the game, has a strong influence
on the plan of technical programmes and teaching methods.
Therefore, during exercises it is necessary to use opponents (active
or with partially reduced activity) frequently, or didactical rules that
entail limitations of the exercise (reducing time, space, etc.).

66
 Overview of Technical Moves
.1
3.1
Controlling the Ball
It is the technical element that allows the player that holds the ball to
move in any area or direction of the field whilst maintaining control.
The player uses this skill to gain space with reference to the opponent's
goal (advancement) or to gain a more favourable position to carry
out a pass or to attempt a shot to goal (game direction).

Technical tips:
• Always keep the ball under control
without moving too far away from it
• Use the part of the foot that is best
for the intended move
• Keep the distance between the
player and the ball proportional to
the speed of the game and
according to the presence of
opponents
• Keep peripheral vision open, by
gradually teaching to not always
FIGURE 1
watch the ball (heads up).
• Kick when the opposite foot is placed normally
• Keep the foot slightly relaxed during impact.

Dribbling
Dribbling is the individual action where control of the ball is
maintained even when avoiding the opponent. Dribbling and
controlling the ball alike are based on a basic movement
programme that begins with running and, combined with the
presence of the ball, becomes a specific technique. The ways of

“SLALOM WITH THE BALL WITHIN AN MOBILE PRECISION KIT.”

67
 execution generally provide for contact between the ball and:
• Whole instep of the foot;
• External instep of the foot;
• Internal instep of the foot.

FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3

Technical tips:
• Dribble the opponent on his weak side
• Defend the ball with the body
• Keep the direction towards the goal or towards free space
• Pay attention to the opponents countermoves
• Choose the moment to second-guess the opponent by observing
his movements
• Once you have cleared the opponent bring the ball forward with
the foot that is further from the opponent
• Practice a feint before beginning to dribble
• Combine dribbling and shooting actions
• Combine dribbling with variations of speed and direction.

Passing the ball

It is the specific move that represents the means of communication
between two team mates. For a pass to be successful, it is
fundamental for the player on the receiving end of the ball to find
a favourable position for reception through intentional movements;
the player that passes the ball, in turn will have to be able and
quick in deciding the best moment to pass (by eluding the
opponent). According to the situation of the game, and the
possible geometric solutions, a pass can be:
• Horizontal;
• Diagonal;
68
• Vertical;
• Backwards.
The technical execution can mainly be carried out by using the foot
or the head and, if less frequently, by using the chest and the thigh.
When using the foot, according to the situation, a player can use:
• The inner part;
• The instep;
• The internal instep;
• The external part;
• The point;
• The heel;
• The sole.
The basic movement patterns from which this technical gesture
evolves consist in striking and jumping.

FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5

Technical tips:
• To give the right strength to the kick.
• To kick when the ball is close to the body.
FOR PASSES USING THE INNER PART OF THE FOOT (THE MOST POPULAR
CHOICE WITH CHILDREN IN FOOTBALL SCHOOLS) BEAR IN MIND TO:
• Base yourself on the supporting foot at the same time as you
swing the striking foot back;
• Base the supporting foot laterally and in line with the ball;
• Rotate the kicking foot externally with the point slightly pointing
upwards;
• Once the kick is finished let the kicking leg continue its upward
movement and carry out a small jump on the supporting foot to
provide continuity to the following movement.
• Rotate the supporting foot and the chest in the direction of the pass.
69
 Receiving the ball: the stop
This move is the confirmation of a correct communication between
the two players. It is also true, however that the move can be
carried out to intercept the move of the opponent team. After all,
this mental and locomotor expression in particular, which is based
on the ability to predict, can also on occasions - with less probability
- be a prelude to a shoot to goal, a pass, and sometimes to a
situation of dribbling-control of the ball. One can technically
execute a stop, depending on the trajectory of the approaching
ball (parabolical, medium height, grazing height), with:
• The foot (internal, external, point, sole);
• Chest;
• Thigh;
• Head;
• Abdomen.
The ball may be controlled in space in the immediate surrounding
of the individual for “takeover”, or “in sequence”, if there is the
anticipation of an immediately successive action plan (shoot, pass,
etc.). The basic movement patterns on which this skill is based and
refined are: receiving and jumping.

FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7

Technical tips:
• The arms must be held outwards to maintain balance;
• The jump must be carried out so that all articulations are relaxed;
• When approaching the ball lean the foot or the other parts of the
body backwards to break speed;
• When the ball is under control let the other players observe and
evaluate the situation,
• Protect the ball with the body and keep the opponents away.
70
FOR A STOP DURING A SEQUENCE (ORIENTED CONTROL):
• Turn the upper body in the direction you intend to proceed
towards after the stop.
• Pay attention to the trajectory of the incoming ball,
• Make sure you re-establish the correct balance to carry out the
following move.

Covering the ball

The technical conduct, which is an expression of individual control
over the ball, is only carried out in the direct presence of the
opponent. This form of behaviour, inevitably born out of a specific
situation, is integrated with the various expressions of reception,
control, and also the passing of the ball as a result.

FIGURE 8

Goal Shooting
It is the conclusive action of the various game strategies. The phases
that precede this move are considered exclusively as build-up and
preparation for this opportunity. Goal shooting gives the meaning to
the game and it should therefore be given the adequate
consideration in a didactical plan. During a game of football, “to
play well” without goal shooting only satisfies the purpose of the
game partially, whereas “not to play so well” and to repeatedly
conclude is more satisfactory for the purpose of the game. The
opportunity of shooting can occur after an action of control or
dribbling, after a pass, after a situation of reception and control, after
an interception. The ways the move is carried out, depending on the
situation and the specific movement required, will be by using:
• The foot (internal; internal or external instep, full-on instep, point, heal);
• The head (frontal or parietal);
71
 And so on with:
• The chest;
• The thigh;
• Any other part of the body allowed by the rules of the game.
The latter condition applies to all the other technical movements
listed beforehand. The movement patterns on which this skill is
structured are the abilities to strike and jump.

FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10

Technical tips:
• During the run up, steps must be short to provide the right
coordinates and the last step must be wider to prepare the
kicking leg.
• During the shoot the body should be above the ball,
• When the ball is moving the supporting leg must be slightly in front
of the line of the ball.
• During the moment of contact with the ball, the ankle must be
“rigid” and the foot pointed downwards.
• When the shot is carried out with the inner part of the instep, the
upper body should be inclined towards the supporting leg.
• At the moment of impact the arm that corresponds to the
supporting legs should be extended forwards.
• After impact the kicking leg should continue its upward-forward
movement to direct the ball.
• Teach the pupils to observe the goalkeeper's position.

Head play
This technical skill that has already been mentioned during the
presentation of the other techniques, is characterised by the use of a
specific region of the body that essentially has the only option of
hitting the ball. Contrarily to the feet, the head, because of its
72
morphological characteristics, offers less opportunities of control. This
should be considered when we talk about the development of the
dynamics of the game, which do not allow, except in rare cases, for
a succession of repeated contact between the head and the ball,
and even less for balancing situations. Therefore the head may be
used to pass, to stop, to shoot, to intercept, to defend, and exclusively
when the ball is in the air. The header can be carried:
• With both feet placed on the ground;
• When both feet are in the air;
• After a more or less long run up with only one foot on the ground;
• During a dive.
Impact with the ball is mainly on the following surfaces:
• Forehead;
• Side.
According to the needs of the game, it can happen by giving a direct
trajectory to the ball or only deviate it. The basic movement patterns
that follow the evolution of this move are hitting and jumping.

FIGURE 11

Technical tips:
• Keep eyes open when heading the ball;
• Move towards the ball (not be hit by the ball).
• Bring the upper body backwards before hitting the ball.
• Bring the arms back to keep balance.
• At the moment of impact bring the head forward and keep the
neck muscles tight.
• Let the movement begin from the lower limbs.
• When hitting with the side of the head slightly twist the upper
body beforehand.
• During headers in the air, hit the ball before it begins its descent.
73
 Tackle
It is the technical element that stems from the contemporary action
of two players that try to maintain or regain ball possession. So the
person with the ball will tend to avoid a tackle whilst the person
without the ball will tend to apply it. This opposing action has to abide
by the rules that provide for, in this specific situation, intervention of
the players exclusively directed towards the ball. In some cases,
tackling can assume the form of a combination of two technical
elements. This happens when the player, having successfully solved
the tackle, continues his action without interruptions. For example in
situations of control of the ball, tackle and shooting; or during a run
without the ball, tackle and passing. This technical move, more than
others, requires an adequate level of general muscular strength,
especially concerning the lower limbs, and a well balanced body
arrangement (baricentre within and closer to the ground). Tackling
can be carried out in various ways:
• Frontal;
• Lateral
• From behind
• Sliding tackle
• Arial tackle

FIGURE 12 FIGURE 13

Technical tips:
• The move requires, at the moment of contact, an adequate
general muscular tension, especially in the lower limbs.
• Keep a balanced body position with a low barycentre.
• The best moment is when the ball is further away from the
opponent's foot.
• Try to find the right coordination, choose the “right time” and
measure the “empty space” available.
• Think ahead, in case of successful conquest or maintenance of
the ball, for your next move.
74
Throw-in
This technical move is the only opportunity in which the players
(excluding the goal keeper) can use their hands to play the game.
There really aren't any techniques in particular if not to take full
advantage of the ability of the body to flex and extend itself to
throw the ball at the desired distance and in the right direction. The
move can be carried out with or without a run-up, and the feet
mustn't leave the ground when the ball is thrown.
A sufficiently acceptable throw-in requires:
• Sensible handling of the ball;
• Fluid and rapid movements;
• Mobility and extendibility of the upper body and the legs;
• Adequate level of strength.
The basic movement pattern will be, in this case, to throw.

FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15

Goal keeper technique

The goal keeper needs to be considered and subsequently trained
on the basis of a completely different required performance from
his other team mates, even if, for some time now, he is often being
required to, on the basis of the new game regulations, to perform
unusual technical movements compared to the traditional ones
(seeing as the game and the regulations bring him to use his hands
more frequently than his feet). However, even if the goal keeper
uses a different variety of techniques, his game must be strongly
integrated with the technical organisation of the defence and the
team in general. If we refer to the various situations, all that is
requested of the goal keeper is to keep the ball from entering the
goal, using all the technical methods he has, or to interrupt the
opponent's offensive action, to recover the ball within his range, to
75
 re-launch with precision and efficiency. The ways he carries out his
role can be structured by:
• Position between the goal posts (goal coverage);
• Seizing of the ball;
• Diving, seizing and deviating;
• Exit;
• Re-launching the ball using hands and feet;
• Kicking the ball away.
In more specific situations:
• Direct and indirect free kick;
• During wall set-up;
• Penalty kick;
• Corner;
and, considering the new rules of the game:
• More speed in defending with his feet;
• Ability to kick the ball away from a back pass;
• Better selection of information regarding back passing (is it
possible to touch the ball with my hands or not?);
• more regularity in defending with his feet (last opponent facing
the goal).
The basic movements on which the specific skills of the goal keeper
are based and structured are the patterns of “receiving”, “hitting”,
“throwing”, “jumping”, “running”, “diving”.

FIGURES 16, 17 AND 18

76
 The development of the techniques in young people is based on the
following guidelines:
1. automatization via conscious control;
2. cognitive participation;
3. higher degree of freedom
4. motivation to learn
5. Problem Solving method
6. game-situation drills
7. dynamic teaching: phases with high or low intensity
8. simplified rules
9. appropriate spaces and equipment
10. adapting the above to the children's age
TABLE 11- D'Ottavio, document from the Specialisation Degree course in Sport
Science and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome - 2003

.2 Thoughts on the technical move

3.1 of dribbling: teaching suggestions

D uring the 2005-2006 season, the Juvenile and Scholastic

Section, at Coverciano, in the Technical Sector branch,
organised a Conference entitled “From the grown ups… to grow up:
Dribbling”, in order to ponder the fact that it is too bad that this
“fascinating” technical move is disappearing because there are
fewer and fewer players on the field that are able to express certain
technical qualities compared to the past. Many thoughts were
expressed on the subject, one of which for example came from
Sergio Roticiani (didactical coordinator of the Federal Football
School of Acquacetosa in Rome):
“The game of football finds its ultimate sublimation in two technical
moves that makes the football lover's heart beat and get excited:
the shoot and dribbling evoke epical images of an infinite number of
duels and challenges and it is on this emotional rapture that the
coach of young players should base his didactical itinerary.
In the basic categories, dribbling has a fascinating effect that makes
the young player interested in trying and taking the risk of loosing the
ball, the coach must favour this attitude and stimulate this impulse. In
this sense it seems appropriate to quote the statement of Eduardo
Galeano, who said, regarding football: “no matter how the
technocrats programme it, even in the minimal details, no matter
how the powerful manipulate it, football keeps wanting to be the art
of the unpredictable”.
The players the children love most are the ones that arouse
enthusiasm with their style: Ronaldinho, Totti, Zidane, pure talents that
have found adequate didactical spaces and environments that
allowed their potential to explode. If it is true that champions are 77
 born not made, the road is long with many a winding turn to
become one. The didactical pathway must mostly encourage
learning by trial and error, and through continuous repetition the
young player will experiment behaviours that will become more and
more perfected. The presence of the opponent will favour their
cognitive, sensory and locomotor adaptation, through which
managing the ball will become more and more effective. Precision
and speed on one side, ability to vary their behaviour according to
the opponent's actions are paradigms that are the pillars of the
action of dribbling.
Surely the use of playing in reduced spaces can favour this conduct,
but vice versa, inadequate game environments diminish the
possibility of experimenting it, the same way as for goal shooting. The
return to street football, the use of competitive models that are
better suited to the psycho-physical needs of the young such as 7 a
side football, will surely bring a higher solicitation of dribbling… and
will give us many more emotions.”

It must be said that dribbling at the dawn of football was considered

a fundamental weapon to approach the opponent's goal and there
were more 1 on 1 situations. The art of dribbling was born in some
English colleges and on the streets where the spaces to play were
more restricted. However, tactics, but above all the search for a
higher speed of the game, have brought even young players to
abandon dribbling all too soon. In a survey conducted on a
population of children from football schools, most subjects replied
“goal shooting” and “dribbling” to the question: “which technical

GRAPH 13 - survey on the technical preferences of children in football school

78
move do you prefer?” (GRAPH 13), interesting when you compare this
result to the finding that young players carry out an average of one
or two dribbling actions per game (GRAPH 14), therefore proving to
have quite a modest technical track record, especially in this
technique. However, considering that games, at any level, offer less
and less space for technical play seeing as man marking is
becoming more and more aggressive (as a consequence of better
physical conditions), mastering this technique really could become
that extra weapon to dominate the opponent. Roberto Donadoni,
the current Italian Squad manager, recently said: “Dribbling is the
ability to overtake the opponent with the ball and is a solution, which,
when it is successful, provides an immediate advantage: a free ball
and numerical advantage. Therefore it is an individual technical and
tactical skill that has a major effect on the incisiveness of the tactics
of the whole team”.

Technique and Learning how to Dribble

In order to dribble and “scrap” the opponent, as the children put it,
you need to have mastered the techniques of controlling the ball.
This is partly due to certain natural pre-dispositions, even though, as
in for all expressions of movement, the coordinative component is
essential. A good level of dynamic balancing, spatial and temporal
differentiation, rhythm, adaptation and transformation skills, can
only increase the potential of whoever intends to practice the
dribbling technique. Even the speed of cyclical or a-cyclical
movement, combined with feints, heighten the quality of the

GRAPH 14 - Data collected during matches in the Juvenile and Scholastic Sector of
FIGC, 2006
79
 ILLUSTRATION 10 - Technique Formation in situational sports. D'Ottavio, 2006 - Documents
of the Conference “From grown-ups…to grow up: dribbling”

From 2 vs 1 to 1 on 1

FIGURE 19 - D'Ottavio, 2006 - Documents of the Conference “From grown-ups…

to grow up: dribbling”

FIGURE 20 - D'Ottavio, 2006 - Documents of the Conference “From grown-ups…

to grow up: dribbling”
80
execution and increase the possibility of success during the game.
From a didactical point of view, once the pupil has acquired the
ability to control the ball in situations of changes of front and
direction with curved trajectories such as slaloms with cones, he will
be able to start exercising in conditions that reproduce the context
of a real match, from a geometrical point of view and in terms of
timing (applied technique) (ILLUSTRATION 10). Real match situations
and games will finally complete the picture of programmable
didactical experiences.

.3 Thoughts on training young

3.1 goal keepers: teaching suggestions
The characteristics of the role of goal keeper
“…When carrying out his job, he often remains isolated from the other
players on the field, and who knows where his thought go in those
moments. In certain phases of the game his level of “participation” is
more similar to a supporter rather than a player. But it often happens
that he has to quickly change his attitude and be fully attentive,
effective and ready straight away, whatever the game situation..”
From this sentence, taken from a British text written in 1971 by
unknown authors, one can understand how different the
goalkeeper's role is compared to the other players.
The role of goal keeper is obviously the most different in the team,
from the point of view of technical and tactical, physical and
locomotor, as well as psychological skills required, as well as the
responsibilities and tasks he has to undertake. It seems clear and
obvious that we should consider the possible effects of this pressure
from a psychological point of view. As we know, he is the only player
who is allowed to touch the ball with his hands in the penalty area,
so his role is to defend the goal, to interrupt the actions of the
opposing team, to retrieve the ball in his area, but also to re-launch
the ball with precision and effectiveness, using either hands or feet,
therefore contributing to the following offensive action (see
ILLUSTRATIONS 11-12 - overview of technical moves and movement
patterns in football).
Among other things, seeing how various changes have been made
to the rules of the game in the past years, that have “forced” the
goalkeeper to get more involved using his feet, and seeing the
evolution of the game strategies and tactical team modules, it
seems fair to consider this role as an evolving one.
81
 diving
receiving
• exit
• control • controlling the ball
• intercept
• seizing the ball
• exit throwing
jumping • re-launching
• rejecting with hands
• deviation
• sending the ball back
• re-launching kick • diving and seizing the ball
hitting • diving with deviation
• exit
running

ILLUSTRATION 11 - The relationship between movement patterns and specific technical

abilities of the goal keeper in football (D'Ottavio, 1994)

All you have to do is think about “how” the goal keeper has to play
today and “how many times” his actions are decisive in the
teameconomy when he is “far from the goal”. However we mustn't
forget that his game must be strongly integrated with the tactical
organisation of the defensive section of the team as well as the
team in general. We could use the following simile: the goal keeper
doesn't only have a “house” - if we can call the goal with the goal
area a house - but he is now in charge of a house with a large
garden to look after.

An overview of the technical moves of the goal keeper

“If we refer to the various situations, all that is requested of the goal keeper is to
keep the ball from entering the goal, using all the technical methods he has, or to
interrupt the opponent's offensive action, to recover the ball within his range, to re-
launch with precision and efficiency.”

The ways he carries out his role can be In more specific situations
structured by:
• Position between the goal posts (goal coverage); • Direct and indirect free kick;
• Seizing of the ball; • During wall set-up;
• Diving and seizing and deviating; • Penalty kick;
• Exit; • Corner.
• Re-launching the ball using hands and feet;
• Kicking the ball away.
And considering the new rules of the game
• More speed in defending with his feet;
• Ability to kick the ball away from a back pass;
• Better selection of information regarding back passing (is it possible to touch
the ball with my hands or not?)

ILLUSTRATION 12 - Overview of technical moves relating to game situations

(D'Ottavio, Tell, Del Ciello, 2005)

82
Second-guessing skills
Now let us try and think about the mental work carried out by the
goal keeper during an action of the game. He will have to observe
and discern the information coming from the player that is holding
the ball, the position of his team mates in defence, the position and
movements of the other opponent players. Through all this
information he will have to make one decision after another,
regarding his position and the possible ways he can intervene to
block the attack of the opponents (i.e. exiting the goal), or interfering
with shoots, taking the fact that his actions can vary horizontally and
vertically, in terms of force and precision, into account. Therefore the
attention skills, reaction skills and other coordination skills that come
into “play” (spatial and temporal orientation, differentiation,
movement control etc.) must be continuously stimulated.
The goal keeper is therefore he who, more than others, will always
have to understand and try to second-guess the possible actions of
attack of the opponents. In the game of football, the ability of
second-guessing is put to the test in an extremely uncertain
context, if we consider the number or perceived information, prior
experience plays a large role in deciding the application of this skill.
The more experience a player has had, he will have access to more
and precise information, in order to “read” the situation and
provide anticipated solutions. It is clear that in these cases each
player will have to “clash” with the opponent's intentions, who will
tend to use certain ways of thinking and expressions of technical
skill to their best advantage (variations, fakes, etc.). To know the
techniques of various moves (e.g. type of run-up, posture or
position of the foot during strike, or during dribbling, etc.) will make
the process of perceiving the information easier; to know the
individual characteristics of the opponent players (if they are right
or left-footed) will provide more information to select and find
certain clues to recognise that they will need to prepare
themselves for a predicted action (shoot, cross, etc.).

The choice of role

There are specifications to be made, particularly on a didactical
basis, regarding the training of a young goalkeeper, especially in
the grass root categories.
Why does a child choose to play goalkeeper? How is the choice
made? How must the instructor behave with the smaller children?
Considering that competitive matches begin from grass-root level,
it is obvious that it is necessary, even in these age groups (8-10 yrs
83
 old), to find the players that will play as goal keeper. You could
spontaneously guess, when thinking about this necessity, that one
should find the player that is less technically skilled and “force” him
to play as goalkeeper. On the contrary, the didactical tip we feel
we can suggest is to allow the children who want to try to play in
this role, during training sessions or during matches. The approach
to the role should therefore be spontaneous, without forcing them,
and the coach should allow the children to go back to playing field
if they express the desire to do so. Furthermore, during the learning
process, the goalkeepers should also be allowed to try playing in
another role. This will allow them to be aware of the characteristics
of each role, so as to be able to understand the various situations
of a game, so they have access to more information that they can
use for their second guessing. In the following phases, such as role
specialization, the coach can pay more attention to the selection
process. The preference of a goalkeeper can be determined by,
other than specific technical abilities, other elements that can also
be found in the anthropometric (height, size of hands, etc.), as well
as other aspects such as personality, attention span, acrobatic
skills, other than the psychological balance that we mentioned
before. The integration of such factors with physical qualities, that
can be evaluated with specific tests, such as the long jump, triple
jump, CMJ, etc., will complete the picture.

Didactics
In general, each coach (and therefore even the goal keeper
coach) will have to deal with some structural variables of each club
or in each category. In particular, when organising the didactical
plan, he will have to take the following into consideration:
• Number of goalkeepers to train
• Number of weekly training sessions
• Training timetable
• The infrastructure available (field, spaces etc.)
The awareness of the possibilities that the club has to offer, regarding
the spaces that are available, timetable and playing fields, will help
to optimise the actions of the coach.
In the didactical proposals it is also fundamental to be aware of
teaching methods: deductive and inductive methods. Both of these
methods will have to be used in the right mix during the learning
process and used, by rule of thumb, according to the age group and
category of the pupil: the younger the pupil, the more the coach will
have to use an inductive approach (where experience, discovery
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and the fulfilment of didactical objectives almost happen by chance,
at the end of a process that has actually been suggested by the
coach); the more a pupil grows, the more the training sessions will be
based on deductive methods (where the coach pre-determines the
actions to be carried out and the pupil essentially executes his orders).
Both methods must always be sustained by a very solid “playful” basis,
that gives the pupils a motivational environment that encourages
better involvement and learning of the prepared programme.
The main characteristics on which the teaching methodology, which
we can define as “playfully inductive” can be based, are:
1) Use of games as dominating element for the development of
healthy competition (individual games, in couples, in teams)
2) Global and contemporary involvement of all the pupils that play
goalkeeper
3) Progressive increase of work intensity (technical and coordinative,
physical and locomotor, as well as psychological)
4) Continuous variation of exercises (a single objective can be
fulfilled with different exercises)
5) Dynamic approach to performance models (the goalkeeper, at
the end of the methodological pathway will find himself facing
real match situations).
In this regard, it seems appropriate to underline that a correct
didactical assistance, especially during the first phases of the learning
process, should never be denied to the pupil (choice of exercise,
material and teaching method), in order to avoid injury or traumas
that could cause the pupil to withdraw precociously from the role.
Therefore, regarding the didactical experiences and the laws that
regulate the learning process, we can divide the training of the
goalkeeper into the following phases:

During this phase, further to the playful approach provided for in any football
Practicing for school, the coach will try to spot possible pre-dispositions among the children
the role from 8 that have asked “to try” and play goalkeeper. The coach will try to find the right
to 10 years old pre-requisites via a series of games (in teams, in couples, and individual) that
“hide” the technical and coordinative objectives of this role.

This second training period of the athlete/goalkeeper involves training sessions

Training for the that are more role-specific, with a predominance of overall technical and
role from 11 to coordinative exercises in a collective form such as a “simple circuit” , in which
13 years old technical and coordinative stops are more frequent, or small team or individual
competitions with technical objectives that are specific for the role.
The moment of specialisation for the role coincides with the most competitive
Specialisation of aspects of the whole period of the juvenile sector and therefore the objective that
the role from 14 needs to be worked on is the reinforcement of competitive spirit and to pair it with
to 16 years old an increase in athletic and physical commitment, possibly by using more complex
circuits that are oriented towards conditional skills and the repetition of specific
technical moves to improve memorisation. Furthermore the exercises will be more
individual to reinforce tactical and cognitive skills.
TABLE 12 - Didactical programme and learning phases of the young goalkeeper's
training (D'Ottavio, Tell, Ciello, 2005)
85
 Learning material
As mentioned previously, the use of materials that guarantee a
correct learning process and preserve the well-being of the young
goal keepers (security factor) is to be strongly recommended to all
people that deal with juvenile training. Rubber balls are particularly
indicated (double layered) to practice goalkeeping, as well as
specific rubber mattresses to soften the impact of falling over
(special mattresses that also optimise acrobatic and pre-acrobatic
movements) or special goals that have rubber covering the most
dangerous parts. This equipment also facilitates, considering the
assortment of types and colours, the children's motivation and
stimulating the learning process. All of this helps to intensify their
experiences and improve their learning process and a increase
their sense of gratification.
Other material, such as for example the “frequency coordinator”
has a choice of many applications, or the so-called jelly-fish, which
are more useful in proprioceptive stimuli, can be used for specific
exercises aimed at the fulfilment of technical and coordinative
objectives (proprioceptivity, development of balancing skills,
explosive force, etc.), but for further information it is possible to refer
to the paragraph entitled “Teaching material”.

Second-guessing skills and Faking

3.2
Second guessing
Second guessing is a psychic process at the base of any human
activity and is founded on the ability to predict events that have
not yet occurred or that aren't finished yet; “Second guessing
means that before an action has started and before the
subsequent conditions that accompany it occur, one already, on
the basis of his perceptions, can construe that action, and forsee its
outcome” (Meinel, 1984). Even regarding the ability to forsee
movement, there are substantial differences between “closed”
and “open” athletic disciplines. In the former, where the objective
is pre-determined, the anticipation essentially consists in forseeing
the action plan by following the sequences of the movement
(mental reconstruction of the action). In the “open” disciplines,
including football, the ability to forsee actions is expressed in a
much more complex form because it is determined in an extremely
uncertain environment, and will have to take in more information.
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Complex second-guessing
• anticipation of the event (development of the situation)
• anticipation of the objective (purpose of the action)
• anticipation of the action plan (executive procedure)

Cei (1989) sums up his thoughts by defining the second guessing

processes in athletic games by “formulating response patterns by
creating a hierarchy of the probability of events”. This expression
highlights the fact that, even in the phase concerned with intake of
information (perception), the expert athlete uses his ability to predict.
As Weimer (1997) sustains, even perceptive processes are a part of a
constructive and active cycle, without making distinctions between
the “perceived” and the consequent “behaviour”. In fact, cognitive
activity cannot only be conceived as the ability to structure and
restructure the sensorial information that comes from the outside and
to find the best motor responses. Perceptive choices become
“sensorial behaviour” on the basis of cognitive patterns that point
towards a certain behaviour patter. According to Neisser (1981)
prediction patterns are the ones that help us look for certain types of
information, thereby determining the object of perception.
Let us imagine for example that we are taking a stroll in the centre of
Rome to do some shopping. The information strategies (observation
of the shop windows etc.) that everyone would use can basically be
divided into two categories:
1. not having a clear idea about what to buy, the direction of the
shopper's attention will be generalised and will casually pause on
the elements that capture his/her attention (originality of a display,
colours, etc.);
2. on the contrary, having a clear idea of the object to buy, the
shopper's perception will be organised according to selective
patterns, and will therefore look for the object that represents the
priority of this stroll.
The first scenario depicts quite a slow manner of reaching the
purpose of the outing, as the shopper will tend to analyse too much
information and runs the risk of being distracted. The second strategy
seems a faster way of reaching the goal, as it most certainly is, but
this way reflects an excessively rigid state of mind in searching for
information because, should the shopper fail to find the object in
question, the outing would have to be considered a failure.
We believe that the best solution, especially in contexts linked to
football, is to have a clear idea of what to look for, but at the same
time to be mentally open to the possibility of variables, which, in any
87
 case, even if with less immediate gratification, will facilitate our
objectives. This means, in other words, that on the basis of past
experiences and anticipations, the athlete will hypothesise a list of
the main possible solutions to the context and other alternatives
according to a preferential or probabilistic hierarchy.
Let's try and think about the goalkeeper's mental behaviour while the
opponent is running up to a penalty kick. He will be concerned with
organising his actions according to his construed action plan of the
opponent based on certain characteristics (signs) he can pick up
from the player during the run-up.
The anticipation processes will allow the goalkeeper to find what he
needs to satisfy his expectations and to neuro-muscularly prepare
himself before the opponent strikes the ball.

Perceptive anticipation: knowledge of the characteristics of the

player (right or left-footed, usually points on strength or precision,
estimate of his potential, environmental conditions, state of
equipment, etc.).
Information: length and inclination of the run-up, speed, width of steps,
direction of gaze, coordinative adjustments before the kick, etc.
Main response pattern: Precise Shot to his left
Alternative response: Central shot with possible footwork.
From this example one can see how anticipation is correlated to an
intentional action plan of a higher order and therefore how this
relationship inevitably influences the information strategies. We can
define the conception of intention as a property of every mental
phenomenon (Gould and Shotter, 1983). Through intention, the
mind is directed towards objects and situations of the world (Searle,
1983). In this sense the concept of intention also includes the
concept of anticipation.
The cognitive conception therefore highlights the interdependence
between perception and action by integrating them with processes
such as expectation, perceptive selection, anticipations. “you

88
develop a personal awareness of the world, that is not passively
determined, based on a stimulus-response behavioural paradigm,
but which is rather construed with active selection and interpretation
of the individual regarding the stimuli derived from his environment.”
(Reda, 1985). However, we must consider that the intentions of a
player during a game action must in be confronted with and, in a
certain sense, “clash” with the opponents intentions, which, in turn,
will try and use certain ways of thinking to their advantage.
The action plan of a player is therefore “disturbed” by the opponents'
plans that will try to interfere with his project, the ability of the player
will have to be that of simultaneously dealing with events by
integrating his programme with that of the opponents'. K. Meinel
(1984) defines this phenomenon as a process of “mental co-
execution of the respective actions”. Furthermore, others have
expressed themselves regarding performance as “integration and
not a simple sum of events” (Moreno, 1983). The ability therefore to
co-execute with the other components of the game becomes very
important as it allows the player to constantly reorganise his action
plan, adapting it if necessary or completely changing it. This is
emphasized mainly by the fact that each player will normally try and
delay the revelation of his intentions, to avoid giving his opponents
the possibility of anticipating and formulating responses that could
compromise the outcome of his actions.

Faking
The use of faking is very relevant in football before the player
executes a technical move. It is obviously a mental process as well
as a movement process, which is activated to intentionally create
reactions in the opponent that aren't relevant to the real situation.
In feinting actions the purpose of the player is to increase the
degree of uncertainty of the game environment, by carrying out
movements or actions that have nothing to do with his real
intentions. Let us examine the preparation for a shot to goal that
instead is followed by a dribbling action.
The opponent will see his expectations vanish as his analysis of the
goal-shooting behaviour will have triggered a response that will be
inefficient for the real situation. He will probably be overtaken,
seeing as the variation of his action plan would be too late.
Feinting actions will have the following effects on the opponent:
• imprecise perception and interference with attentive orientation:
as he is willingly attracted to a stimulus that is not relevant to the
action plan
89
 • tendency to trigger automatic responses: the opponent tends to
execute motor reactions that are less controlled at a conscious
level. This is a particular indication of mental and physical tiredness:
• increase in decision making times: especially when the fake is
carried out by more than one player. The resulting uncertainty will
increase the time that is necessary to process all the information.
• Compromise of the technical and coordinative organisation of
the opponent: the technical response is completely wrong or
imprecise and inefficient as it is not adequately supported by a
coordinative component (loss of balance, long reaction times,
late transformation of movements).
The possible situations are included in these five categories:
1. player with ball possession
2. player with team mate possessing the ball
3. player with opponent possessing the ball
4. situations where ball is inactive
5. players in situations where ball possession is disputed (when the
ball is not yet under any player's control)
Structurally, the variations of feinting actions can be expressed as:
• prepared movement that is not correlated to the intentional
movement;
• interruption of movement to continue with another movement or
another direction (body feints);
• simultaneous presentation or rapid sequence of two or more
pertinent signals;
• changes in rhythm or speed.

“TO CONTROL THE BALL IS A FUNDAMENTAL REQUISITE OF PLAYING FOOTBALL”

90
 Coordination Skills
3.3

R epresentation of coordinated movement is based on the

following assumption: the organism is a system with a very
high degree of auto-regulation that conserves itself, can correct
itself and even perfect itself. Coordination, involves the
neuromuscular system, especially in the extrapyramidal areas and
in peripheral proprioceptive regulation. It can be defined as the
ability to regulate, organise, and control movement.
Coordination, as ILLUSTRATION 13 suggests (Berstain, 1957 in Meinel,
1984), is a complex process that is ascribed to the efficiency of the
central as well as peripheral Nervous System. Essentially,

anticipation
of purpose

planning

comparison
between
required and
real value

control - recording information

regulation (movement memory) processing
(transmission of (afferent synthesis)
efferent impulse)
reafference

(internal control (external control

afference

circuit or circuit or
regulation circuit) regulation circuit)

mass execution of Environment

interference movement (ground, equipment,
(locomotor organs) water, snow, etc..)

ILLUSTRATION 13 - Simplified model of movement coordination (Bernstein, 1957)

91
 coordination refers to the quality of three functional systems (P.K.
Anochin, 1973) that entail the integration of as many regulatory
and movement control systems and processes. These are:
1) control over the central programme and the variables that are
consequently triggered by the partial execution of the
movement, including anticipation (comparison between
nominal and real value)
2) final and partial feedback on the execution of the movement
(afferent synthesis)
3) control and regulation of the muscles involved in the movement
(control over mass)
Coordination skills, according to many taxonomies in literature of
the 70s, can be divided into: General and Special. The various
authors agree on this classification that implies a more general
coordination that includes the various coordinative peculiarities
that also depend on the type of sport and the specific technical
picture. The General Coordination Skills are: ability to control
movement, the ability to adapt and transform movements and the
ability to learn movement (together they form locomotor dexterity).
Special Coordination Skills are: refined dexterity, balance, elasticity
of movement, movement combination, movement imagination,
orientation, spatial and temporal differentiation, reactivity,
movement anticipation, movement memorisation, rhythm of
movement. Some of the latter can however be considered as
direct effects of other processes that are involved in the
organisation of movement: imagination, memorisation,
anticipation. This effectively seem to mainly belong to mental
processes that govern athletic locomotor activities.

.1 Reciprocity: sensory - perceptive and

3.3 coordination skills

“ The senso- perceptive skills represent certain potentials of the

individual to sense and react to internal (from the body) and
external (from the environment) stimuli. This property of the human
organism is due to specific neuro-receptors that are part of our
sensory organs, which allow us to receive the signal (stimulus) to
transmit it to the central nervous system that will, in turn, have the
task of recognising it and to send back a reaction to the muscles.
This reception process, transmission and decodification of the signal
is attributed to neural structures called analysers.
92
 sensorial centres
afferent
specific until the association
neural
receptor primary field areas
pathways
of projection

ANALYSER
ILLUSTRATION 14 - The analyser (Sotgiu and Pellegrini in Ottavio, 1994)

The analyser (see ILLUSTRATION 14 - Sotgiu - Pellegrini in D'Ottavio, 1994)

represents a specialised system with the role of triggering response
processes of the organism, by activating the organisational functions
of movement. We therefore have the following kinds of analysers:
tactile; visual; static-dynamic; kinaesthetic. At the same time, or in any
case in terms of an immediate sequence, the locomotor response will
be structured according to the possible potential of organisation and
control over the movement (coordination skills) in relation to a
general primary project (locomotor area of the brain). Coordination
skills are therefore also considered as components of movement,
which assist it during execution, by adjusting it in the various
sequences and adapting according to environmental variables:
• senso-perceptive skills: are responsible for reception,
decodification and triggering of response
• coordination skills: are responsible for the organisation, control
and direction of movement (ILLUSTRATION 15)

.2 General Coordination Skills

3.3
Ability to adapt and transform movements
This is an ability to change, transform and adapt the movement
programme to the sudden changes in the situation or the external
conditions of the movement (different from the usual conditions in
which the movement was learned), therefore not changing or
partially changing the result of the movement.
Ability to control movements
This is the ability to control the movement according to the required
purpose, that is to fulfil the exact planned result of the
movement/exercise.
Ability to learn movements
This ability consists in the assimilation and acquisition of movements,
or, mainly, of portions of movements that we did not possess
beforehand, which need to be stabilised immediately.
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 GENERAL COORDINATION SKILLS

Ability to adapt and transform movements

This is an ability to change, transform and adapt the movement
programme to the sudden changes in the situation or the external
conditions of the movement (different from the usual conditions in which
the movement was learned), therefore not changing or partially
changing the result of the movement.

Ability to control movements

This is the ability to control the movement according to the required
purpose, that is to fulfil the exact planned result of the
movement/exercise.

Ability to learn movements

This ability consists in the assimilation and acquisition of movements,
or, mainly, or portions of movements that we did not possess
beforehand, which need to be stabilised immediately.
SPECIAL COORDINATION SKILLS
refined dexterity • balance • elasticity of movement • movement
combination • movement imagination • other coordination skills
Other special skills:
• Orientation
• Spatial and temporal differentiation,
• Dynamic differentiation (regarding muscular tension)
• Movement anticipation (the ability to second-guess your own
movements or those of others, which is expressed by movement
preparation or your body position);
• Movement reactivity;
• Movement memorisation (memory of movement);
• Rhythm of movement (not only the ability to feel rhythm but also a
musicality).
The alternation between tension and distension of the large muscular
groups in every exercise produces a certain rhythm in the movement
that the pupil will end up “feeling” after constant repetition. It is a
great advantage for the establishment of newly acquired
movements.

ILLUSTRATION 15 - from K .Meinel (modified, 1984)

In order to better understand the definitions and meanings of the

various coordination skills, with the specific references to
football, refer to the publication “A scuola di calcio” “Football
School” by S. D'Ottavio and S.Roticiani (see bibliography).

94
 Special coordination skills
.3
3.3
• Balance
• Movement combination
• Orientation
• Differentiation
• Ability of reactive movements, simple and complex
• Rhythm: meaning not only rhythm in the musical sense, but also
the alternation between tension and distension of large muscular
groups.
In every exercise, a certain rhythm is produced with the movement,
which the pupil will end up perceiving after constant repetition. It is
a great advantage for the establishment of newly acquired
movements (the constant factor in movement, see Schmidt 2002,
and paragraph “Technical Skills”).

Below is a list of a few definitions of coordination skills that have

been formulated by two experts: MEINEL, K., SCHNABEL, 1987.

Orientation
Orientation is intended as a skill to determine and change, in space
and time, the position and movement of the body, referring to a
defined field of action (e.g. field, ring, gymnastic equipment)
and/or to a moving object (e.g. ball, opponent, team mate, etc.).
Transformation
Transformation is the ability that allows one, on the basis of
situational changes that have been perceived or forseen, when
one is carrying out an action, to adapt his programme to new
circumstances, or to proceed in a completely different manner.
Rhythm
Rhythm is intended as the ability to perceive rhythm coming from
the environment, to be able to reproduce it with one's movements,
as well as to realise, in one's activity, an “interiorised” rhythm, that
exists in one's imagination.
Reactivity
Reactivity means to have the ability to rapidly begin and execute
movements in the most appropriate manner and in the least
possible time, upon a signal. Therefore it is to react in the least
possible time and with the adequate speed for the tasks, in all those
situations in which the optimum is to react with maximum speed.

95
 Balance
Balance is the ability to keep the whole body balanced, to maintain
it that way or to re-gain balance during or after large movements of
the body.
Segmented coordination
Segmented coordination (or movement combination) is the ability to
adequately combine the movements of the body parts, referring to
the movement of the whole body intended to fulfil a certain
objective or action (e.g. the extremities of the torso and the head).
Differentiation
This ability is the ability to reach a fine tuning between the various
phases of movement and movements of segments of the body,
which are expressed with great precision and economy (correct
dosage of strength in space and time).

Once this function of movement support is clarified, it will be easy to

understand how to integrate it with the various technical expressions
that can be realised in relation to the speed of action, or to the
required precision. This form of reciprocal relationship will have to be
taken into consideration during the learning stages that are most
intent in creating automatic expression of skill (structure,
consolidation and development), and less so during the stages
where situational stimuli is provided such as in actual play.
The growth of these skills largely depends on the improvement of the
sensorial perceptive and coordination skills; and vice versa an
improvement of technical skills will facilitate the evolution of these
skills. It is easy to understand that this interactive process is possible
when the phenomenon is looked at as a whole, as a network of
connections, whereas it would be wrong to consider locomotor
elements as separate pieces without an appropriate synergic action.
Even conditional skills take part in this dynamic interactive process.

Let's imagine for example:

A player is about to receive the ball coming from a slightly parabolic
trajectory at medium height. In the preparatory phases and on the
moment of impact between the foot and the ball, the subject will be
in a precarious physical position, as only one foot is set on the ground
and the other has been pulled upwards in advance in the direction of
the ball, which is getting closer in its trajectory, and the player will have
to stabilise the arrangement of his body (balanced and imbalanced
arrangement) to receive the ball in the best possible conditions.
96
 senso-perceptive coordinative
abilities abilities

tactical technical tactical

abilities abilities

Conditional
abilities

Degree of qualification Psychological aspects

Aptitude Motivation
Age PERFORMANCE Attention
Etc Personality
Etc
ILLUSTRATION 16 - Overview of performance in football and interactive processes,
D'Ottavio S., document from the Specialisation Degree course in Sport
Science and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome - 2003

These adjustments will provide the supporting foot with

proprioceptive solicitations (cinesthetic analyser), so that the success
of the “stop” will depend entirely on the efficiency of these structures
and on the specific quality of the ability to keep balanced.
Therefore, if it is true that, in order to develop this coordinative
aspect, as well as the forms of general development, one must use
the various forms of exercises that contemplate the reception of
the ball, it is also true that a better technical control of the ball will
correspond to a better ability to maintain balance on one foot,
therefore guaranteeing the success of the movement. We can
therefore summarise the abovementioned concepts by saying that
the evolution of coordination and sensorial perception skills have a
positive influence on the technical abilities and also this progress, in
turn, has a positive effect on the parallel growth of these skills. In

Auditive Visual Tactile Static- Kinaesthetic

analyser analyser analyser dynamic analyser
analyser
Spatial temporal perception
Spatial temporal orientation
Anticipation
Reaction
Differentiation
Rhythm
Balance
Adaptation and transformation
Combination
ILLUSTRATION 17 - Relationship between senso-perceptive and coordination skills
(D'Ottavio 1994)

97
 ILLUSTRATION 17 (D'Ottavio 1994), a further reciprocal relationship is
highlighted by integrally relating the analysers with coordination
skills. The more or less harmonisation there is between some
analysers and the various skills, will have two different results that
correspond to the learning process: a first result, where the pupil
mainly uses external sensory information (anticipation, reaction,
perception and spatial-temporal orientation); and a second result,
where the pupil uses internal sensory information (balance, rhythm,
differentiation, adaptation and transformation, combination).
These functions do not, however, need to be seen according to a
hierarchical scale, but in terms of a unitary functional system in
which the various components are integrated among themselves.

The Technical and Coordinative Factor

.4
3.3
O ne of the main aspects of technical training is the
relationship between technique and coordination,
expressed by the technical-coordinative factor.
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, and worth mentioning
again due to its importance, performance in juvenile football is
strongly influenced by the degree of learning of specific technical
qualities, which are structured by integrating themselves with the
development of the coordinative component. This relationship:
between technique and coordination means that the

Methodological Example of Exercise

measurements
Variation of execution • Jumping and touching chest with legs,
of movement spreading them on a sagittal and frontal basis.
• Executing same movement in inverse order
• Exercises with changed speed and rhythm
Variation of external • Exercises with equipment or partner on
conditions different kinds of grounds
• Decrease or increase of supporting area
Combination of • Combination of various gymnastic elements
locomotor abilities • Combination of games
Exercises under time • Exercises that train reaction abilities
pressure • Timed obstacle courses
Variation of available • Walking and balancing with gaze focussed
information above, with head to one side or blindfolded
Exercises after • Execution of complex exercises after
preliminary workload training unit
• Balancing exercises after many
summersaults or rapid body rotations
TABLE 13 - Methodological measurements and exercises to develop coordination
skills (Harre 1979)

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 Coordination skill training
• Variation of execution of movement
• Change of external conditions
• Combination of already acquired movements
• Exercises under time pressure
• Changes to acquisition of information
• Exercises after workload
• Execution of pre-established sequences
• Symmetric execution
TABLE 14 - Training methods for coordination skills (D.Blume and D.Harre
in Manno, 1984)

development of the one or other factor contributes directly to

performance. In other words, by improving technique, you improve
coordination, and by improving the latter you increase the
mastering of technical moves. A learning process that is structured
according to “integrated” exercise favours the overall growth of
the technical-coordinative factor.
Therefore, the objective of knowing how to manage the ball or to
make your actions effective through multiple abilities, to get closer
to the real needs of the game or the situation by considering the
relative complexity of movement is the reason why we deem it
fundamental to reach a certain degree of dexterity. Dexterity is
intended as the ability to master the specific coordination of
football and perfecting the ability to move (for more clarity, see
chapter “Coordination Skills”).

Assumptions of Collective Play:

3.4 Tactical Components

T he cognitive aspect implied in the development process of

performance has an important position in construing tactical
awareness. General athletic performance has been defined as a

Guidelines for coordination skill training

1. the main method is exercise, the main way is physical exercise
2. the locomotor skills involved in training methods need to be
learned precisely in technical terms and carried out with constant
and aware control
3. ways to improve analyser function, with relative passivity of the
athlete
4. training methods should be chosen on the basis of the skill to be
developed
5. the training is effective if level is raised with certain methodological
methods
TABLE 15 – Principals for training coordination skills (D. Blume in R.Manno, 1984)

99
 product of cognitive knowledge relating to actual situations and to
past events, associated with the ability of the player to produce the
specific locomotor response (Thomas, French and Humphres 1986).
Recently, the so-called integrated approach to training has become
more popular, which consists in educating the cognitive and physical
structures of the young person, in a global situation, in which the
tactical element is provided as a solution to real problems.
In this educational environment, particular importance is given to
the realisation of correct responses following the tactical
awareness of the player. In this sense cognitive skills offer the
possibility of influencing obstacles to the learning process, as well as
performance problems. The dynamics of the game don't allow pre-
established actions that the player can reproduce to the letter,
seeing as all the actions of the game are discretional actions to be
solved according to the situation. The various sequences of play
express the ability of the player to perceive, decide and carry out
actions by memorised operations.
Tactical behaviour is a consequence of tactical thought, and
consists in an activity being oriented towards optimal success. It
must be enacted with full awareness of one's tactical skills,
technical abilities and conditional possibilities. Tactical behaviour,
from a cybernetic point of view, is an objective research system
that doesn't only choose the most favourable of the possible
objectives, but even perfects it during the resolution of the task. All
this however, is subordinate to the degree of competitive
qualification. In Football Schools these learning and perfecting
processes must be learned gradually. Tactical behaviour, from a
psychological point of view, is the complex product of psycho-
motor processes that is realised in 3 main phases:

• Perception and analysis of the situation of the game

• Conceptual solution of the specific tactical task
• Practical solution of the tactical task
ILLUSTRATION 17A - Structure of the phases of psycho-motor processes relating to
tactical behaviour

1. Perception and analysis of the situation of the game:

The quality of perception depends on the extent of the player's
gaze, the visual field and the quality of the analysers. Perception of
an entire situation of the game is one aspect of recognising the
tasks he must carry out.
2. Conceptual solution of the specific tactical task:
The tactical task is firstly solved mentally and then practically. The
100
objective of the mental solution is to find the optimal solution of the
tactical task in the least possible time, on the basis of the
perception and the analysis of the game; the player must only
consider the options that he is able to carry out. The limits in the
mental resolution of the problem are a possible scarce perception
and analysis of the situation. This is why the development of tactical
thought is so important, and why it needs to develop in practical
exercises and in a global context.
3. Practical solution of the tactical task
It is the expression of tactical behaviour (development of tactical
thought) and is the product of the perceptions of the two preceding
elements, but also of the available technical potential (degree of
quality of technical skills). Mahlo's model, of a cybernetic structure,
(see ILLUSTRATION 18, modified by D'Ottavio S. 2002 - document from the
Specialisation Degree course in Sport Science and Techniques,
University of Tor Vergata, Rome) shows the central importance of the
cognitive component in processing an action plan. The player, during
the game, needs to solve tactical problems on the basis of mental
processing. Through experiences, knowledge and pre-existing
models, he will try an adequate solution for the purpose. Every
process of this kind represents a very important experience from
which it is possible to draw various meanings that the player can use
in similar conditions. Memory has a fundamental role in this process. In
order to memorise and therefore know (cognitive aspect), it is
fundamental to perceive and logically the validity of our sensorial
system is essential. The tactical component in juvenile football
performance is extremely important, and can be considered as a link

Technical and tactical knowledge

long term memory

feed-back
short term memory
anticipation
instant memory

feed-back
perception analysis of the situation
mental solution locomotor solution execution
available decision technical abilities
information
tactical skills tactical abilities
creativity

input information processing output

ILLUSTRATION 18 - Mental processes involved in play (Mahlo F. 1963), modified by

D'Ottavio S. 2002, document from the Specialisation Degree course
in Sport Science and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome

101
 between the various units of individual performance, finalised to
collective action to fulfil common game objectives. Therefore the
objective of tactical training must tend to make the young player
able to organise and conduct game actions. At 10-11 years old, the
cognitive processes are extremely sensitive to learning. With
continuous stimulation it is possible to know and experiment most
situational variables used, during games or in didactical situations.
Essentially, we must make it possible to provide experimentation
opportunities to explore quite a vast range of experiences at this age
and stage of the development process. In this way, the tactical
training of a young player can begin precociously (see paragraph
“Juvenile tactical training” in this chapter).

.1 Tactics in Football
3.4
I n football, tactics can be considered as a link between the
various units of individual performance, finalised to collective
action to fulfil common game objectives. This meaning includes the
essence of performance in football, by highlighting how technical
abilities, energetic and coordinative availability, psychological
commitment, the role in the team and other factors that influence
performance must be integrated subordinately to the tactical
objectives of the game.
“Tattica” means to restore order, or to use certain individual
potentials rationally and economically, by combining them with
those of their team mates and the opponents. Ripoli (1989) gives
his own, personal interpretation of the concept of tactics by using
two verbal expressions: “ comprehension and action”, focusing our
attention on these two fundamental moments of performance.
These performance phases that occur in rapid sequence in
football, are actually a part of a much more structured process,
according to which comprehension is influenced by the ability to:
• Anticipate in terms of perception of an event in a game
• Sensorial perception (information from the game)
• Information management (processing)
• Decision (pertinence with and effect on the action)
• Use of cognitive feedback and adjustment of the parameters of
the action
In turn, action is influenced by:
• Correct execution of the move in terms of spatial-temporal timing
(functional coincidence) of the movement and/or technical move
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• Use of technical and coordinative feedback and adjustments to
the parameters of the movement and/or technical move during
its enactment
In turn, these two phases of performance during a game are
directly linked to the individual's ability to solve the speed-accuracy
problem (precision), which is triggered during both the cognitive
and action phase (see ILLUSTRATION 19).

ILLUSTRATION 19 - D'Ottavio, 2004

The level of aptitude and experience that may be collected through

exercises can move the performance of a young player towards
mental speed (thought), as well as action speed (technique). Speed
therefore, in the larger sense of the term, may be considered as a
selective quality and a point of reference to evaluate the level of the
learning process and for a subsequent technical selection.

.2 Cultural Considerations and References

3.4
The tactical fields of performance can be defined as:
• Tactical knowledge
• Tactical ability
• Tactical skills
Tactical knowledge
According to various authors (Harre 1985) tactical knowledge
involves the mental processes of production and reproduction of
information and significantly depends on the variety of knowledge
available, or on the quality of the athlete's preparation. Tactical
knowledge regards:
1. Knowledge of the rules of the game and their optimal use to
solve tactical problems
2. Knowledge of the game systems and their variations, mastery of
one's own system and the most efficient methods to counteract
the game system of the opponent.
3. Knowledge of tactical rules, for example: the fastest player is the
103
 ball; keep the opponent in the visual field; when being inflicted a
feint, concentrate on the ball, not leg movement; in numerical
disadvantage it is better to play the waiting game.
4. Knowledge about the reciprocal relation between: condition,
technique, tactics and volitional qualities, for example: when risks
are acceptable; that it is better not to hold the ball when
physically tired; if the team adopts a particular strategy; if one
player normally carries out certain feints.
5. Knowledge of economic rules, of opportunity, for example: when
close to the goal-line it is better to pass the ball backwards rather
than to shoot; in counterattacking situations, avoid guiding the ball
yourself if possible; in 2:1 situations, concentrate on the defender.
6. Theoretical knowledge of perceptive processes, of game
analysis and mental solutions.
Basically, all the main pre-requisites that determine the success of
intentions, or at least to increase the probability of success.
Tactical abilities
Basically, tactical abilities need to be considered as an expression of
a specific technique (technical ability) referring to its energetic and
biomechanical parameters (i.e. use of strength, speed, breadth and
direction of movement, precision). This assumption is within the realm
of tactical availability if it corresponds to conscious or partially
conscious action plan based on the level of required skills. An expert
adult compared to the beginner will solve problems more quickly
using automatic patterns, filtering the most relevant information. A
child on the other hand, will process information relatively slowly
because he also processes the least relevant information, according
to sequential instead of parallel information processing.
Tactical ability is therefore an expression of a mental process and
can be found in, for example: when a player shoots a goal with
precision instead of strength; when he passes to a free area instead
of directly to another player; when he is controlling and guiding the
ball and he willingly slows down to carry out a pass to avoid
marking; or during the execution of a stop when he directs the ball
immediately on the right instead of the left. Basically, in all the
various situations of a game given that during a game, a player will
have to respond to possible problems with consequent technical
adjustments. These requirements of the individual technical
heritage of each player needs to become, relatively precociously,
available and therefore usable for the pupil; this will be possible if
technical learning is essentially based on a didactical plan that
ensures the variable characteristics of a real playing environment,
104
creating the premise for a flexible technical adaptation to the
needs that Meinel has defined in terms of “variable availability of
techniques”. Basically we will have: “variability of execution of an
ability in function of the variability of the characteristics of the
situation” (Roth in Schock, 1985). Therefore, a programme aimed at
building technical abilities, will have to provide for training stages
that create the following premises:
• Variation of abilities
• Adaptation of abilities (responding to known situations)
• Transfer of abilities ( responding to unknown situations)
• Creative training of abilities (responding with new solutions
Tactical skills
Tactical skills reflect the ability of a player to using his psychic and
physical skills, his technical and tactical abilities etc. in various game
situations to solve individual and collective tactical tasks (Harre, 1985).
This also includes the range of choice of one behaviour rather than
another that the player has. For example: to shoot to goal rather
than passing the ball to a team mate; stopping the ball instead of
volleying; dribbling instead of crossing; passing to one team mate
rather than another; waiting instead of trying to recover the ball
straight away; faking and going for the player with the ball instead
of faking and sprinting to the opponent's goal.
Therefore from a decision-making point of view, on the basis of a
selective analysis of the game, the player will chose a technical
solution that will express itself in turn with precise executive
characteristics (see tactical abilities). The development of tactical
skills is influenced by natural qualities, as well as the quality of the
locomotor experiences a player has experimented, and will
therefore be related to a better functionality of:
• Perceptive skills, in terms of sensorial acuity, breadth and
direction of gaze, identification of cues;
• Intellectual associative, reproductive and productive processes
(integration with prior experience, imitation and creation of new
solutions);
• Personal probabilistic models (anticipation);
• Flexible attention strategic (wide, narrow, etc.).

To summarise
• Tactical knowledge: theoretic pre-requisites, patterns, tactical rules
• Tactical ability: variable expression of a technique according to
the variables of the game
• Tactical skill: choice among many possible technical solutions.
105
 Let us imagine them in the context of a game.
A player, regarding his role, operational possibilities required by the
coach, the score and the timing of the match (tactical
knowledge), is in a situation of lateral attack with a numerical
advantage (situation: 2 on 1); seeing as there are only a few
minutes to go until the end of the match and his team is loosing, he
makes the most risky decision: dribbling with anticipation of the
following shot (tactical skill). He plans the shot upon the exit of the
goalkeeper and will fake a strong shot, to then go on to a soft
touch to attempt jumping over the goalkeeper (tactical ability).

.3 Tactics and the Team -

3.4 Organising Cooperation

I n the progression that gradually leads to building up

cooperative and team play, there are various factors that
come into “play”. In this sub-paragraph we will try to suggest the
factors that determine tactical performance during the game.
Team tactics include an array of individual and collective
behaviours that allow the optimisation of behaviour in relation to
the characteristics of the opponents with the purpose of obtaining
the best result. A team therefore expresses its tactics through a
game expressed on the field.
The game that a team is able to express is essentially a result of:
a. Technical skills of the single players
b. Intellectual data
c. Organisation of cooperation
The organisation of cooperation determines:
• Efficiency in the offensive phase
• Efficiency in the defensive phase
• Team balance
The developments of the game mainly depend on the
characteristics of the single players and the younger the players,
106
the more freedom of action they will need to have. It is also true
that the game plan of a team can be conceived as a sentence, in
which the initiative of each player are the words that do not make
any sense on their own, but take on meaning when read with the
initiatives of the other players.
If interaction with team mates is the basic condition to organise an
individual game plan, it is vital to establish rules of cooperation that
provide enough indications but at the same time leave enough
room for free expression of the individual, a prerogative, in our
opinion of juvenile football. These rules of behaviour, being part of the
common heritage of all members of the team, allow each player to
understand the development of the game and the intentions of their
team mates, laying the foundations for a functional team.
Every player must have had experience playing in other roles in
order to do this and to be able to express his maximum potential. If
it is true that the technical skills of each player are essential in
offensive play, it is also true that the game (movement) without the
ball of the other players will be decisive when one of the team
mates has the ball.. The quality of movement without the ball will
determine the efficiency of the game plan of the player with the
ball, and therefore also the continuity of the game plan.
Educating players to play without the ball is a compulsory step in the
development of cooperative skills, and will allow the players to
understand how to make themselves useful when they are close to
or far away from the player with the ball or when they are behind the
line of the ball. It is therefore necessary that the young players learn
to consider that the part of the game without the ball is strongly
linked to the ability of passing and receiving the ball (ILLUSTRATION 20).

Transmitting the ball

Pass

Play without the ball Receiving the ball

Getting Free from cover Control

ILLUSTRATION 20 - Correlation between passing, getting free from cover, and control

.4 The tactical objectives of the game

3.4
A football match is a sporting event in which two teams try to
prevail on each other in terms of points. One can therefore
deduct that the success of a match is determined by the value of the
107
 technical and tactical premises of the individual and the team,
therefore by the potential tactical action, but also by the set up of the
formation of players on the field and the further changes that can be
made to the formation according to the situation of the game. The
balance of a match can be subject to the decisions and behaviours
of the team and of its singular components: players + coach. It is
therefore necessary to specify two meanings of collective play:
• The formation or systems of play
• The game strategy
The formations that mainly regard the dynamic (active) distribution
of players on the field are related to three quantifiable variables:
1. the number of players on the team
2. the game area
3. the density of the game (a result of points 1 and 2)
The game strategies regard the practical application of the game
formation according to the specific situations of the game or
certain phases of the latter. In ILLUSTRATION 21 below we provide a list
of techniques and their possible applications during the various
developments of the match.
One can notice how some technical and tactical behaviours are
exclusively influenced by ball possession.

Game situations
Team with ball Team without ball
possession possession
To advance towards To slow down
opponent's goal advancement of
maintaining ball Behaviour with and opponents and try
possession without the ball re-gaining ball
possession
• Guiding the ball • Orientation • Marking
• Passing • Anticipation • Intercepting
• Dribbling • Faking • Defending
• Shooting • Covering
• Unmarking • Tackling
• Receiving • Deviating
ILLUSTRATION 21 - Game situation and technical behaviour (D'Ottavio 1994)

.5 Juvenile tactical training

3.4
D uring the basic activities of the “Cubs”, tactics are
introduced by small-sided matches (5-a side or 7- a side) .
For the Beginners, in abidance with a careful didactical progression
and progression of teaching methods, the games are initially small-
sided matches (7-a side or 9-a side), until full-sided matches.
108
For the “Little Friend” activities, even if mainly sustained by games
and free play, it is advisable to start off with 3 to 5 players per team.
During the educational process of learning football, the
competitive event is represented by the match, it takes on
significant importance not only as a chance to verify progress, but
also as an extremely valuable didactical moment, a piece of the
mosaic that will be the future player. The confrontation with others,
measuring ones possibilities, accepting and sharing problems and
success with team mates, are all aspects that obviously go beyond
technique. Therefore, when planning a specific programme, in
order to find an effective competitive proposal it is appropriate to
start by making the following points:
1. The result must not prevail over the didactical objective;
2. Privilege behaviours that are aimed at building the game rather
than destroying the game of others;
3. Avoid tactical “deformities” that are not functional to the
children's game (i.e. off-side tactics)
4. Try to encourage offensive play, and value initiative, creativity
and imagination;
5. The formation on the field must provide for phases of the game
that are easy to understand at the beginning, then it can begin
to give the players more complex tasks;
6. The realisation of a game formation must favour a better tactical
communication among players and encourage individual
characteristics.
By examining the various competitions that characterise the Cub
and Beginner categories and willingly omitting 5vs5 game
structures, typical of 1st year cubs, and 6vs6, by using 7vs7 game
structures we will propose a didactical procedure that starts from
easily understandable phases to more complex psycho-physical
and technical commitments:
• Two line model 3:3 leaving the two central offensive and
defensive players free to play in attack and defence, whereas
the wingers play more defined roles by only being allowed to
move within the defensive or offensive wings (FIGURE 21);
• Three line model 3:2:1 three defenders with mainly defensive
tasks, two intermediate midfielders that will have the possibility of
supporting the only striker in the centre (FIGURE 22);
• Four line model 1:2:1:2 with one central defender with mainly
defensive tasks, two fast wingers as support to the only midfielder
as well as support to the central defender, playmaker in midfield,
who is ready to play central striker and two dynamic wingers who
109
 FIGURE 21
are able to form mobile triangulations and to converge to strike
or to cross to the playmaker (FIGURE 23).
In any case, in official matches and during training, the possibility of
playing in different roles must be defended by rotating the members.
In 9vs9 games for the Beginner's category requires a more
sophisticated specialisation, the larger area of play allows
adaptations in terms of techniques and tactics as well as in terms of

FIGURE 22
110
FIGURE 23
greater physical demands, which require more time to be assimilated.
Starting from the lessons learned in the 1st year in Beginners, it
seems appropriate to plan a programme that begins with a 3:2:3
configuration (FIGURE 24). The two defenders in the wings, thanks to
previous experience, will know how to support the midfield as soon
as it is necessary, with the central defender dedicated exclusively
to the defence. The two midfielders will manage the centre and

FIGURE 24
111
 support the offensive actions with wall passes and quick play
changes. The three strikers will cover the whole offensive front, and
the two wingers will maintain the role that they have already
assimilated the year before, and will accumulate tactical skills that
may make it necessary for them to act as cover in their areas as
support to the mid-field; the central striker will give depth to the
offensive action and on the other hand will act as support to one
of the two mid-fielders when they have the ball.
One evolution of the game formation that favours the
development of defence is the 3:2:3 formation, two central
defenders with mainly defensive roles, three midfield players with
the two external ones ready to draw back to the defence line if
necessary, and the central one with a playmaker role and as
support to the strikers, three strikers with similar roles to the ones
described in the previous model (FIGURE 25).
We are however convinced that the proposed formation would
have a small probability of success, if the points expressed in the first
part of this paragraph are not respected during the training
process. We also believe that the assimilation of roles and functions
according to position and the possibility of playing in more than
one role, acquiring a wider variety of experiences, is a priority in
juvenile football training. Such a structured approach will definitely
bring the young player in the Beginners category to perceive and
assimilate spaces and functions more easily, which will be useful to

FIGURE 25
112
adapt to the more complex dynamics of a full-sided match.
As we have seen in the previous pages, we believe that a
formation with three strikers is the one that is most compatible with
offensive play that we have chosen to favour, and it is also more
compatible with the pre-dispositions and motivations of the players.
This is why a 4:3:3 module seems, at the beginning of a programme
for Cubs, the most simple to apply (FIGURE 26).
In this phase of football training, further to complying with the need
to play in more than one role, which has been considerably satisfied
in the previous years, we suggest assimilating a formation with four
midfielders and two strikers during the year, 4:4:2, to introduce new
tasks and facilitate adaptation to multiple roles (FIGURE 27),
Even if it is absolutely true that game modules are built on the
characteristics of the players, we must consider the child as a
continuously evolving player. If he is able to experiment many
situations during his learning process, which is far from being
concluded, he will be able to express his natural techniques and
abilities more easily.
The game module therefore, as well as the distribution of the
players on the field and the variations that occur according to the
development of play, will be effective instruments for a training
process that sees the child as the main character, who, from an
individual, is transformed into a functional unit of the team through
a long-term process.

FIGURE 26
113
 FIGURE 27

As far as the specific role is concerned, including the goalkeeper, we

can speculate that until 11-12 years old it is important to know and
experiment most of the situational variables that depend on
positioning, with defensive and offensive specifications (longitudinal
variable), as well as in right or left positioning (transversal variable).
Essentially one must make it so as in the first phase of the learning
process, where great changes occur on in terms of biology and
locomotor behaviour, the young player should acquire many
experiences. Later, once the necessary indications have been
noted to define the tactical specifications in the team, we will be
able to recognise a pre-disposition for a more specific role with a
higher margin of certainty and pertinence.
We believe that in any case the tactical training of a young player
can be started quite early, if we intend the process to be a series of
didactical procedures aimed at:
• Perception and evaluation of the game area at a static and
dynamic level
• Tri-dimensional spatial orientation
• Appreciation of timing and sense of rhythm
• The development of an adequately dynamic mind-frame
• Formulating possibilities of play
• Using learned abilities for a purpose
• Favouring cooperative relationships for a common goal
114
FIGURE 28

In some didactical experiences aimed at tactical initiation, some

exercises using geometrical forms were use. For example, we provide
various didactical combinations characterised by more and more
complex transfers, from closed geometric shapes to open ones
(D'Ottavio 1989). Basically the sequential criteria of this process was
structured by exercises/situations in which the number of players

FIGURE 29

115
 FIGURE 30

increased gradually one at a time, creating situations of even and

uneven numbers. The activities were developed on perimetric lines
of the various geometrical shapes (triangles, squares, diamonds,
hexagons, circles, etc..); or inside the area of the shapes themselves,
or even in overlapping or unlimited spaces. The purpose was to
provide a precise perception of the surrounding area, which initially
presented limits by game actions limited by lines, and ended up with
the players still looking for geometrical lines, but freely choosing them
according to the situation. See FIGURES 28-34 (D'Ottavio 1994):
1. 2 against 1 in a confined situation: two players pass the ball

FIGURE 31

116
FIGURE 32

looking for the free corner. The player in the middle tries to
obstruct the passes (FIGURE 28)
2. 2 against 1 in a free situation: same situation without any lines.
The players can try and reproduce the geometry of the previous
game. Variant: obligation to directly tackle the player with the
ball or the person who is about to receive it (FIGURE 29).
3. 2 against 2 in a competition: they play in the offensive half of the

FIGURE 33

117
 field; every time the action ends the players of the two teams
switch roles. Variant: in order to stimulate a continuous and rapid
search for free space (free from cover), oblige the player (rule)
with the ball to stay still for (period of time) (FIGURE 30)
4. 3 against 1 in a confined situation: they play along the perimeter
of a square. The player with the ball must always have the option
of passing to the two closest corners. Variant: the player with the
ball can move by guiding it to another corner (FIGURE 31).
5. 3 against 2 in a confined situation: they play in the previous
situation but are also allowed to make diagonal passes or to
guide the ball along the diagonal line of the square (FIGURE 32)
6. 3 against 2 in a free situation: they try and reproduce the
geometry of the previous exercises by moving themselves or the
balls along the same lines.
7. 3 against 3 in a competition (FIGURE 34).

FIGURE 34

.6 Space control in defensive training

3.4
I f tactics are intended as “art of behaviour”, it is natural to think
that the learning processes that are correlated to these
aspects can begin in the first stages of football school. This
procedure cannot however run ahead of the cognitive processes
that are necessary to assimilate behavioural patterns of the team
that can be identified in traditional game systems.
Tactical training of the child should begin gradually and naturally,
especially through “guided” play, which is oriented towards the
acquisition of technical and tactical abilities during exercises, with
executive timings that change according to the situations and the
tasks. Technical and tactical training of the child should begin with
building the elements that allow him to “deal” with the spatial and
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ILLUSTRATION 22 – (D’Ottavio, 2006)

temporal coordinates that the game presents at a cognitive level.

Therefore the Space and the Time in which the child makes his
various movements are the guidelines on which to build a
didactical programme. We can identify three types of space: one
that is more related to technical and coordinative aspects
(technical and proximal space); and another that is the area in
which the child dialogues and interacts with the other physical
components of the situation (team mates and opponents); and a
third that is the extent to which the child can perceive elements
that are even very faraway from him (visual space). Coordination
skills, we must remember, which represent a matrix of technical
abilities in football and sports in general, largely depend on the way
in which spatial and temporal patterns are managed (e.g. spatial-
temporal orientation, differentiation, rhythm, reactivity etc.).

ILLUSTRATION 23 – (D’Ottavio, 2006)

Often, in football lexicon we hear the term “control”. This stage of

training or performance represents the condition, in which the player
is able to “manage” the technical and tactical task that the situation
demands by himself and by prevailing over possible tackles, on an
individual basis as well as in terms of the game. This condition, which
can be reached in the development period of the young player
after several years, can only begin by a more sensorial phase, that is
related to the collection of and attribution of meaning to the
information that can be perceived in the situation. It is fair to highlight
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 ILLUSTRATION 24 – (D’Ottavio, 2006)

the fact that the sensorial perception stage (especially visual but also
acoustic, kinaesthetic and tactile) must gradually progress towards
selective attention processes, that are more and more directed
towards the most significant elements for a certain problem. In other
words, as the player grows in terms of technique, his actions, which
are expressed through mental as well as locomotor components, will
become more and more economic.
In ILLUSTRATION 25 and 26, we provide a summarised prospectus of the
guidelines to follow while planning a didactical programme that is
oriented towards defensive play with possible hints to “zone
defence” as opposed to “man marking” scenarios. Considering, as
it has been said for years, that the football player's performance
and his training should be characterised by a precocious
integration of mental and locomotor processes, we have identified

ILLUSTRATION 25 - Cognitive level and didactical procedures during the formation of

control - marking abilities (D'Ottavio, 2006)

120
three cognitive (operational) levels that can suggest subsequent
didactical sequences.

Didactical progression
• Phase of visual perception and control of spatial coordination
• Phase of verbalisation and meaning (value assignment) to evaluation of
spatial coordinates; narrow-large; long-short; diagonal-horizontal - vertical;
front-back etc.
• Phase of visual perception and control of team mate's position
• Phase of control of collective movement (topological as well as temporal);
shifting; slipping; slow-fast etc.
• Phase of control over team mate's position compared to the opponent and
potential support
• Phase of control of collective movement in function of the position of the ball
and the movement of the opponents
• Phase of executive speed (active reproduction of the action)
• Situational phase of the game
ILLUSTRATION 26 - Didactical guidelines of the formation of defensive play (D'Ottavio 2006)

Zone or man. Which is best to structure defensive play during the

evolution of a young player?

Respecting the basic principles of learning locomotor skills in the

young, we could easily state that: considering that one must provide
the young player with many experiential opportunities, constantly
changing the parameters of the game and the relationship between
components, they should at least be aware of both defensive
mechanisms. However, during the first phases of athletic training, to
play by zone would be difficult for young children to grasp, as the
central nervous system and therefore the integrated processes that
derive from it do not allow them to formulate formal cognitive
operations until age 9-10, and they still prefer tangible reference
points. We therefore believe that, at least initially, to help the learning
process, that the defence mechanism, as in positioning and
covering roles, should be based on 1 on 1. It is also true though, that
if we are too rigid in teaching this type of mechanism, we run the risk
of denaturalising the natural tendency that children have to
participate in offensive play with their other team mates, refusing
excessive isolation. When we think about this aspect our mind goes
back to the images of children playing football freely (sadly a
phenomenon that is getting more and more rare) in courtyards and
in fields etc., and we cannot remember any of them unconditionally
marking one child on the opponent's team and isolating himself from
the rest of the game. On the contrary, it seemed as if they wanted to
participate and contribute to the game and express relatively
exhibitionist behaviours. Because they were so involved, some times
excessively so, the attraction towards the ball brought them to run
121
 after it all the time. In terms of suggestions, therefore, according to a
more rational point of view, this type of conduct is nothing more than
the child's expression of a preference to move within the areas of
active play, keeping close contact with the other players , even if the
tendency towards individualism often reduces the possibility of
interaction. One could consequently imagine that the natural
orientation of child's play is to keep short distances in a transversal as
well as longitudinal sense and this, somehow, is included in the
concepts of zonal defence. From these considerations we believe it
is useful to remember that, in juvenile training:
• man marking is a result of establishing a relationship of physical as
well as mental contrast with the opponent and of protection of
one's goal; this situation must be used without compromising the
possibility of the player to integrate himself in the group and to
search for a comprehension and analysis of the game;
• zone defence allows a greater activation of cognitive processes,
and predisposes the child to interpersonal cooperation, with all
the social development that this entails. However it presents a
more complex process of game analysis but it adapts itself better
to an economy of variables of the opponent's game (numerical
disadvantage, possible man jumping etc.)

Methodological Tips

• Change in dimensions of the exercise area (narrow, wide spaces)

• Geometrical variation of space (squashed quadrilateral, deep etc.)
• Variation of number of pupils and creating conditions of numerical
unevenness in attack and defence
• Stimulating active marking with physical contact with the striker
• Stimulating anticipation and interception
• Use of internal and external feed-back
• Stimulating flexible attention processes (from wide to narrow attention
and vice versa)
ILLUSTRATION 27 - Didactical - methodological tips of defensive play (D'Ottavio, 2006)

Genetic and morphological components

3.5
T he motricity of a child is based on functional integrations
among the various motor skills and abilities. The aspects that
are more strictly linked to bio-energetic and mechanical - muscular
resources, according to current sports literature in general, are
called conditional skills.
Conditional skills, defined as “the group of motory abilities strictly
linked to an organic substratum” are to be found within the “senso-
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neuro-motor” system (neuromuscular), in the operative structure
represented by the muscular tissue that allows the material
execution of the movement. Traditionally considered as conditional
skills are: strength, speed and resistance, whereas articular mobility
is still not agreed by all authors.

.1 Characteristics of the Training Stimulus

3.5
T he human organism is very sensitive to all stimuli that alter the
balance of various systems. For example this happens when
one reacts to a sudden acute pain (burn, bite etc.), by quickly
retracting the concerned part of the body, or when one knocks into
an obstacle and reacts by contracting the muscles to avoid falling,
and again when after an intense run of a few minutes, the heart beat
and the metabolism in general increases to face the increase in
consumption of energy. These phenomena are really nothing more
than our body trying to re-establish the physical balance and
homeostasis of the normal conditions of the human biological
system. Even in athletic training, every specific action tends to create
a condition of “imbalance” due to a higher expenditure of energy
than normal (weight exercises, repeated sprinting, reduced matches
with introduction of variants to the rules, jumps against gravity etc.) to
which the organism of the subject responds with specific functional
adaptations (super-compensation phenomenon). However, for the
training stimulus to have a positive effect, it needs to be correlated
to the capacity of the subject, meaning that the timing and method
should be “dosed” appropriately according to the current
evolutionary phase. The workload of training therefore, which is the
group of stimuli, should not be excessive and at the same time it
should efficiently produce certain changers (positive adaptations).
For example, excessive workload concentrated on strength could
be too much for little athletes at a pre-pubescent age and could
cause structural alterations of the spine or other articulations,
whereas a training programme focused on speed, which is well-
dosed in quantitative terms and in the choice of exercises will surely
contribute to improving the metabolism and the flexibility of the
osteo-articular system and create optimal solicitations for the
nervous system and the motor units that have been activated as a
response to the stimulus (muscles implied in the movement). The
same principle applies to excessively intense training units (for
example exercises that mainly involve the glycolic metabolism)
applied to immature children. These could cause a strong catabolic
123
 reaction determined by stress (organic and psychological) to which
children may be incautiously exposed.
Therefore physical workload will have to be organised according to
the regulation of parameters such as:
• Quantity (number of exercises)
• Intensity (speed, degree of workload, obstacles etc.)
• Quality ( type of exercises: with or without the ball, specificity
relating to the objectives etc.)
• Density (relationship between active phase - work - and recovery
phase between exercises, training sessions, etc.)
It is also advisable to in any case take other variables into account
and existing interrelations during the construction of the exercises
and the total didactical workload.

Characteristics of the didactical exercise of football

• Environment (space)
• Number of players (even or uneven numbers)
• Available equipment

Interrelations
• Primary and secondary didactical objectives
• Macro and mini methods
• Duration and intensity of the exercises
• Relationship with the didactical cycle and training unit
• Programmed and improvised variables
• Influence of the adaptation response
• Player with different learning levels
• Environmental conditions (planned and unplanned)
• Numerical presence of the trainer/s
ILLUSTRATION 28 – (D’Ottavio, 2000)

.2 Conditional Skills: Muscular Strength

3.5
W ith the term strength, one indicated the ability to actively
overcome resistance, or to oppose it.
It is possible to distinguish various expressions of strength according
to if the quantitative aspect prevails in relation to muscular mass
(maximal strength and resistance strength), or the qualitative
aspect in relation to neuro-muscular coordination (rapid strength).
It is widely known to those who are concerned with athletic training
how important it is to possess a good degree of muscular strength.
This characteristic of the human organism, but especially of the
locomotor apparatus, which is not only formed by muscle (active
component) but also by bones, articulations, tendons and
ligaments (passive component), is indispensable to be able to
overcome external forces. One of these, maybe the most
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 “ASYMMETRIC JUMPS (PROPRIOCEPTIVE) OVER AN OBSTACLE”

important, is the force of gravity. This physical force determines a

reflexive action of our muscles, so as to allow us to maintain an erect
position and conserve our state of permanent muscular tension
(muscular tone). In different conditions compared to gravity, for
example in water, this reflexive action doesn't exist. Therefore all
dynamic activity such as walking, running, jumping etc., require the
human organism to recruit muscular tension in the muscles involved,
to carry out a certain type of physical performance. It is easy then
to guess that, even in football, to possess a sufficient degree of
muscular strength can generally mean: sprinting faster, stronger
shooting etc. This happens in children in football school as well as in
adults. However even if the premises that determine the expression
of strength in children as well as in adults are the same, the training
process as well as the consequent performances are drastically
different. First of all, a distinction must be made regarding strength
exercises as we can divide them into two groups:
• Preventative exercises;
• Training exercises.
The first kind are useful to contain possible imbalances that may
occur during physical activity o during day-to-day life (e.g. school,
sedentary lifestyle etc.) especially in subjects that are growing, and
specifically address delicate muscular groups that concern the
spine: lumbar, abdominal, dorsal, glutei, and that actually stabilise
125
 the spinal cord. According to Weineck 2001, during the first two
years of school postural problems increase by 70%. The second kind
of exercises act upon propulsive muscles such as inferior limb
muscles and arm muscles.
During the period from 6 to 12 years, a period that coincides with
the beginning of football school, one can witness an accentuated
phase of growth in terms of height, especially at the beginning of
this long-term cycle. This means that the muscular structures have
to be able to sustain morphological changes that create different
muscular leverage ratios. During this evolutionary phase, as in the
rest of the years until maturity, it is absolutely necessary to build a

There is an earlier difference in jumps compared to throws (during the

jumps one must lift the weight of the body, for the girls the relative strength
is lower because of the presence of more fatty mass)
Source: Wolanski, 1976
GRAPH 15 - Typical development of various kinds of speed strength by age and sex
126
good muscular structure in the body regions that tend to stabilise
the normal physiological curves of the spine, but also the other
muscular regions in general.
This objective regarding muscle tone can be obtained via group
games or more specifically with free exercises or using small props
(i.e. sticks, ball, etc.). However, in children of this age group, all that
is needed is to try symmetrical exercises like throwing a ball with
both hands in all directions, and small pre-acrobatic experiences,
climbing etc. to obtain generalised muscular balance easily.
Precocious specialisation is a risky situation, especially in sports such
as football, where it should be completely avoided. (GRAPH 15).
As far as training exercises are concerned, we must remember that
muscular strengthening essentially occurs through two processes:
1. improvement of neural activities (recruitment of motor units, inter
and intramuscular, stimulus frequency etc.)
2. improvement of structural components (increase of transversal
section: hypertrophia).
At a pre-pubescent age, which arrives at 12-13 years old in boys and
slightly earlier in girls, because of a reduced production of an
anabolic hormone compared to adults, testosterone, it is not possible
to activate the relevant anabolic processes at muscular cell-level.
It is however possible, as some research results show, that exercises
of speed, of rapid strength, can have a positive influence on the
neural component of strength and therefore determine an

Source: Bosco et al. (199), D'Ottavio (1995), Egger (1991), Levola (1992),
Mero et al. (1991)
GRAPH 16 - Bosco's test (cmj)
127
 improvement of speed in a-cyclical performances (i.e. running) as
well as cyclical ones (i.e.) goal shooting).
Furthermore this can also be justified by the obvious early increase
in growth factors in the first and second stage of infancy of the
nervous system compared to other organic functions. Probably for
the same reason, the period that is most sensitive to coordinative
improvements, which we know are correlated to neural processes,
seems to be precisely between 6 to 12 years of age.
According to Verchosanskij, in children between 4 and 8 years old,
a component of rapid strength is already present, and this physical
quality is fundamental to build technical and athletic abilities,
which mainly use fast twitch fibres (FTF). This quality is identified as a
signal to select young talents. (GRAPH 16 and 17)
However, strength training due only to sport, in this case football, is
normally not enough to obtain the general strength parameters
that are necessary for a correct growth pattern.

GRAPH 17 - Bosco's Test - 15 seconds of continuous jumps (watt/kg). The mechanical force
of the extension muscles of the legs measured during the execution of the
vertical jumps for 15 seconds and expressed in kg of body weight is presented
according to the age and category of the subjects. The parameters regarding
professional categories and their sedentary peers are taken from Bosco, 1990.
The statistical significance between players and sedentary subjects was
calculated with a T test (T Students) for non-paired parameters.
128
Muscular strength potential has to be obtained in all regions of the
body (especially the upper body) respecting the harmonic
processes of growth. This is why dynamic exercises, with low
external resistance, in order to guarantee a certain speed of
movement, are preferable to static strength exercises. Dynamic
exercises favour skeletal and cartilage metabolism. Finally we
remind the reader that the values of strength in growing children
are strongly correlated to body dimensions: weight and height.

.3 Conditional skills: Speed

3.5 and Movement Rapidity

T hese two expressions speed and rapidity are considered as

integrated concepts with some distinctions that are linked,
as we will see further on, to the type of movement to which they
refer. Rapidity in general refers to a-cyclical movements (i.e. throws,
shoots, overhead kicks etc.) and to cyclical movements where the
implication of strength is relatively low (i.e. skipping). Speed entails
significant involvement of muscular strength and is conceptually
linked to the more physical sense of the term. In other words
according to the well-known formula speed=space: time, so more
linked to linear movements to be carried out as quickly as possible.
Even vertical movement such as a high jump or long jump really
implies the effort to gain maximum speed of movement. But since
these two movements are mostly anti-gravitational, the quality of

“FREQUENCY COORDINATOR WITH VARIABLE HEIGHT”

129
 strength is more implied, even if it is integrated with the physical
quality of speed. Therefore rapidity is the ability to carry out a
movement in a minimum amount of time, whereas speed is a
particular expression of rapidity, in which the time factor is only
limitedly linked to the space factor. The expressions of rapidity
correlated to the functionality of the nervous system, have been
identified by many authors.
These are:
• latency of motor reaction time;
• speed of a single movement;
• frequency of movement.
This physical quality is really only one of the many expressions of rapid
or speed strength that are present in a subject. Most of the experts
agree that rapidity of movement is a physical quality that is
biologically innate, with a small margin of improvement, which can
be made during infancy. Therefore rapidity training in football school
is absolutely advisable, also for the rich didactical content it provides
to the instructor. Some authors provide two premises for rapidity:
1. simple premises for rapidity
2. complex premises for rapidity
The first kind are mainly referred to frequency of movement, they

Source: Diekmann, Letzelter 1987, 286

GRAPH 18 - Development of sprint force, during a training experiment over a 2 year
period (in a training programme twice a week for 12 weeks, 30 minute
training of rapidity and rapid strength adapted according to age groups).

130
 Age (years) Conditions/morphological Forms of expression
changes according to rapidity

From 6 to 8 Definite anatomic and Clear increase of ability to

functional maturity of the execute movements in
cerebral cortex high frequency - the
frequency of steps while
running correspond to
those of high-level sprinters.

From 9/10 to 12/13 Prevalence of excitement It is the most favourable

compared to inhibition age for movement
learning: new types of
movement are learned
relatively soon, but are
unstable when faced with
external factors; in neutral
conditions, comparable in
terms of rapidity, normally
the most rapid subjects are
those with the most talent

From about The higher level of Favourable conditions for

12 to 14 excitement is the development of
compensated by the rapidity, which can
reinforcement of inhibition influence elementary
processes movement programmes

Intensive growth in length During fast runs, there is a

(the ratio of force and likely aggravation of
leverage doesn't change complex premises of
at the same rate) performance (i.e. supporting
time, frequency of paces;
the elementary movement
programmes are influenced
(meaning stabilised)
negatively by stereotyped
frequent repetitions

From 15/16 Nervous stability In case of insufficient

premises to performance,
through training of sprint
force or of resistance to
rapidity can be late but not
blocked by static sprint
results

TABLE 16 - Specific aspects of rapidity that are typical of the various age groups
during ontogenetic development (according to Lehmann 1993, 14)

depend on the ability of excitement of the central nervous system

and, at this age (especially between 6 and 9), tend to reach
parameters that are comparable to adult ones.
131
 GRAPH 19 - Index (quotient) of rapidity (Lehmann, 1991) - (D'Ottavio, Tell, 2006)

Podalic tapping (number of alternating contacts with the feet in, for
example, 10 seconds) as well as the measurement of time in which
the foot touches the ground after jumping from a height with a
bounce (e.g. from 20cm), are proved forms of evaluation of the
simple premises of rapidity. The complex premises of rapidity are
mainly linked to the increase of potential strength of the children.
These characteristics are above all noticeable around 11-12 years of
age at the beginning of puberty. One must also remember that the
accentuated pre-disposition in the beginner category towards
acquiring new forms of movement and perfecting already acquired
abilities, give the child the opportunity to improve his running
technique by making the movements more fluid and economic.
Even reaction time improves considerably, and this characteristic,
which represents the beginning of all forms of rapidity (see
paragraph: coordination skills), offers a large number of didactical
possibilities. Relays with or without the ball on distances from 5 to 15-
20 metres, confrontation games, catch games (one runs, the other
tries to catch him), popular games such as steal the bacon etc, and
naturally all forms of games with specific variations are the most
appropriate ways to train rapidity at this age.

.4 Conditional Skills: Resistance

3.5
R esistance may be defined as the ability to prolong
muscular work over time, maintaining constant quality
throughout. This very important physical quality in long sports can
be divided into two functional directions:
1. aerobic resistance
2. anaerobic resistance
Aerobic resistance is mainly sustained by the aerobic metabolism,
which in turn is the most economic way to produce energy. Athletic
132
activities that generally show aerobic strength as a limiting factor to
performance are long performances, such as the marathon, cross-
country skiing, street cycling, resistance swimming etc. The
muscular fibres that are mainly concerned in these activities are
easy to be seen in the elite athletes of these disciplines, and are the
slow ones (STF - Slow twitch fibres). These fibres have the
characteristic of low weariness and an activation threshold that is
just as low, in fact they are the first fibres to contract during
movement and they get weary very slowly. The muscular cells of
slow fibres are rich in mitochondria (cellular organisms that form ATP
= energy in the form of oxygen) and enzymes of the aerobic
metabolism. The latter characteristic of the cells, during infancy
and throughout the development process, is represented in more
or less the same amount as in adults, if not, as shown in some of the
scientific literature, in a higher amount. These characteristics
therefore do not limit, but favour precocious resistance training,
seeing as there is a strong biological pre-disposition. The limits lie in
other factors, the first of which is psychological: in fact children are
not very apt to long, slow running activities. (GRAPH 20)
It has however been shown that in the past few years the
application of intermittent methods for resistance training have
widely developed, especially in team sports, so much so that the
so-called “long” and “slow”, in the picture of training methods for
aerobic resistance in football, has been almost totally abandoned.
Fortunately, children show a strong pre-disposition for intermittent
physical workload, as a peculiar behaviour of that age, and
especially thanks to psychological characteristics, which, during the

Source: Astrand, 1952

GRAPH 20 - Consumption of nett oxygen (ml x kg x min) according to speed
(km x h) in both sexes

133
 first scholastic years express a prevalence of mental processes and
excitement instead of inhibition. The match, match games with rule
variations, technical circuits, game situations or running without the
ball where medium-high intensity running is followed by slower periods
of running (repeated for several minutes), can be good opportunities
of resistance training. One must remember that, in children the
extensiveness (amount of work) of activities should always prevail on
the intensity. This ratio can increase gradually over time in favour of
intensity, in relation to the athletic qualification. (GRAPH 21)
As far as anaerobic resistance is concerned, a physical quality that
characterises fast medium-short length activities (10 seconds - 2
minutes running), and in which a considerable amount of lactic
acid is produced, it seems that children are little inclined to them in
a pre-pubescent age. This different biological pre-disposition in
children as opposed to adults is fundamentally due to the lack of
enzyme and iso-enzymes that are specialised in the formation and
disposal of lactic acid during anaerobic (without using oxygen)
glycolysis (sugar metabolism).
In some scientific work however high lactic acid parameters were
found in children aged 11 after maximum effort exercises. However
the high psychic workload, which is also characterised by a strong
production of catecolamine (stress hormone), cannot be applied
to infantile training seeing as they have a different biological and

Players: Bunc et al. (2001), 1SS- FIGC (1991), Bell (1998), D'Ottavio (1994,
Jones and Helman (1993), De Vito et al. (1994), Caru et al., Lindquist (1993),
Jones (1993), Jankovic (1993), Tumilty (1997), Pimav (1992)
Sedentary: Davies (1972), Flandrais (1981, 1982), Massicotte (1985), Van
Pragh (1989), Castagna (1999)
GRAPH 21 - Aerobic force and age of young players

134
psychological situation compared to adults. In children, resistance
training must be carried out with specific exercises with the ball,
with circuit exercises or mixed exercises (with and without the ball),
using matches and in any case by keeping motivation high. Playing
that is “oriented” towards physical objectives that need to be
fulfilled, represents the didactical grounding on which most
physical training programme of Football Schools should be based.

.5 Articular mobility
3.5
A rticular mobility can be defined as the ability to carry out
body movements with the maximum articular range possible,
using all of the various degrees of freedom that are biologically
conceded to the human species. It essentially depends on:
• muscular extension potential
• inhibition of proprioceptors that are sensitive to stretching;
• repetitive exercises (for more information see paragraph “The
Sensitive Phases”)

“Selection, specification and promotion

3.6 of football talent”

T he qualification of a young football player is tested throughout

activities. This position for individual diagnosis dates back to
Engeis, who scientifically based his studies on individual development:
“Only when the young player makes an effort can he show whether
or not he is qualified or not to be trained in this athletic specialty”.
Therefore a methodological participation in training sessions is the
most important external condition to diagnose athletic aptitude.
What is athletic aptitude? An athletic aptitude is based on
formulating valid predictions, regarding the ability of the young
player to successfully complete juvenile training in the specialty he
has chosen, in such a way that he will be able to undergo training
in order to reach high levels of performance with authorised hopes.
The issues surrounding athletic talent are particularly interesting for
all people concerned with juvenile sports in various ways. Everyone
agrees that: it would surely be useful if one could tell very early on,
over the normal time of technical maturity, if a certain subject,
when showing his qualities, shows a promising athletic future. This is
true, for a whole variety of reasons, for the coach, for the various
technical promoters of the Club, as well as for those (other Clubs)
who intend to invest on some young players more than others with
135
 their infrastructures. The term “selection”, has provoked quite a few
arguments among those who, out of institutional duty, defend the
cause of a sport, which is quite rightly very popular, and should
contain or rather embrace all the infinite possible expressions and
degree of aptitude present in the population of those who practice
the game of football. It is also true that, amidst all this “grace”, for
the purpose of choosing the few who show something more
compared to others, it is necessary to know how to find those who
require a more specific approach or training process. All this to be
able to enhance certain qualities that they already luckily and
naturally possess. In general, with appropriate simplicity, we can
define talent for football as that special psycho-physical condition
and performance in general, that goes through a certain
evolution, and places him above the average of the rest.
It is confirmed by many studies in the international literature that the
fact that a child showing a particular aptitude towards one sport of
class of sport at the beginning of his athletic training, can depend
on his on his own genetic background (hereditary factors) as well
as his experiences, even if minimal (environmental factors). It is
clear that if nothing can be done about the first aspect, there is a
lot that can be done in our power as far as the elements that can
be learned are concerned (see ILLUSTRATION 29).
It is therefore probable for example that the son of a sprinter in
athletics will have the same or most of the muscular qualities of the
father (i.e. % of fast fibres), but it is also true that if certain
characteristics are not precociously supported and solicited with
training and development programmes that are specifically
oriented, this potential may remain relatively and partially hidden
(latent). (GRAPH 22) The model of football performance is however
more complex. This statement is justified not only by the enormous

Hereditary factors Environmental factors

Young player
Define the maximum on a scale of theoretical
possible performance possibilities, they
for that specific genetic determine the level that
make-up has effectively been
reached (or reachable)
Football performance

… the expression of talent may depend on the choice of content, methods and
procedures used in relation to the individual characterstics. This may increase the
possibility of obtaining the maximum possible level of strength more frequently…
ILLUSTRATION 29 - Factors that influence football performance (D'Ottavio, 1994)

136
GRAPH 22 - Rate of heredity

mass of practice and consequently of the difficulty of analysis that

may be encountered, but also due to the fact that it is not always
possible to establish, in relation to age, the most significant
indicators of evaluation at a specific time.
Control over time of the implied parameters is just as difficult and little
correlation has been found (objective evaluation), to try and
formulate a prediction in terms of evolution. These, not
unconquerable problems, depend on the fact that football,
compared to other individual athletic specialties, needs athletes that
perform during play in terms of strictly technical and coordinative
qualities, as well as organic-muscular qualities, and especially
cognitive qualities (individual and group tactics). A frequent question
is therefore: “What age group should I pay more attention to
catalogue possible talents, and which factor, among those
mentioned above, is the most indicative?”. Fortunately the
experience of many coaches, observers, and promoters in general,
137
 has always allowed to predict, with a certain reliability, on the basis
of empirical but no less significant evidence, a more or less fortunate
future for a young player. For example, the parameters in ILLUSTRATION
30 could be taken into consideration to evaluate a football player.
It is also however true that when pursuing improvement tendencies, if
we could find a more relevant predictor, which is still unknown in detail,
we could provide a greater contribution to the cause. Another
important consideration has been expressed in this sense, on the fact
that in order to recognise a possible talent, one would need to
examine not only the overall performance (effectiveness), but should
also hold in identical consideration the intrinsic factors of performance.

search for talent reference model: adult performance

young performance performance factors

Game Abilities: Rapidity and effectiveness:

• tactical sense • of anticipation
• in ball possession • perceptive
• without ball possession • processing
• group integration • decisional
• creativity • of movement and action
• technical performance • technical and tactical abilities
• global performance during match expressed in complex and simple
• global performance during tournament contexts
• role versatility • adaptation to sudden situations
• psychological characteristics
ILLUSTRATION 30 - (D’Ottavio, 1996)

This statement makes it clear that, given the same performance

(indicatively measured with subjective factors) and same age,
those that present a higher biological age, more years of training
and factors of performance (anthropometric, physical, technical,
tactical) that have already been consolidated, are those who
have less potential development compared to those that are
closer to the average of their age-group or even late on certain
characteristics. This consideration, logical in its definitions, but many
times forgotten, is based on the fact that those that precociously
reach a higher biological age and a more advanced technique,
necessarily have less margin for improvement. These cases could
slow down over time and even compromise the growth of
performance. Instead, those who manage to figure well in their
relevant championships despite the fact that they are behind in
morphological and functional development compared to the
optimum threshold, with room for improvement through specific
training, could have more chances of succeeding in the future. An
138
eventual development of these factors would consequently
heighten the level of performance, which is already good
compared to other potentially valid players. (GRAPH 23).

With equal performance (RP), the possibility of development (PD) depends on:
• the biological/training age ratio (BA/TA)
• performance factor parameters (FP)
Source: Kupper K. 1993
GRAPH 23 - Suitability according to age

History however teaches us that sometimes some young players,

despite certain requisites have been found from the hereditary
component as well as acquired component, and that further
promotion (differentiated training in high-level teams) has been
developed according to the optimal levels of modern training,
some potential talents do not come through as initially predicted.
This probably means that there have been some errors in estimating
various indicators considered for talent prediction, or that these
indicators have not expressed the same stability over the years. Or,
another possibility, maybe psychological - motivational and social
factors had a negative influence on the “technical itinerary” that
the student had access to. However, the opposite has also
happened, that others that had not been selected during their
youth as talents, have reached professional categories, by
enhancing their performance patterns. This could mean that
certain x-factor has still not been found, or that spotting talent is not
an absolute science. (ILLUSTRATION 31)
It is a common opinion that during the training of a football player,
from the beginning to technical maturity, at least ten years should
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 non talent

scarce results predicted

false talent talent

not predicted excellent results

false non talent

confirmed mistaken prediction
ILLUSTRATION 31

pass, in which the young player will receive stimuli and information
that will initially have a more or less generalised form and will take on
more and more specific characteristics. At about 7-8 years old one
can notice certain attitudes that are more or less defined, which in
the following years could reinforce themselves more incisively so as
to imagine the possibility of a potential football talent.
Even if it is certainly too early to define him as such, his performances
could appear as better than those expressed by his age-group.
On a diagnostic basis, the “promises” will be fulfilled more easily if the
general overview of factors that make up the performance presents
significant potential for improvement. At age twelve/thirteen it is
therefore imaginable to gamble a first selection (prediction), but the
following years however, and the promotion work, will be the ones to
tell whether or not these pre-existing conditions maintain themselves
over time (at least 3-4 years). In other words, promotion of talent
means, that as well as a diagnosis, it is also appropriate to choose an
adequate prognosis to follow. (ILLUSTRATION 32)

• Poli-functional movement activity

chronological biological and technical growth

6 years

• Muti functional sport practice • General movement training

• Sport orientation
• Finding aptitudes
• Definition of aptitudes • Reference model
12 years

• Expression of talent
• Selection talent • Performance analysis
• Analysis of performance factors
Search
Promotion of talent (indicators)
for
(specific training)
16 years

• Stability of performance/
prediction factors

• Amateur clubs Professional clubs • Evolution

Expected results
Not expected results
ILLUSTRATION 32 - (D’Ottavio, 1996)
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 The Psychological and Social Components
3.7

E very behaviour is always oriented towards the satisfaction

of a personal need, and a personal objective.
Development, adaptation and perfection of forms of behaviours
have the main objective of reaching locomotor performance.
External conditions may establish a psychological environment in
the group that stimulates motivation during training as well as
competitions, and are dictated by the social environment, which is
at the base of every learned movement, that provides stimuli and
support as well as the opportunity to learn in a group.
Social environment is especially effective through language, which
is a cornerstone of learning motor skills but also represents another
essential premise for its realisation.
One can in fact state that language is the means to acquire more
and more new knowledge. Precise explanations, if used
appropriately can accelerate the learning process. The learning
process of technique and tactics is the first step to forming a football
player. At a young age, learning processes are strongly linked to
motivation, there is no locomotor behaviour without motivation. The
role of the coach, who will have to stimulate the motivation, is
therefore essential, because this psychological dimension is the
premise around which the athletic experience of the child rotates. If
the game is well-experienced by the child, it allows him to express
creativity, which is necessary to make football fascinating.
Training sessions often seem monotonous and repetitive and often
the ball is not used very much, and this is a type of attitude that
penalises creativity. There are too many young players that do not
try a deep pass to free themselves from cover, or a long shot, or a
dribbling or a fake for fear of making a mistake and being
reprimanded by their coach, risk loosing their place in the team.
This attitude will result in a habit of play simple and avoiding the
creativity and imagination that could be potential in that boy and
that will remain latent. Flaubert once said that mistakes are born from
the bad use of language: “what do we adults do with our boys?”.
In fact a young boy during training must always have the possibility
of discovery, of having fun and to not consider the opponent as the
enemy but as a mirror to understand his own values and his own
limits. Motivation must be cultivated and therefore the instructor
should not make the mistakes that could inhibit it: therefore
boredom, monotony, anxiousness, lack of hope (brought on by
repeated failures), are enemies that must be kept away.
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 “EXECUTION SPEED IS A SIGN OF TALENT”

In juvenile activity the coach must not provide exercises that are
too difficult compared to the level of the group, as it generates a
slump in motivation on strong and weak points and could mean
that they leave the sport altogether all too soon. It is important to
know how to use various types of exercises to obtain the same
effect, to control boredom. The coach should also keep in mind
that feeling important increases motivation of the young athlete
and that it is his role to know, understand and offer solutions to
motivate each child. Furthermore, practicing the game of football
gives the children the opportunity to participate in a social sporting
context that is highly educational. This practice of common
activities is a real training camp for cooperation, by integrating the
boy into a group without letting go of his own personality, allowing
him to take stock of his strengths and weaknesses and of the
necessity of working together towards a common goal.
The game, intended in this way, becomes a preparation for social
life in which men must work together, maintaining their personal
independence.

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4.
Let's Organise
a Work Plan:
the Various Phases
of Forming a
Didactical Programme
 4.1
Planning

I n order to obtain a better technical and didactical organisation,

the Sport Clubs, within the limits of their possibilities, must:
1. Analyse the initial situation, evaluating:
• Social and cultural factors regarding: the boys, instructors, club,
environment
• Initial levels of technique and locomotor skills (degree of
experience and aptitude)
2. Define the objectives regarding:
• Educational purposes
• Initial levels of technique and locomotor skills (degree of
experience and aptitude)
• Available resources
3. Organise training
• Find training and technical areas
• Establish means, methods, environments, timing, evaluation criteria
• Divide the training course into didactical units, lessons, training
sessions
4. Organise evaluation systems along the way:
• They must regard all moments of the training process and allow
the coach to collect data for a possible group and/or individual
reinforcement, above all evaluating the relationship between
instructor and pupil (analysis of proposed method)
5. Organise a final evaluation:
• It must regard the whole process, and allow to compare ideal
objectives and results with the obtained ones (the instructor's work)
This accent on the word “result” may be intimidating, but each of us in
our day-to-day activities, every action is not determined by chance,
but is carried out after having established an organisational plan.
Therefore, why is it a good thing to plan?
How many times have we panicked to reach a location because
we didn't know how to get there?
Or how many times have we left without a specific destination and
search for an inviting place to stay?
In a plan the objective/s to fulfil must be defined before beginning
our “journey”, as well as the way we will get there, the stops to
make, the speed of travel, supplies. The mastery of an instructor isn't
only measured in the qualities that a shoot to goal or a Brazilian
play expresses, it is also, but above all, in planning his actions in an
organised context aimed at the training of a young football player.
We are responsible for his growth of his football, his physical and
144
locomotor growth and above all his psychological integrity: a child
that abandons football practice, who falls out of love and refuses
confrontation, who is afraid of making mistakes is to be considered
as a failure of the training process. Planning is the central moment
of a didactical project. It allows the instructor to outline the
educational milestones, the objectives to fulfil and the activities to
be carried out to reach those milestones, as well as the ways in
which he will test the capacities that have been taught and the
parameters for the evaluation of the didactical processes and the
progress of the pupils involved.

.1 Initial Situation and Situation Analysis

4.1
F rom the beginning of the year, for each level of Football
School, we will have to find the general levels of:
• interest (for the type of locomotor and sporting activities of the
discipline),
• commitment and motivation (in understanding and carrying out
the actions and checking results),
• locomotor skills (functional and structural),
• abilities (fundamental corporal and movement patterns),
• cognitions and emotions (relating to sports and physical education),
• interpersonal relations (friendship, cooperation).
To do this we must avail ourselves of useful observations and
detections to produce individual and collective evaluations, which,
even in their approximations, allow the coach to acquire information
on the outcome of the preceding training sessions and the personal
conditions of the pupils. We may express ourselves in qualitative and
quantitative terms (type and mastery of the ability). Furthermore, we
must evaluate the global behaviour of the subjects in terms of their
will to learn the ability of self regulating themselves during the
didactical activities and in the situations immediately before and
after (during movement, in the changing room). Possible specific
cases must be pin pointed (in a positive/negative form) by
indicating, for each one, the particular aspects.

2 General Didactical Objectives

4.1.
T hey are the purposes that one aims to fulfil, once the starting
point of the pupil has been taken into consideration,
indications of a programme, available means, techniques and
methods one intends to apply.
145
 The content must be found not in the specificities of the discipline,
but in the overall frame of thought, behavioural expressions, social
relations, affective life of the subjects of the educational activity.
It may be the fulfilment of:
• A better behaviour among students or between student and
teacher;
• More interest and will towards the activity;
• More ability to express themselves without being shy or afraid;
• More self-control, autonomy, self-management in any activity;
• More respect, loyalty, cooperation… in the group;
• Better management of contrasts, intolerances, frustration,
interpersonal and intrapersonal tension;
• Acquisition of a useful work method to face other learning
situations;
• Stimulus of a hypothetical-deductive way of thinking and
acquisition of the ability to form an anticipated image.

.3 Didactical Objectives
4.1
D idactical Objectives are “finish lines” in the learning process
which, even if they are born from the same point of view as
the educational ones, are strictly linked to the dimension of the
general qualities of the subject, which must be reached in terms of
acquiring and developing the specific content of a discipline.
They may be defined as the acquisition of cognitions, abilities and
attitudes to be learned to become competent in a discipline. To
obtain the various didactical objectives an organised operational
procedure must be planned, which establishes the objectives to fulfil.
In technical terms, one can talk about a hierarchy and a taxonomy,
or a classification ( from bottom to top, from easy to difficult, from
simple to complex) of didactical objectives and a way of relating
them to the type of group (their knowledge, ability, attitudes, skills).
For example, structuring of a proper locomotor training programme
referred to a group of 6 year old children, cannot exclude
considerations on the development of movement patterns
(running, jumping, rolling, grasping etc.), which are a priority
compared to fundamental techniques.
Drafting a plan that contemplates the objectives to be fulfilled,
must begin from a profound knowledge of the student and the
group, the abilities and qualities they have achieved, parameters
which, when compared to the chronological age, will provide
useful information to find operational objectives.
146
In other words, the educator, by applying a choice of training
method, will privilege the development of certain abilities in an
organised chronological context (objectives of the programme).
The objectives, once they have been defined, will be subject to
verification; this means that during the year the degree of
development of certain abilities/skills will be evaluated and the
plan will be defined accordingly, “the speed, supplies and stops” in
order to reach them.

Method and Didactical Content

.4
4.1
A principle that must regulate the training/instruction
activities is that the ball must always be included in the
various exercises and that the game represents the best from and
method of learning.
The choice of exercises, other than being oriented towards the
acquisition of a certain kind of conduct and behaviour, must give
priority to activities with a high level of emotional involvement, must
arouse interest and enthusiasm and create a magical environment
where the will to be together and “train” is a strong motivation.

The content and method of training must vary continuously and be a

part of a mosaic intended to reach the objectives of the programme.
For example the ability to move in free space to receive the ball
(knowing how to free yourself from cover) is a big objective that
develops itself in intermediate stages, such as the recognition of
free spaces in which the players move, from knowing how to
receive the ball, to the ability of adapting and transforming your
locomotor behaviour and many others.
In the Football School, the Clubs are structured in categories that
are referred to the various ages of the children, we have Little
Friends that include the youngest from age 6 to age 8, the Cubs
that go from 8 to 10 years old and the Beginners that go from 10 to
12 years old.
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 Therefore the characteristics of the activities that are carried out
within the Football School must respect the requirements and
needs of each age or phase of development.
By analysing the above in an extremely succinct and schematic
way, we can say:

Little • The child shows a certain egoism (egocentricity). He

Friends therefore has a need to have the ball at all times, and
6-8 years he doesn't want to share it with the others.
• He wants to explore and play all the time to learn how
to play and to improve his basic movements (running,
striking/kicking, jumping, rolling, throwing, grasping etc.)
• The instructor must propose and stimulate behaviour,
he must not be prescriptive nor directive. He must be
accepted for his spontaneity and his tranquil and
polite manner.
• Technical teaching by emulating adult behaviour, must
be non-existent. Instead it must include little games that
are oriented towards the awareness of various
fundamental techniques. Activities in smaller areas, with
smaller and lighter balls. Small-sided games, 3:3, 4:4, 5:5.
Cubs • If he has lived and spontaneously passed the
8-10 years egocentric phase of the preceding age group, he
shows that he is able to relate to his team mates better,
in a structured activity or a game.
• Basic motor skills start defining themselves within the
technical abilities. Through the game he learns to adopt
adequate behaviour according to various situations.
• The instructor must emphasise the children's initiative, by
encouraging and not inhibiting their imagination and
creativity. He must create problems and stimulate solutions.
• Dribbling and shooting goals, situational games and
small-sided matches are the fundamental elements on
which to base teaching. From 5:5 to 7:7 with smaller
balls and areas.
Beginners • Integration in the group improves, the interpersonal
10-12 relationships are transferred outside of the club
years environment.
• Precision of technical abilities and attention spans
improve. More analytical exercises can be proposed.
Desire for self-improvement.
• Technical learning can require corrections. The role of
instructor sometimes takes on directive characteristics.
However, we must not forget that the playful aspect
must always prevail.
• More time dedicated to training. Acquisition of
technical behaviour that is adequate to a game
situation (applicative technique). From 7:7 in a smaller
area to 11:11 in regular fields. Smaller balls.
TABLE 17
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 Teaching Material
.5
4.1
General considerations
As it has been stated many times in this technical guide, the choice
of objectives, content, teaching method need to be planned on
the basis of various considerations that regard the development
and growth characteristics of the children, and of the fact that the
formation of abilities must follow the stages and sequence of the
various levels of motricity. Morphological and functional growth
follow an itinerary that must therefore be parallel to the
development of motricity and more specifically to that of technical
abilities. This correspondence of the different perspectives such as
the biological and curricular ones, sustained by the applied
didactical plan, may be in other words expressed as “planning by
age groups”. We believe that no one can deny the assumption
that smaller children, in general, have more difficulties than the
older ones regarding control and organisation of movement
patterns and fundamental moves of athletic motricity. For this
reason, the validity and the quality of the didactical programme
therefore, are finally influenced by the possibilities:
1. of making the learning process easier and more productive;
2. of creating phases in which the little pupil experiments and
retains certain learning experiences;
3. of graduating the difficulties according to the technical tasks to
be solved;
4. of changing (along the way) aspects and specificities of the
programme according to the level of adaptation of the group
and the single pupils;
5. of verifying the aspects of the children's locomotor behaviour, as
an objective purpose of the programme and as a result of the
learning process.
As can be observed whilst reading through these five items, which
effectively represent the factors in which the learning process is
articulated, that the undertaking of the teacher, or for whoever
needs to plan the work, presents more than one problem to solve.
This is also because it sometimes happens that the progression of
exercises elaborated during the lesson or didactical unit, may not
change certain expected locomotor responses from the pupils or
part thereof. The didactical exercises, which represent the final
interpretation of the method and expected objectives, even
though everything has been done to respect the principle of
variety of learning stimuli, sometimes, if they have not been
149
 enriched by other variables, can in the worst case scenario create
boredom and consequently lower the motivation to learn. In other
parts of the guide this psychological concept is repeated with
many examples (see paragraph “The Psychologist”).
The didactical variety is therefore considerable as a sort of “easy way
out” to escape the limits and difficulties that may occur on some
occasions. Didactical variety may be without a doubt helped if the
coach can use specific training material in terms of numbers
(quantity) and in terms of didactical correspondence and
coherence (quality). When, for example, the coaches are advised to
carry out exercises with one ball per pupil, we often hear the reply
“And when will we find a club that will provide all these balls?”. It is
true that theoretically perfect situations don't exist, and it is also true
that difficulties sharpen the intellect, but it is also true that without the
fundamental instruments it becomes difficult to carry out any kind of
work. This is true for sports, or if these problems occur in other kinds of
activities (work, school, home, hobbies etc.). We think that
equipment therefore must be taken into serious consideration by
instructors of Football School, because, if it is well selected, it can turn
out to be seriously helpful to didactics and learning.

Football School Equipment

Teaching football must be planned, especially in the early years
(beginning and first learning phases), by structuring working units
based on the use of means that facilitate the learning process and
on the principle of graduation of didactical proposals. We believe
this is appropriate to encourage the necessary and functional
adaptations in the child that are asked of the child on a sensorial
and motor, technical, coordinative and cognitive level.
Even the equipment that we use, considered as a specific
didactical tool, which is an expression of the choice of teaching
method, must be used in close connection with the psycho-motor
and structural needs of the child, which are related to this delicate
starting period, by also taking into account of the relation between
stimulus and response, to which one must refer every time an
external solicitation is induced. The ball, or the football, is the
fundamental piece of equipment in order to play. This tool
possesses all the psycho-motivational, affective and relational
requirements, and the constant contact with it is considered as
fundamentally important by everyone during the evolution process
of the young football player. But which characteristics must this
specific working tool have? What should be the most appropriate
150
weight, the dimensions, and type of material to favour the most
functional adaptations? And which are the best solutions, no- less
important to those who institutionally represent football, to
guarantee the physical safety of the young players? Experience
often leads towards the most efficient strategies, but sometimes,
almost involuntarily, it is natural to ask ourselves questions to which
we must reserve, if only to satisfy a personal curiosity, the necessary
time to reflect. The ball or the football, traditionally, is produced
with leather or various natural or synthetic hides, with the
measurements and characteristics that are adapted to every kind
of technical requirement. But it is also true, sometimes, especially for
some didactical requirements, that the leather ball used by adults
is not very adaptable to the requirements and the graduation that
is needed for smaller children. According to our considerations
dictated by experience in the field, the rubber ball on the other
hand, particularly the double layered kind, presents these
interesting characteristics:
• Better weight/compression ratio
• Less traumatic foot/ball impact, due to a greater deformation
and wider distribution of the used force to move the ball (wider
area of impact). This possibility determines a greater amortisation
of the blow during impact.
• The greater deformation (amortisation) determines a wider
stimulus area at a proprioceptive and tactile level and a longer
time of impact (more sensorial learning in quantitative terms).
• Allows to impress more strength (force) on the ball; better
weight/elastic response ratio with a consequential increase of
performance of the kick and pass (stronger and further away),
• Increase of performance determines, during the competition, a
wider variety of mental operations (normally impossible to carry
out with a leather football) and, therefore, offers opportunities to
attempt “distance” or “air” solutions in kicks as well as passes.
• Allows to lift the ball from the ground more (cross, throw, passing etc.)
• Allows earlier learning of head play (less traumatic impact).
In order for these conditions to be really favourable, the rubber ball
must however guarantee:
• Standard weights, similar to those of a leather football;
• Standard circumference, similar to that of a leather football;
• Maintenance of roundness;
• Maintenance of compression
• Contained (controlled) bounce, especially when used on
imperfectly regular surfaces;
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 GRAPH 24 - Correlation of ball speed - time of contact against wall (D'Ottavio, 2000)

• Maintenance of trajectory in the air or on the ground (outgoing

and incoming), in conditions of maximum force as well as control-
guiding situations, kicks and passes executed with less
transmission speed (precision).
Other didactical opportunities that are possible by using the rubber
ball are:
• More possibility of varying colours, with a wider range of didactical
opportunities and sensorial stimulations of a visual nature;
• More possibilities of varying the dimensions of the circumference
(e.g. n°6-7-8 or n°2);
• More possibilities of “lightening” the ball by creating, at equal
given force, a slower trajectory in the air. This, evidently, favours
the anticipation of the trajectory in the air for the receiver;
• More possibilities of limiting rebound (i.e. “slow rebound”), making
it easier to learn the stop, guiding the ball, etc.
An experimental study conducted a few years ago at the Federal
Football School of Acquacetosa in Rome (D'Ottavio, Technical
Sector Bulletin (Notiziario Settore Tecnico) n.1, 2000) validated some
of these hypotheses. In fact, by indirectly measuring the time of
contact between the foot and the ball during a strong shot, proved
the fact that there is a greater amortisation with rubber footballs,
with a double-layered structure, compared to leather ones,
therefore the impact is less traumatic (GRAPHS 24 and 25).
All this doesn't influence the speed of the shot. This fact allows us to
organise exercises better, especially if they require:
• Maximum strength of the shoot to goal or in long passes
• Solutions aimed at a cross, corner, etc.
• A precocious approach to learning headers
• Fist blocking for goal keepers
Even concerning the dimensions of the ball, it is no novelty that balls
with reduced dimensions have always been proposed, normally.
152
GRAPH 25 - Differences between rubber and leather balls - average of average
parameters on about 120 tests (D'Ottavio, 2000)

This is true in a certain sense because the measurements of the

circumference is closer to the measurements of the segments of
the body that make up the lower limb. But above all in some
learning phases, where a more complex form of control is needed:
for example during stops with a high ball or where it is necessary to
find the maximum speed of guiding the ball or shooting, and in the
search for better technical precision, to have a relatively larger ball
can have a positive influence on the development of the exercise
and consequently facilitate the execution. This is because the
potential area of impact represented by the circumference of the
ball seems wider.

“DOUBLE LAYERED RUBBER BALLS OF VARIOUS WEIGHTS AND SIZES”

ILLUSTRATION 33 shows how, according to these considerations, one

could operate in finding this fundamental piece of equipment. An
experimental study designed on the subject, using tailored
technical evaluation tests, confirms the description, in sufficiently
significant terms (see GRAPH 26). Even intermediate positions that
regard the material used to build the balls: for example the “rubber-
153
 “…there is a precise and predictable relationship between speed and
precision of a movement on the one hand, and the dimension of the
target (objective) and how distant it is…”
“…when the objectives are larger and closer to us, and we try to move
quickly (fast) and well (with precision) towards one of them, we see less
damaging effects.”
(Paul Fitts 1952)
ILLUSTRATION 33 - Fitts' Law (S. D'Ottavio, document from the Specialisation Degree course
in Sport Science and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, 2002

leather”, express a certain attention on the part of companies in

promoting material that guarantee effective didactics, ease of
learning, and safety. (GRAPH 27)

The Juvenile and Scholastic Sector of the F.I.G.C., through its own
technical structure, has shown in the past few years a significant
amount of interest in research on technical and didactical solutions
that are most appropriate and safest for children. It is the athletic
institutions' job to therefore know how to liaise with construction
Companies and to provide their contribution of experiences and
knowledge.
Regarding the dimensions of the football goals, as it occurs in a
similar way for the dimensions of the field, which vary on the basis
of age groups in the Football School, and of the number of players,
there are different considerations to be made. First of all the area
of the goal (height x length) should be able to ensure, in relation to
the morphological and muscular potential of the goal keeper to
technically operate over the whole area (close to the posts, corner
of the goal etc.). On the other hand the young attacker should

GRAPH 26 - Percentage differences between the use of jumbo balls and traditional
balls (D'Ottavio, Tell 2002)

154
GRAPH 27 - Balls and didactics (arbitrary parameters) - D'Ottavio, 2000
have the possibility of directing the ball into the angles of the goal,
naturally if he is able to do so, without the dimensions of the goal
(e.g. too narrow) stopping him from trying. This is why a study
conducted by the Juvenile and Scholastic Sector (D'Ottavio,
Technical Sector Bulletin (Notiziario Settore Tecnico) n° 5-6, 1996)
using mathematical calculations that took anthropometric and
neuromuscular parameters and differences between children in
various age groups of Football School and adults into account,
“designed” “ad hoc” three different dimensions of goals.

However further specifications, other than the strictly technical

ones, should be observed. Among all the most important is
regarding the safety of the children through the research on safe
equipment. In the past few years, in Europe as in the other
continents, social development, mediated also via sports, has
promoted a continuous increase in athletes. This phenomenon has
however also brought on the proliferation of a series of non-
institutional organisations of sporting activities that have not always
protected the child from physical danger caused by
malfunctioning didactical organisation. Official data of Sportass of
a few years ago reported that 27% of sport injuries are derived from
the use of non-appropriate material. Most of these children have
then consequently left the discipline they were practicing for good.
155
 It is also true, however, that social and economic development has
brought on an improvement of the technology applied to sports
equipment. For example referring to the football goals for children,
some specialised companies have perfected their commercial
proposals by completely eliminating the protruding or particularly
dangerous elements from physical contact, by covering the
mountings as well as the anchoring points between the posts and
the crossbar with rubbery material, creating other innovative
solutions such as a capsizable goal that can be used in two vertical
dimensions (e.g. 4.80 m x 1.90m - 1.60m respectively used for “cub”
and “little friend” categories), furthermore the lightness of materials
allows the children to have direct contact with the material even in
case of transport on the training field. These experiences tend to
favour the learning opportunities that use methods that are
characterised by a certain degree of freedom of exploration,
through which the children manage their own activities. Regarding
the small goal posts that are normally used during training sessions
for footballers at any age, an optimal solution is also provided in this
case by the capsizable goals (e.g. 1.50mx1m and 1.50m x 0.60 m),
because of the easiness of building and dismantling and the
lightweight material. This means that they can be used in the gym
as well as outdoors, and especially in programmes that
contemplate cooperation and integrated activities between
School and Football Clubs. Naturally further to more traditional
equipment like mobile boundaries, cones and posts or small
obstacles, in football schools what should never be missing is a
series of steps or little rubber raisers that are 20-25 cm high. This
equipment, more appropriate in gyms where people practice
fitness and aerobics, may be used in football to start, in the form of
a game and also with the ball, a certain degree of reflex
neuromuscular stimuli (stiffness; elasticity).
This activity and the stimuli connected to it, as well as being
particularly suitable, especially for children at Beginner level, tends to
stimulate proprioceptive adaptations at an articular and muscular
level, due to the variation of length and speed to which the muscular
system is subject during the jumping exercises (downwards and
upwards, on one or two feet, etc.). Seeing as we are in any case
talking about solicitations on the longitudinal axis of the body, the
volume of the exercises should be in any case limited. The
“proprioceptive” raisers should never be missing among the football
school equipment in this sense. Lately a particular rubber “doughnut”
is being studied (without a hole in the centre) that is resistant to body
156
weight, which allows to better graduate the imbalance provoked by
maintaining an erect position (on one or two feet) on the tool, and
thereby causes the consequent proprioceptive adaptations. This
happens at the level of articular and muscular/tendon structures,
especially those of the lower limbs, but also on the vestibular system,
where the sense of balance resides. In is appropriate to remember
that a good proprioceptive sensitivity allows to build technical
abilities with more precision regarding the muscular dosage to apply
to various didactical situations (i.e. ability of kinaesthetic
differentiation, rhythmical abilities etc.), and to help prevent injuries
and pathologies that can affect the osteo/articular and
muscular/tendon system. In the same way (see photo) these
inflatable “half moons” that are named after their shape as “jellyfish”,
subject the peripheral sensorial structures to graduating degrees of
“imbalance” by varying the position and degree of inflation of the
tool. They are therefore extremely useful for specific balance when
combined with certain technical movements.
In juvenile football activities, and especially in Football Schools, it
would be a serious mistake to use footwear that do not allow a
normal flex-extension of the foot. This would be caused by a relative
rigidity of the base of the shoe that supports the foot due to a choice
of material (too rigid), to the height of the sole (space between the
foot and the ground), and to a not always adequate choice of
technology (type of stratification, air, gel, etc.), with which this

GRAPH 28 - Analysis of the muscular solicitations during the execution of balancing

exercises on unstable equipment (D'Ottavio, 2005)
157
 GRAPH 29 - Differences in balancing abilities before and after proprioceptive
activities with unstable equipment (D'Ottavio, 2005)

essential part of the shoe is built. For a young athlete in general, it is

obvious that to possess well functioning foot articulations (tibio-tarsic),
means to be able to have optimal performances in multiple
movements of support that occur in most athletic activities. During
running and jumping a rapid “rolling” of the front part of the foot with
an appreciable degree of width, and the relative amortisation in the
landing phase, can obviously have a positive influence on the quality
of the technical moves and the movements correlated to them.
The systematic use of the “jellyfish” can become on occasions a
concrete opportunity for specific training for this type of problem. The
induced solicitations in the subject, when he tries to keep upright on
the tool looking for his balance, determines a constant involvement
of the extensor muscles (gastrocnemia) with concentric as well as
eccentric contractions, and the flexor muscles (tibialis anterior,
peroneal ) that, with the extensor muscles, help to slow the body
down during the descending phase. Further to the muscles, also the
ankle and foot articulations are activated to carry out movements
with the widest possible excursion. Finally, the “jellyfish” gives you the
possibility to carry out a vast and wide variety of positions, taking
advantage of an infinite number of angles that can be created
(points turned inward or outward, work on one foot, use of internal
pressure of the “jellyfish” to vary the vertical angle of work and to
more generally stimulate more proprioceptive variables.
These motory experiences are, as well as the “control” due to the
vestibular and optical analysers, the basis on which the ability to
158
balance is built. Football, the
performance of which is
expressed by running with
variation of direction and speed
and pace, as for example in
backward movement, jumps
etc., demands that the
necessary structural and
functional adaptations be
made, already at an early age,
to improve the coordination
abilities of balance, especially in
dynamic situations.
The training wall and the so-
called “pitchfork” represent the
“BALANCING TEST CARRIED OUT BY FORCE MEASUREMENT PLATFORM
history of football training. About CONNECTED TO SERVICE LAB BOSCO SYSTEM”
45 years ago in the NAGCs
(Centres for young football player training - Nuclei Addestramento
Giovani Calciatori), and now with the Football Schools that are
recognised by the FIGC. Even though sometimes there are certain
difficulties in structuring training areas with these kinds of equipment,
one must not think that these methods have fallen into disuse and
that they are not useful anymore. We believe that on the contrary,
rhythm, repetition, and the variety that can be produced with these

“ONE-FOOTED BALANCE BY JUMPING ON A SERIES OF JELLYFISH”

159
 “AMORTISING MATTRESSES WITH MOBILE REFERENCE POST”

tools cannot be easily reached with other kinds of equipment. Some

companies have built smaller, transportable training walls that can
also be used as obstacles. The pitchforks on the other hand have
found applicative ideas and technology based on supporting
systems connected to the crossbars of the goals.
Of a certain novelty, are some specific rubber surfaces (special
mattresses) that have been designed for goalkeeper training,
especially to practice dives and low blocking, but also to start the little
footballer off with the acrobatic movements of football. These
particular mattresses that can also be produced in various sizes (i.e.
like the size of the goal or the goal area) reproduce the
characteristics of rebound of the ball and contact with the ground for
the players, similar to those produced in a grass field. These solutions
can only be observed with professional attention, as they effectively
limit the psychological slow down due to fear of getting hurt during

The choice of didactical equipment determines:

+ Learning stimuli
+ Graduation of learning stimuli
+ Creativity in elaborating programmes
+ Motivation on the part of the pupil
Briefly:
+ A greater didactical offer
ILLUSTRATION 34 - Effects of the choice of didactical equipment in the learning phase
160
“EXERCISE AT THE FREQUENCY COORDINATOR DURING “YOU'RE GOOD AT… FOOTBALL SCHOOL AT THE CTF OF COVERCIANO (FLORENCE)”

some technical exercises. It therefore turns out that the beginning and
practical experimentation of technical moves that have a certain
degree of difficulty (i.e. acrobatic moves) may be anticipated in the
learning cycle. The didactical variants could also be characterised by
an enrichment of content and finally the fun, not to be
underestimated in juvenile training, would be inevitably ensured. In
conclusion, considering that one of the most important requirements
in the football player's performance is the a-cyclical and cyclical
rapidity of movement (and/or displacement), it is obviously necessary
to stimulate certain physiological stimuli, especially those of a neural
kind, so that it is possible to reach a state of optimal condition.
Furthermore, as already mentioned, (see paragraph “the genetic
and morphological-functional components”), this physical quality is
established fairly early on in the biological process of training. In other
words, rapidity is one of the skills we can begin teaching with a certain
margin of “safety” and results already from the ages 7-8. Therefore
referring to these premises, in the planning phase of activity and
consequently in the choice of didactical material, the opportunities
to potentially increase the frequency of movements must not be
ignored. These specific activities are normally structured with routes
and exercises with rhythmical characteristics (cyclical), as for
example when low obstacles are used (over) to go over in succession
or the same exercises using rings and posts in the ground. A tool that
may be missing from the habits of football operators and in football
161
 schools in particular is the
one that in athletics is called
“frequency coordinator”.
The frequency coordinator
is made up of a series of
tubular reference lines with
different colours, extremely
light, that can be easily
organised, even with
“PRECISION KIT FOR SHOTS AND SLALOMS”
possible changes of
direction and a variable didactical graduation and correlated with
the technical needs of the children. This particular tool can be used
differently if we raise the latching point with the string (a different
height) to stimulate jumping functions (reactive elastic strength);
finally by increasing the extension of the tool (see picture and video
attached to the guide), the frequency coordinator, demonstrating
the didactical flexibility of the tool, can easily become an
opportunity to practice precision shots, as well as a particular
structure to practice dribbling and feints with and without the ball. If
needed, even ropes that are laid on the ground or slightly suspended
can be used instead, without making substantial changes to the
didactical objective.

How do we learn?
4.2 The methods to qualify teaching

J uvenile football coaches need to know the pedagogical

bases of teaching to ensure that the didactical project is
delivered to his audience and has produced positive adaptations.
Whoever is preparing to carry out such a delicate function will really
have to know how to integrate his knowledge (skills) with the ability
to adapt it to the needs of the pupils. In order to obtain an effective
growth of the abilities of the young pupils. The organisation of the
activities will always have to be based on precise criteria, therefore
applicative methods. But let us try and understand what we mean
by method. “It is a logical and mental or cultural or technical or
practical procedure that follows a plan. It thereby excludes any
empirical and generic improvisation and implies a search for
optimal conditions, of any form of teaching, which is begun on the
basis of pedagogical didactics, and subsequently translated in
terms of specific method”.
162
In this context we don't wish to cover the various classifications of
didactical methods, which are largely treated in the specialised
literature, but we will try to refer to our effective experience that
covers decades of activities in grass-roots training.
Our approach (Singer, 1984 in D'Ottavio 1994) is essentially based to
the awareness of a few fundamental elements that guide our day
to day work on the field:
• the complexity of the task, intending it in terms of the number of
sensorial information, the variability of the game environment,
and the connections with memory;
• the organisation of the task, referred to the technical and
coordinative difficulties and there for to the synchronism or to the
heterochronism of the various elements that make up the
movement or action, regarding motory responses in general.
For example, to face a problem that presents:
• Low complexity of the task
• Easy organisation of the task
one may use methods that take the totality of the move and not its
specificities (global method) into consideration; on the contrary, if
one is faced with a situation that presents characteristics of:
• High complexity of the task
• Medium-high difficulty of the organisation of the task
The approach will have to be organised in sequences (analytical
method), constantly verifying the specificities and the connections,
without loosing sight of the overall move or in any case the action
in its global expression. One must take into consideration that the
analytical and global approaches may be proposed by the
teacher by proceeding with substantially different methods and
forms of relating to the pupils:
1. the pupil is totally or partially relieved of giving a personal
interpretation of the problem. It is the teacher that decides for
him (deductive procedure).
2. the pupil is involved in elaborating his own idea about the problem
to be solved, and proceeds by trial and error (inductive procedure).
The first creates more correct and rapid adaptations and seems
more favourably correlated to “closed” athletic abilities (closed
skills). The second, based on a creative dimension of the pupil, may
be considered as a form of medium-term investment, seeing as
initially its seems to slow down the automation processes, but
subsequently (see GRAPH 30) in allows a better transformation and a
proficient connection with following learning processes. This
procedure is definitely better suited to “open” athletic abilities
163
 (open skills) and therefore decidedly advisable in football practice.
(ILLUSTRATIONS 35 and 36 and GRAPH 30)
Direct experiences, on which the abovementioned methods that
were used on two sample groups of 11 year old children that practice
football in the Federal Football School of Acquacetosa in Rome, after
one year of activity (s.s.1992), gave the following indications:
• the practice of the guided method (regarding the individual
execution of technical moves) produced considerable
improvements on subjects that initially showed that they
possessed a good technical level, as well as on subjects that
were initially less competent;
• the practice of the problem solving method brought to a
substantial improvement of the subjects with a greater technical
insufficiency and less but in any case noticeable increase on
already technically able children.
This experience of ours partly confirms the affirmations of Singer in
his study, that is that the use of more directive methods definitely
produces greater technical profit in the short term, but could lead
to a stasis or in any case to some impediments when the student is
faced with unusual and unpredictable problems to solve.
A practice that involves the pupil in terms of personal creativity and
active participation provides more opportunities of expression and
therefore better adaptation potential. This is also confirmed by
another of our experiences: didactical units were administered to a

According to E.C. Poulton 1957, sports can be classified according

to the following parameters:
• temporal pressure
• the quantity and quality of uncertainty
• the number of possible responses
• the type of attention

closed skill open skill

ILLUSTRATION 35 - Classification of sports according to E.C. Poulton, 1957 - S. D'Ottavio,

document from the Specialisation Degree course in Sport Science
and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, 2002

164
 open skills variable environment
Mainly external
attention
flexible athletic games

technical model Motory athletic model

performance

rigid individual sports

Mainly internal
attention
closed skills stable environment

ILLUSTRATION 36 - Performance models S. D'Ottavio, document from the Specialisation

Degree course in Sport Science and Techniques, University of Tor
Vergata, Rome, 2003

group of children of 9/10 years for about 4 months of work twice a

week, exclusively using methods that contemplated problem
solving. The didactical plan predicted that at the end of this first
cycle they would have to exclusively dispute matches played with
7 against 7 as well as the other exercises and game situations of a
training kind. Therefore we invited a few other clubs to play some
friendly games with our teams but playing 11 against 11. Once the
new numerical situation of the game and the various tactical
possibilities were explained to the children, after the first five

GRAPH 30 - Comparison between the effect of guided learning and that of learning
by trial and error regarding the acquisition and transfer of learning
(Singer an Gaines, 1975 in D'Ottavio 1994)

165
 minutes of obvious adaptation had passed, they looked as if they
had always played 11 a side football, confirming what had been
our experimental hypothesis.
To control the progress of the didactical programme following a
temporal logic, we divided the whole period (sport season) into
three didactical phases or periods, proposing ourselves to reach
certain intermediate objectives.
The method we used to reach these objectives, and the so-called
“mixed method”, realised through the used of the inductive method
(problem solving) and the deductive method (guided learning).

.1 Practical guidelines
4.2 and operational strategies

I t is also the task of each instructor to pinpoint (correct and

enhance) the result of each action or move of the pupil, as the
improvement happens through the awareness of the successes
and failures.
The first question that every trainer needs to face is when he needs to
intervene. In fact, lets say that a young football player, in an exercise,
makes a mistake; to eliminate it, we indicate a reasoned sequence:
1. observation and identification of the mistake
2. decision of whether or not to intervene (quality of the error, its
importance for the purposes of the learning of the move) in
consideration of the level of the young player and the personal
characteristics of the boy (slow to learn, shy etc.).
If the decision is to intervene:
a) reinforce the commitment and the correct aspects of the
execution of the movement;
b) provide specific corrective technical instructions;
c) in the presence of a “repetition” observe the execution;
d) in the presence of a specific piece of information, observe the
boy: observe if it is an instinctive response, or if the movement
has been learned;
e) observe in both cases how the boy has used the intervention.
We want to emphasise again that for each learning process it is
important to understand what has happened that is to use the feed
back (the sensory response, the motory perception of the executed
action). Performance cannot improve without feed back.
The second way of intervening is the one that advises the instructor
to begin from concrete situations to use to begin the didactical
sequence.
166
There are three steps to this:
1. Illustration, explanation, showing or, whilst explaining, to show the
situation; make sure that the objective has been well understood;
2. “observation of execution” trying to check: the problems that it
presents and if these are connected to individual or collective
deficiencies or both; the causes and if these depend on
technical, relational or affective problems;
3. “intervention” clarifying what the problems are via auto-
evaluation carried out by the young players, introducing
different models, analysing strategies and finally changing the
situation, to start again from a changed situation.
One last principle to add, and to which every instructor needs to
attain, is: give a title to every operational proposal, by affirming at
the beginning of each session: “to day we will do”; we have
observed that by simply giving a title to the issue the
comprehension is more than doubled.
The didactical task of the instructor begins from the explanation of
the concrete situation that will have to be faced during the
exercise. The most used means are: the verbal explanation, or the
integration between the two methods. We believe it is appropriate
to highlight that:
To look is not to observe: every instructor should indicate “what to
observe” to the young player and show, according to the level,
only the important things. The execution must first of all be
executed at the right rhythm, then more slowly,
To talk is not to explain: if the instructor uses language as a didactical
method he needs to focus the objective in a simple but precise way.
If he demonstrates and explains at the same time: he must
particularly pay attention to the verbal part by building short
sentences with simple objectives. It has in fact been observed that,
in these situations, the verbal explanation is “always incomplete and
imprecise”.
In front of an “incorrect execution” of some young football player,
the instructor must think that there can be a mistake in
communication, and think about immediately changing approach.
Example: a young boy is unable to carry out a correct arm
movement when doing a stop with his chest. After the instructor has
shown the movement and has explained it, the remaining possibility
to help the pupil be successful is to change his strategic approach;
he can therefore make him “feel” the exact movement by making
him passively carry out (kinaesthetic approach). To increase the
sensitivity the principle is to intervene by “touching” the articulations
167
 involved (tactile intervention). It is good practice that in the initial
phases of learning to make them feel the relevant area using
contact with the ball: for example the exact point on the inside of
the foot in the case of a specific kick; the hands to teach the grasp
of the goal keeper (they are examples of use of tactile measures to
reach the learning of a move). Others touch on the hip and move,
like a pendulum, the free leg and ask the pupil to feel the movement.
Just as important for the learning process is the environment in the
group: if it is positive it becomes an important ally to transmit
information between the instructor and the pupils and among
pupils, if it is negative it becomes an obstacle.
Caruso, in a study conducted in 1980 catalogued two kinds of
training, describing the factors of the “emotional environment”.
• The first example may be defined: an actively participated lesson
with a warm emotional environment.
• The second example is a lesson in which boredom and disinterest
dominates (cold emotional environment).
The response of the boys is participation in the first example, and
isolation in the second. By analysing the content and the differences
we can state that neither the innovations nor the demonstrations
(they are slightly noticed) that determine the variations of
environment, but the participation, the motivation to learn,
encouragement. A type of training that has as a characteristic the
one described in the first example is an experience for which the
athletic activity becomes an important and interesting occasion to
experience. In the second case, the experience will loose meaning
and will sooner or later be abandoned.
The words as well as silence have the value of a message: they
influence others and these, in turn, may not reply to these
communications. Only one unit of information is called a message.
Every message contains a piece of news and a command. An
example of a message: “it is important for you to push on the leg”;
or “push on the leg”. They are two sentences that give the same
information but with two different commands.
Every relationship between the instructor and young player varies
according to the percentage between information and
command; every variation of message entails a variation of the
relationship. For example in the first case I'm informing you how to
carry out the shot, whereas in the second I am telling you that you
need to do it this way. In the strategies of the relationship between
instructor-group and coach-team the set up is also given by how the
coach relates to the boys.
168
Let us define, for example, two profiles of coaches.
Authoritarian coach: the organisation that he offers with language
(and with the body) demands a certain type of relationship in
which commands abound compared to the information. In the
group the relationships are based on a formal respect.
The relationship does not provide for the possibility of making
mistakes, if something does not work (the team loses), it is always
someone else's fault (referee, player X or Y, bad luck); but also
during the training session if the boy does not improve, it is no doubt
the boy's fault. The limit of this type of relationship is in the fact that
if success is missing fairly constantly, the external enemy is not
enough, so the relationship ends and the authority becomes
questionable. We must say however that when everything goes
well, the proposed objectives are easily reached.
Authoritative coach: in the verbal relationship the information
exceeds the commands. He needs to know how to make them
accept his skills, and more apparent than substantial conflicts or
disorders may occur in the group because the relationship is less
formal. Seeing as it is important to “learn by reasoning”, a
relationship in which the individualities are not squashed by the
“Coach-Master”, will determine better long-term results.

The facilitating strategies of the instructor-young player relationship are:

• Putting oneself in the condition of having more possibilities of
intervention (never be in a situation with only one solution);
• Not always being judgemental;
• Not classifying.
That is, not saying: ”you need to do it this way and that's it” but “I
think that you should do it this way”; not saying “you don't
understand anything” but “you should do…”; not saying “look at
the others, don't you see how good they are” but “good, but try to
avoid this…”.
Once the instructors have dealt with delivering the information in
169
 the best possible way, their task is not finished. In fact, it isn't sure
that it is enough to provide a correct stimulus in order for it to
produce a change and even less that it produces a change in the
right direction.
The proposal must be adequate and the instructor will notice
through the responses of the young football players. In a “training”
plan the proposals to learn a move need to be dosed according to
the responses of the pupils.
But the proposals are important and their adequacy are
determining: The didactical intervention (the correction) is
ineffective if the requests don't respect the learning level.
For example, if a young boy is learning how to master an external
kick of the foot, we cannot ask for the precision of the shot. Every
phase of learning has its own characteristics. These two concepts
represent just as important pedagogical principles that must
continuously characterise the didactical plan of the children of the
Football School, especially from 6 to 9-10 years old.
They stand for pointing out that the pupil will have to widen his
basic supply of knowledge of movements as much as possible,
trying to enrich, quantitatively and qualitatively, the low potential
of experiences a child of 6-7 years may have. The didactical
principles of polyvalence and multilateralism must obviously be
intended in reference to the load of activities the children are
subject to. Therefore, also by practicing a motory activity that uses
moves and actions of the game of football, the teacher must not
in any case ignore these two aspects.
Polyvalence means that the activities must be adapted in such a
way that they involve the various areas of development of the
personality of the individual:
• Intellective-social area
• Morphological-functional area
• Motory area
From this it arises that the basic premise so that the involvement of
the pupil presents a multi-directional value, it will be that the content
of the lessons will have to be chosen according to the development
of the three abovementioned areas and therefore using, upon the
discretion of the teacher, the most appropriate methodologies.
Multilateralism, contrarily to unilateralism, is the principle according
to which physical activities must not be limited to the characters
that are present in only one specific sport, but for the purpose of
improving the general motricity, they must use moves and action of
other athletic disciplines.
170
Only by proceeding this way the pupils will be able to: further
develop their motor skills; structure a vast choice of basic
movement patterns, static as well as dynamic; continuously refine
and adapt the corporal pattern (in relation to the morphological
development); consolidate the laterality, also and especially to
build the ability of ambidexterity.
It therefor seems appropriate to highlight the fact that football, in
the first phases of athletic training, is only one of the many methods
to reach these objectives, whereas the formation of specific
abilities is built in a second phase (11-12 years)and only on the base
of motory experiences that have been as rich as possible.

.2 The Cognitive Method (Problem Solving)

4.2
I n consideration of the specific aspects of game actions, the
training process of the young players must without a doubt be
based on them: meaning on the continuous variability of the
situations, the interdependence between individual actions and
actions of the other components of the team and the instability of
the overall context.
The significant aspects to be used in tactical education are:
• The ability to perceive and collect the information (selective
attention)
• The ability to understand the game (and elaboration of a
programme)
• The ability to choose (decision) and the execution
It will be the game that is the best way to favour the
comprehension of the game, the development of tactical thought
and the education to the game of cooperation (see ILLUSTRATION 37).

The illustration shows strongly that in tactical learning the cognitive

involvement of the pupils is decisive in order to make them the main
characters of their learning process. Here is an example:
The action of the coach will be articulated in the following way:

to … to understand the
Play football
game of football

… to answer the
questions of the
game of football

ILLUSTRATION 37 - The game is useful to favour the comprehension and the

development of tactical thought
171
 • He proposes a game situation or a game with a certain objective,
the students are engaged in finding the most appropriate solutions;
• He stimulates the search of a solution to which they are closest;
• He poses questions to polarise the research in a certain direction:
“what did you see?” “what will be a good thing to do?”
• He observes the behaviours of the boys and intervenes with new
targeted questions: “why?” “how?” “when?” “did you realise
that….?)
• He provokes the research of other solutions: “what else could
have been done?” “what could have given more problems to
the opponent?”
• He underlines partial successes of individual players.
It therefore seems clear that the coach carries out a facilitating
action in the search for a solution, without giving it directly.
So that the player may go from an instinctive play to an intentional
and organised play, we must therefore ask him to analyse,
elaborate and understand with continuity the various meanings of
various elements in the game. In fact, the memorisation of the final
phase of the motory action separated from the analysis of the
difficulties that face the player, will not be really effective because
the subject in question will not be able to recognise the significant
aspects of the game.
If our pupils aren't used to knowing how to read the game during
training their effort to memorise will be concentrated on the
technical move. If the coach wants his players to accelerate their
game, during the training sessions he will have to accentuate the
aspects of rapidity of perception, comprehension and decision.

We once again reiterate that it is the freedom of choice that favours

the growth of the young football player and that determines his
progress. A boy that doesn't think or that limits himself to executing
the indications of his coach without adding his own considerations,
will not be able to completely express his tactical potential that on
the contrary, in the worst case scenario, will seem strongly inhibited.
172
The use of this method will induce the young player to substantially:
be calm and serene in facing new situations and difficulties, to
have faith in his tools, and have a good spirit of initiative, to be fully
involved in the dynamics of the game, and to not be afraid of
making mistakes.

Were We Good or Were They Good?

4.3 Let's Check Through Observation
and Evaluation

F irst of all we must clarify what we mean with evaluation in

general and what are the synonyms that inappropriately are
used to describe it. For evaluation we intend “an organised process
that, on the basis of factors that make up the performance, tends
to find the individual starting levels, the progress of the learning
process via the control of the programme, the final results”. From
this definition one deducts that the evaluation in its general
meaning becomes a fundamental tool to investigate the initial
conditions of each student, in order to establish the margins for
development of the performance; it allows to establish the short,
medium and long-term didactical objectives and to verify the
desired psycho-physical adaptations; therefore to control “in
itinere” the validity of the didactical organisation and to provide
considerations and judgements on the basis of obtained results. The
evaluation process is an essential aid for the teacher/coach as it
allows to find out if the training of the various abilities and skills is
obtaining the planned results and if certain aptitudes are subject to
concrete evolutionary possibilities. Practically, evaluation has two
fundamental functions: diagnostic and prognostic.
The diagnosis is carried out in reference to the environmental
conditions from which the work plans are born and at the end of
the programmed cycle. The prognosis defines future potential; it
tends therefore to predict the performance possibilities in the long
term, operating on the basis of indications and data, as an
instrument of selection of talent. In this regard one must remember
that a subject possesses genetic characteristics (that express
themselves with activity) transmitted by the heredity from the
parents and represent a personal pattern, an intrinsic structure
affected by the environment. In the concept of environment in this
case, further to the experiential possibilities and the occasions to
which each individual is naturally exposed, one must include the
specific actions of the teacher which can exalt certain premises, or
173
 not have any influence and even damage the status to point of
creating involution risks. Some authors (Filippovic, Turevskj) through
an accurate analysis of the motory structure, lay down limits
because “until 10-11 years in a child it is only possible to guess his
real inclinations towards a certain kind of sport, but it is not possible
to predict them with a sufficient degree of reliability, based on
scientific calculations”.
According to other authors (Nadori, Wendland) the resolution of
the problem resides “in the analysis of the rate of growth in the
course of 3-4 years of activity”. According to these statements the
methods that are therefore aimed at selecting talent until the pre-
pubescent evolution phase, simply transform into “athletic
orientation”, which basically confirms the attitude towards a sport
or class of sport instead of others. Going back to problems related
to the evaluation of motory activites, we can identify three steps in
the process, integrated among themselves, that ensure the control
of the relationship between teaching/learning. (See ILLUSTRATION 38,
A. Dispenza 1992 in D'Ottavio 1994) Furthermore it is appropriate to
remember that at least two methods of evaluation exist, before
facing the specific demands of football, subjective and objective.
The first is a process that can be reached via procedures that
cannot be encoded, they depend on the teacher, on his
experience and on his analytical skills,: it is a type of evaluation
founded on criteria that aren't standardised that determine a
certain variability of results, determined by various kinds of factors.
The second is based on methods that allow to obtain identical
results, independently from the person that carries out the tests, and
is repeatable at any time and in the same conditions. It is essentially

Evaluation Measurement Test

• Expression of • Quantitative • Collection of
judgement on results appreciation of the informative data on
of a learning process degree of learning, the level obtained by
• Difficult to be level of skill, ability the students compared
completely objective • Measurements, scores to the established
• Is expressed via • Maximum objectivity is objectives
grades-judgements necessary as it is the • Function of control on
basis used to express the levels progressively
grades and judgements obtained in relation to
of evaluation the work carried out
(highlighting the
obtained to determine
the type of continuation
of the training plan)
ILLUSTRATION 38 - A. Dispenza 1992 in D'Ottavio 1994

174
based on measurements and specific tests designed to investigate
parameters of performance that have already been singled out.
(ILLUSTRATION 39)

General Purposes of the Evaluation

• To highlight the shortcomings and the predispositions of each one
• Consequently direct the didactical intervention
• Form, if necessary, groups of the same level
• Verify the effectiveness of a programme
• Estimate the rhythm of growth of particular quantities
• Motivate
• Predict immediate and future performances
ILLUSTRATION 39 - General purposes of evaluation, Carbonaro, Madella, Manno,
Memi, Mussino in D'Ottavio 1994

.1 Control and evaluation

4.3 of the didactical programme

A ny activity, be it athletic or of another kind organised around

a planned programme and that tends to the fulfilment of
certain objectives, needs to verify, as we have said before, if the
results, theoretically hypothesised, have actually been reached.
These procedures of control demand the use of specific instruments
(means) of measurement that can be used in itinere, during the
progress of the programme, as well as at the end of the
teaching/training process. On the basis of this introductory
consideration, it is easy to guess that, before taking the issue of
evaluation into consideration, it is necessary to focus on defining
the work programme and the temporal cycles that divide the
objectives and the relative content that we intend to use in
practice. This organisation of the annual programme, which defines
the load of activities and relative phases of realisation, needs a
monitoring system that is specifically correlated to this progress. In
other words to the use of tests that allow the study of the training or
development period before the execution of the test. (TABLE 18)
It is however clear that, if it is inadequate to verify the quality of the
cognitive processes in facing a more or less complex game situation
at the beginning of the year (for example November), it would not
be so unspecific to test certain technical coordinative or physical
qualities towards the end of the season, as the didactical stimuli, if
correctly transmitted, should allow not only a qualitative increase,
but also a certain stability (duration) for the whole period of activities.
175
 As a general rule, one must also remember that for a certain
evolutionary period, the applicable tests, selected on the basis of
the technical-functional level at that time, will have to remain the
same. This is to highlight - through the comparison between the
various sessions, the progress obtained as well as the changes
linked to biological growth. But the dynamic way that, at a young
age, certain maturity indicators move, requires in some phases of
training a different choice of the evaluation tests.
This aspect, obviously, mainly concerns the conditional abilities (for
example from the pre-pubescent period to puberty). It is also true,
in any case, that the maturity of the nervous system and mental
and sensorial processes that it entails demands a different type of
evaluation intervention that also regards the evolution of the
technical and tactical abilities.
The football player's performance, whether he is a young player or
an adult, is made through the optimal integration of three
fundamental factors: tactical, technical and physical.
The football player's actions, whether he is the ball possessor, or if he
is participating in the game and trying to gain contact are always
the expression of the product of these three factors which, in a
different way, according to the situation, intervene to determine
the success or the failure of the play.

During the course of a test and in its application, to be considered

useful for the purposes of the evaluation, it needs to respond to
principles of validity, reliability, objectivity, standardisation.
• The validity of a test regards what the test measures and how
precisely. It provides a direct and objective verification of the
extent to which the test fulfils its functions. In other words a test can
be considered valid if it measures what it is designed to measure as
accurately as possible.
• The reliability of a test is intended as the possibility of obtaining, with
the same subjects and the same conditions the same result. If, for
example the boy obtains similar results in following trials, the test
offers the appropriate guarantees of reliability
• The objectivity of a test tells us to what extent the instructor-
measurer can influence the result of the test itself.
• These characteristics are often given beforehand on the basis of
particular analysis and are a part of the process of standardisation of
the tests. The standardisation, further to the abovementioned premises,
necessarily implies a uniformity of procedures in the administration of
the tests and in the determination of the relevant scores.
TABLE 18 - Principles for the administration of tests - D'Ottavio S., document from the
Specialisation Degree course in Sport Science and Techniques, University
of Tor Vergata, Rome, 2002
176
Each of these three performance aspects can be evaluated
separately, or combined with the other two factors. The latter
possibility represents the will to measure the overall characteristics
that distinguish the overall performance of the player. The tactical
factor can be evaluated during the match or during training that
reproduce game actions and can use quantitative as well as
qualitative procedures.
The technical expression of a football player is usually more prone
to evaluation during training, but it is also possible to form
judgements in this regard also during the course of the competition.
Also for this aspect it is possible to use quantitative as well as
qualitative procedures. The physical qualities, on the other hand,
during competitions and training, are more easily tested with more
objective measurements (quantitative).
Reserving the evaluation of the tactical aspects, intended as the
most rigorous sense of the term, to considerations that regard the
practice of adults, the technique of a player depends on various
conditions and refers to pre-established models, sustained by
principles of economy, by biomechanical laws and on the
effectiveness with which the gesture is carried out.
The coordinative and conditional abilities and the relative
subjective availability, concur in deciding the outcome of an
execution, of a more or less complex move or play.
While evaluating this kind of activities the coach may follow two
kinds of pathways:
1. control of the execution of the technical move, trying to find
elements of nonconformity from the theoretical reference
technical model (for example the position of the feet, of the trunk
of the body, rotation of the pelvis) applying corrections expressing
judgements and proposing an adequate didactical response.
2. control of the functionality with which the technical move is
carried out (principle of effectiveness), that is if the pursued
objective in the test or in the game action is realised.
177
 In football, without obviously ignoring the specific aspects described in
point 1), we believe that to evaluate in terms of result obtained is more
correlated to the needs that the specific performance demands. Any
technical execution must take into account the requirements of
precision and rapidity. The opposition of the opponent, which, in a
contented sport, such as football, influences the way in which it is
executed, influences the way in which the move is carried out, it
induces the player to a constant temporal pressure that negatively
influences the intended precision. As a definitive consideration, a
player is better than another if he is able to take advantage of his
execution and, in general, this kind of occurrence happens when:
• the solution that is elaborated in a game context is pertinent to
the situation (effective technical project);
• the movements, the displacements and the technical moves are
carried out rapidly;
• the move that is used seems precise and obtains the desired result.
At the Federal Football School of Acquacetosa of Rome, in the
1992-93 sport season we conducted an experiment regarding the
evaluation of football movements in children from 6 to 12 years. The
hypothesis was made that, by taking into consideration some
relationships among the various parameters of the action or the
specific moves, including the mental ones, we could tend, by
containing an inevitable approximation of the datum, towards a
verification that is generally objective. Three fundamental
relationships were found and were therefore reproduced in
practice with exercises - tests.

.2 The Technical-Evaluation Protocol

4.3
T he evaluation structure examined the four general motor
behaviours: running, hitting, receiving, moving, and relating
each of them with two fundamental factors of motricity, precision
and rapidity. As it is easy to think, these two expressions of
movement present themselves during practical activity in terms of
disturbance. Evidently, if the pupil is called upon to solve a task of
precision, he has to forcibly control his impulsivity (executive speed)
in reference to the requested problem. In turn the exercises that
require a contained executive timing (i.e. relays with coordinative
routes), may bring the child to make more mistakes in terms of
precision and of motory control. Our experimental protocol
highlighted three relations and consequently as many groups of
exercises-tests containing these objectives.
178
1. precision
2. rapidity and precision
3. rapidity and precision in the presence of the opponent
Which problems is a child called upon to solve during the execution
of the exercises-tests? For example:
• How many times are you able to…?
• How much time do you need to…?
• In a pre-established time, how many times are you able to…?
In the third kind of relation, the one in the presence of the
opponent, we can also evaluate the when, where and the what,
meaning respectively the time, the direction and the technical
choice adopted by the pupil during the execution of the exercise.
It is important to underline that the following evaluation proposals
never consider the how a given problem can be solved. Evidently
this aspect that refers to technically correct execution of the move
from the aesthetic point of view as well as the ergonomic one, can
be evaluated in football only with subjective procedures and with
qualitative parameters.

The experimental protocol divided by age groups, found 48

exercises-tests that after a first analysis of results, seemed not to
contrast with the subjective procedures (qualitative) of evaluation
that in any case are still used, but allowed us to analyse in more
specific terms some specific aspects of football locomotion that
would not have been easy to verify in other ways. In this way, also
in technically very endowed players, we were able to find
possibilities of improvement, regarding a certain kind of technical
behaviour (conduct), structured on one of the three relations,
thereby providing us with a real opportunity of analysis and of
intervention oriented through indicators that can be expressed in
objective terms. As a description we reproduce some examples of
exercise-tests in the following pages (see FIGURE 35 to 57,
S.D'Ottavio, Federal Football School 1994).
179
 12 m
10 m

8 m

FIG. 35 FIG. 36
FIGURE 35 - Little Friends - TIMED FIGURE 8 GUIDE (Relation 2). We count the number
of routes the subject is able to complete for example in one minute.
FIGURE 36 - Little Friends - CONTROLLING THE BALL IN A STRAIGHT LINE WITH
OPPONENT (Relation 3). We count how many times the subject (for
example in 5 trials) can overtake the opponent, who only has to touch
the ball (by moving on the line) to interrupt the execution.

As far as the bio-energetic and mechanical muscular support to

the performance is concerned, there is not much of a habit,
among coaches of the juvenile basic categories, to organise
sessions or part thereof dedicated specifically to the observation of
the essential physical qualities. This behaviour is often justified by the
little time available and by the fact that, at this age, there are other
objectives to pursue or, at least, to give priority to.
It is also true, in any case, that an adequate development of these
abilities allows a more global evolution of the overall performance
that is needed or will be needed to play football.
Furthermore, some of these specific qualities, like for example the
rapidity of movement or rapid force, need to be stimulated at a
young age (6-12 years) to be able to obtain levels of maturity
(development-adaptation) such as to have a positive influence on
the performance in future age, and also because they seem
strongly correlated to technical abilities.
Even the aerobic force in any case, connected to the volume and

12 m 12 m

m
8
6 m
2 m
6
m

FIG. 37 FIG. 38
FIGURE 37 - Little Friends - THREE LITTLE GOALS AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES AND WITH
DIFFERENT SCORES (Relation 1). We count the score obtained, in for
example 9 trials (3 per goal)
FIGURE 38 - Little Friends - INTERCEPTING THE BALL (Relation 3) We count how many
times the subject (for example in 5 trials) is able to touch the ball of the
opponent, who tries to overtake him by dribbling.

180
 8 m
4 m

4 m
2 m
10 m

5 m
FIG. 39 FIG. 40
FIGURE 39 - Little Friends - RECEIVING THE BALL DEFENDING A BIG GOAL (Relation 1).
We count the number of stopped balls after 5 trials. The teacher throws
and kicks the ball on the ground.
FIGURE 40 - Little Friends - RECEIVING THREE BALLS THROWN AT THE SAME TIME (or in
rapid succession) BY THE INSTRUCTOR (Relation 2). We count the number
of stopped balls for example in three trials. The instructor throws the ball
in with his hands.

quality of the lessons or of the training sessions, turn out to be

qualities that do not disturb, but on the contrary have a positive
influence on organic growth.
Independently from the fact that we are talking about juvenile or
adult competition, at any level, in terms of its general
characteristics, we can summarise how rapidity/speed of
movements and in technical executions and in the willingness of
the subject to repeat it for the number of times required by the
game, and for the whole duration of the game, actions and
movements executed with a high intensity.
Therefore a formation-development or training programme
oriented towards stimulating the organic functionality, the
neuromuscular qualities, and the growing processes, needs to
provide for exercises and content with which the pupil experiments
his strength, his resistance and speed. These physical qualities,
fundamental to build any athletic performance, will have to be
15 m
6 m 10 m
5 m

7 m
6 m

FIG. 41 FIG. 42
FIGURE 41 - Little Friends - FOUR CORNERS (Relation 3). We count the number of
times, for example over 5 trials, that the subject can fill the space left
free during the movement of the other four.
FIGURE 42 - Little Friends - SHOOT TO GOAL TRYING TO SEND THE BALL AS FAR AWAY
AS POSSIBLE (Relation 1). We count the number of goals carried out as
well as the distance obtained with the ball. The exercise-test may be
carried out, for example, over 3 trials.
181
 directed and mediated on the basis of specific requirements of
football and of the evolutionary phase. Therefore, we must reserve
a specific position in the general picture of the factors of physical
conditions to these energetic aspects.
In ILLUSTRATION 40 we represent the tests used during many athletic
seasons at the Federal Football School of Rome. Each of the tests

cmj (Bosco) F cmj 5-15’’ (Bosco)

triple (on-two feet)
long jump
quintuple x 3 reps

V R

30m. sprint 15+15m. (shuttle) 1200m. Lèger

10+10m. (shuttle) x3-5 times R 20-30’’ Yo-yo (Bangsbo)

ILLUSTRATION 40 - Physical tests used at Federal Football School of Rome (D'Ottavio, 1997)

m
10 m 2 10 m

10 m
FIG. 43 FIG. 44
FIGURE 43 - Cubs - A B GUIDE (Relation 1). We count the number of touches carried
out by the pupil. For example, over 3 completed routes the pupil who
manages to touch the ball the least will obtain a better result.
FIGURE 44 - Cubs - FOUR CORNERS FOUR GOALS (WITH THE BALL) (Relation 3). Kicking
the ball to direct it in the small goals left free by those (opponents) who
move around in the various positions. We count how many times the
subject scores goals, over 5 trials.

2 m
10 m 6 m
8 m

4 m

8 m 2 m
FIG. 45 FIG. 46
FIGURE 45 - Cubs - TIMED SHOOTING (Relation 2) - Kicking the ball between two
diametrically opposite small goals, bringing the ball back to starting
point every time (opposite). In one minute's time, we count the number
of valid trials.
FIGURE 46 - Cubs- SHOOT WITH AUTO-PASS (Relation 2). Straight after having kicked,
the pupil runs trying to shoot to goal within the pre-established action
zone. We count the number of goals scored over 5 trials.
182
are especially calculated in the figures in the point where we think
it could be more sensitively influenced by one or more integrated
physical qualities. For example, the vertical jumping performance
(CMJ), which represents the expression of the overall strength-
speed in its explosive form, in the illustration it is inserted in an
intermediate position between zone F (strength) and the V zone
(speed). The same goes for the three or five repetitions of the
shuttle circuit (15x2 m) with 20 or 30 seconds of recovery time
between one repetition and another, are placed between the V
zone (speed) and the R zone (resistance).
4 m

8 m
fotocellula

1 m
6 m

4 m
2 m

1 m

FIG. 47 4 m
FIG. 48 4 m

FIGURE 47 - Cubs - RECEIVING WITH CONTROL IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION (Relation

3). Receiving a ball to control, towards the goal left free by the
defender, (the defender has a head start, exactly when the ball kicked
by the teacher crosses the line that connects the first two “photocell”
cones). Basically if the defender moves to the right, the control of the
ball must be carried out towards the left. We count, over 5 trials, the
valid trials (the ball is conducted through the small goals).
FIGURE 48 - Cubs - RECEIVING IN A SEQUENCE (THREE LEVELS) (Relation 1). We count
after 6 trials (3 right - 3 left) the score obtained overall given that every
line corresponds to a different score. The teacher throws the ball on the
ground or with a slight parabolic trajectory. The pupil has to stop as
closely as possible to the point where he begins the stop. The closer the
ball is stopped, the more points he obtains.

12 m 12 m

6 m
8 m
2 m

4 m

FIG. 49 FIG. 50
FIGURE 49 - Cubs - FREEING FROM COVER AND SCORING A GOAL (Relation 3).
Freeing himself from cover, therefore receiving the ball kicked by the
foot of the teacher from outside of the rectangle, and try to score a goal
by kicking the ball in one of the three goals (or by guiding the ball into
the goal posts). The opponent will have to try and stop him. For example
we count how many goals are scored over 5 trials.
FIGURE 50 - Cubs - INTERCEPTING THE BALL (Relation 3). A pupil guides the ball trying
to overtake the opponent's line. We count how many times the defender
is able to intercept (touch) the ball over 5 trials.
183
 12 m m
2 10 m

6 m

10 m
FIG. 51 FIG. 52
FIGURE 51 - Cubs - OVERTAKING THE OPPONENT (Relation 3). This time, differently
from the last test, we evaluate the child that is guiding the ball
(attacker). Over 5 trials we count the number of times that the subject
can overtake the defender. Compared to smaller children the available
space to overtake is more limited (6metres against the 8 initial meters).
FIGURE 52 - Cubs - FOUR CORNERS (Relation 3). All pupils with the ball: we count the
number of times the pupil can guide the ball into the small goal that is
left free from the movement of the other four pupils. We count the
number of goals (guiding the ball into the small goals) over 5 trials.

2 m
10 m
2 m 8 m 6 m

4 m
FIG. 53 FIG. 54
FIGURE 53 - Beginners - TIMED DOUBLE 8 GUIDE (Relation 3). In an established
amount of time (e.g. 2 minutes) we count the number of routes
(completed) that the subject can total.
FIGURE 54 - Beginners - SHOOT WITH AUTO-PASS (Relation 3). Differently from the first
exercise for smaller pupils, the auto-pass is carried out with one defender
that chases the striker. We count the number of goals over 5 trials.

In GRAPHS 31 and 32 we represent, in a sort of general picture, the

test we used that present average results, referred to a certain
period of the sport season.
From the data it appears that there is significant statistical
correlation between the variables in consideration. In other words
the children that are better in the continuous vertical jumps (cmj),
are the ones that, normally, obtain the best performances in the
quintuple jump repeated three times, afterwards. The investigated
quality in both cases is the resistance to fast force. The same
tendency can be identified between the vertical jump (cmj) and
the long jump from a standing position. An identical relation can be
observed by comparing the results obtained with the 1200 metre
tests and the Legèr test. Both, in fact, seem to allow an objective
diagnosis of the organic-metabolic ability.
184
GRAPH 31 - Some examples of tests used with non-selected children in football
school (n°62) (D'Ottavio, 1997)

Legend Evaluation TESTs

cmj (Bosco, 1982): vertical jump in countermovement (90° bend) with
arms to the side according to the protocol of Bosco C.(1982), on a
conductibility platform. Investigated quality: explosive force with
elastic reuse. Similar tests (correlated): long jump from standing
position.
5” cmj (Bosco, 1982): continuous vertical jumps as in the cmj
according to Bosco's protocol with measurement of the expressive
force (alacticid) and the average height measured during the test.
Investigated quality: resistance to fast force. Similar tests
(correlated): quintuple jump repeated for a number of times.
Legèr test (1987): “shuttle” circuit (back and forth) over a distance of
20 metres with increase of speed beginning from 8,5 km/h with a 0,5
km/h increase per minute via sound dictation. Test until exhaustion,
according to Legèr's protocol (1983). Investigated quality: aerobic
185
 strength. Similar tests (correlated): 1200 metres of continuous running.
Yo-yo test (Bangsbo 1994): shuttle circuit as for preceding test, but
with 5 or 10 seconds of recovery for each segment of 20+20 metres.
Test increased until exhaustion according to the 2 protocols of J.
Bangsbo (1994): one with initial low speed (8,5 km/h) and one at a
higher speed (10,5 km/h).

4 m

4 m
fotocellula

5 m
6 m

10 m
2 m

1 m

FIG. 55 4 m
FIG. 56
FIGURE 55 - Beginners - RECEIVING WITH CONTROL IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
(Relation 3). Receive a ball in a sequence with control, going to occupy
the goal that is left free by the defender (the defender has a head start,
when the defender has a head start, exactly when the ball kicked by
the teacher crosses the line that connects the first two “photocell”
cones). We count, over 5 trials, the valid trials (the ball is conducted
through the small goals). Compared to the exercise used for smaller
children, we can increase the difficulty by making the goals narrower.
FIGURE 56 - Beginners - RUN AND STOP THE BALL (Relation 2). Receiving the ball
within the two squares (see figure) alternating left and right, and the
returning the ball to the instructor. Timed test: we count the number of
valid stops for example in 1 minute.

12 m
8 m
2 m

4 m

FIG. 57
FIGURE 57 - Beginners - FREEING FROM COVER AND SCORING A GOL (Relation 3).
Freeing himself from cover, therefore receiving the ball kicked by the
foot of the teacher from outside of the rectangle, and try to score a goal
by kicking the ball in one of the two goals (or by guiding the ball into
the goals) avoiding the opponent's intervention. Differently from the first
exercise with smaller children, the goals go from being 3 to 2. We count
the goals over 5 trials.

186
GRAPH 32 - Some examples of tests used with non-selected children in football
school (n°84) (D'Ottavio, 1997)

187
5.
Finally we move on
to the field:
to the football
lesson
 Didactical Unit and Training Session
5.1
T he practical realisation of the didactical programme needs
to be carried out through well defined and planned
sequences of exercises that are called “didactical units”.
They are made up of “the group of planned and ordered didactical
actions and realised in a limited amount of time in the view of
reaching a particular specific objective” (Tartarotti in Sotgiu-
Pellegrini, 1989). The didactical unit is a more elementary structure of
the programme. It represents the constituent element on which the
general and specific objectives of the work plan are based and are
realised, according to a definite temporal organisation.
The motory responses must be intended as a dynamic process of
assimilation of the determined proposed content, that are part of a
wider whole of which the unit is only a micro-part that is integrated
and combined with other units, as the links of a single necklace.
On the basis of the adaptations that occur, the objectives of a
higher order are built and defined that are connected with the first
objectives, allowing in such a way to obtain the premises and the
potential of didactical growth.
Normally, to simplify organisation, the didactical unit may coincide
with the single lesson or the training session, but if the desired
objectives are complex, the didactical unit will have to be divided
into more units.
However the day-to-day work, the one that in football terminology
is called a training session, is made up of various phases:
• Start-up phase (functional warm-up, physiological preparation
and specific didactic)
• Central phase (didactic direction, determination of objectives,
main workload)
• Final phase (recuperation, checking the adaptations, verbalisation
feedback on results, individual psychological re-balancing)

.1 From Theory to Practice

5.1
T he didactical units and the exercises that compose it
therefore represent the “didactical terminal” at the
teacher's disposal to be able to induce changes in terms of
learning of the various qualities and abilities.
In this last chapter of the guide we considered it necessary to provide
some practical suggestions that were coherent with the various
cultural preambles that have filled most of the pages so far. We must
189
 remember that practice is founded on theoretical principles and
bases, and that theory needs to be practically applied to be able to
reinforce and sustain the formulated hypotheses.
From now on, therefore, the relationship that has been established
between us through the study of this guide will be different.
Therefore, in order to facilitate communication and to face the
suggestions that we will give in a friendly way, especially in the
worksheets, it will be appropriate for us to be on first-name terms,
seeing as we will have to prepare ourselves for a long journey that
will last one year, or, more specifically, one athletic season…

The Worksheets: how to “read” them

5.2

T he lessons, divided by each category are illustrated with a

material example of didactical programming. The worksheets
are a practical instrument and concrete operative guide that is
useful for the coach to propose, without falling into approximations,
appropriate activities for a correct technical and athletic training e
to be able to teach with a satisfactory quality for the whole year of
Football School. As you will notice, the sheets are structured by
periods, which we have conveniently called “MODULES”.
The worksheets within the “Module”, are the functional unit of the
programme. They are identified in “Lessons” and allow us to have a
slender reference model. All this will help you to identify more
precisely the content of the activities to propose with the possibility
of using the suggested variants and to propose new exercises
without loosing sight of the objective. You will be the one in fact to
indicate on each sheet the amount of time that you have
dedicated to the fulfilment of those objectives and you can write
the period of time you took to fulfil them, specifying the beginning
“From…” and the end “To…”. In the same way you can indicate
the variables used in each exercise and the observations that you
think are appropriate to take note of.
The sheets are therefore divided into two types: the sheet of the
period (MODULE) and the sheet of the LESSON.
While the MODULE describes the most important didactical
objectives to pursue in a very simple way, the sheet of the LESSON
highlights which are the didactical activities (means and content)
proposed to reach them.
Therefore in the following volumes you will find one part dedicated to
the presentation of the category we are referring to (Little Friends,
Cubs, Beginners), to which the operational sheets are attached,
190
which, divided into 8 MODULES (months) for each category, include
the “Lessons”. Furthermore there will be some worksheets that refer to
the young goalkeeper, in which you will find the activities for the
Cubs category as well as the Beginner category.
Overall, we therefore have prepared for you 8 “Module” Sheets and
24 “Lesson” sheets for each category, for a total of 24 “Module”
Sheets and 72 “Lesson” Sheets. Furthermore there are 16 “Module”
Sheets and 32 “Lesson” Sheets in the guide regarding the
goalkeepers, of which 16 are referred to the Cubs category and 16
to the Beginner category.
Each “Lesson” is complete with drawings that illustrate the various
activities and graphs that give you a sense of how the work load is
distributed, all laid out in an easily understandable way and which,
in time, will favour an evermore didactical autonomy to be able to
plan the activities that you deem more appropriate for your group
by yourself. This in any case, after having carefully evaluated the
abilities of your young football players and all the variables that
determine and can influence the success of the plan.

.1 The Module
5.2
L et us start reading this sheet from left to right. The
“Remember” box will help you remind yourself of the
characteristics of the children in the group.
You will also be able to insert methodological aspects, suggestions
and other things to facilitate the organisation of the lesson.
The graph refers to a period that, for the sake of convenience, we
have identified as a month of activity, but our hypothetical time
could be different from yours. The graph illustrates how our
didactical proposals, of a Technical, Tactical and Physical-Motor,
may vary according to the period we propose them. Therefore you
will be able to observe in the graph the curves that describe how
much in that period, some objectives compared to others, and the
relative didactical content, are more or less represented and
therefore pursuable on a didactical level. In this regard it is
appropriate to inform you that, in the curves we are referring to, the
two sub-groups of the factor “tactical-cognitive”, indicate the two
didactical variants that can be carried out. As far as the Little
Friends category is concerned this “exercise container” is divided in
“collective games” and “game and match situations”, as far as the
Cubs are concerned, in “collective games and game situations”
and in “match games” and, finally, as far as the Beginners are
191
 concerned in “game situations” and in “match games”.
Furthermore, you will have a space in which you can write down
your observations, which may be previous (inserting for example
aspect relating to the previous period) or successive.
Other data, like for example the number of lessons or weeks used
to fulfil the objectives, the relevant month, the planned meetings
(parties and events for the smaller ones and competitions for the
“bigger boys”), you will have to enter for yourself according to your
teaching experience.

.2 The Lesson
5.2
T his sheet is the element that summarises and sums up on a
practical level many of the aspects we dealt with in the
Technical Guide. The theoretical principles, the suggestions and the
other promises expressed in the various chapters, are now
transferred in to practical application.
We have highlighted the proposed exercises divided in the
didactical containers we have used: Technical-coordinative,
Tactical-cognitive, and Physical-motory. The containers have
information regarding the main didactical objective, the proposed
exercises and their duration. The illustrated graphs in the bottom half
of the sheet (of the trimester, the month and the lesson), strongly
correlated to the exercises and the proposed objectives, are for
reference purposes for the general activity plan and to control the
tendencies of the curves (curves of the factors: Technical-
coordinative, Tactical-cognitive - and the relevant sub-divisions - and
Physical-motory) during the same period. On the side, you will have
information regarding the succession of the exercises, the necessary
equipment and the duration of the lesson. In each container you will
have the possibility of inserting observations and variants, which you
will obviously be able to take note of during or after the lesson.

On the back of the operational sheet you will find the explanations
of the games and the proposed exercises, providing the instructor
with the considerations that brought us to use that kind of exercise.
Furthermore, we describe the development of the exercise itself,
the possible variants that can be used to make it easier or more
complex. Clearly the sheet is complete with an illustration of the
exercise and the advisable duration.
Here as well you will find, at the end, other parameters relating to
the material that is needed, the overall duration, etc.
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In general the lesson was divided in the following way:

INITIAL (or START-UP) PHASE

In this phase it is important for the children to be put at ease,
immediately creating a joyous and motivating environment.
The initial games, other than contemplating free-play activities in
small spaces, may also include activities taken from popular
children's games, that we all know and that unfortunately tend to
be an excluded part of a child's natural locomotor repertoire
anymore. In most cases these proposals are well linked to the
objectives of the lesson and become therefore preparatory to the
following exercises.
For example:
1. the Handkerchief game: very involving for children: it develops
coordination skills such as spatial orientation, adaptation and
transformation of moving according to the behaviour of other
players;
2. 3 vs 3 matches: which makes a pleasant beginning for the lesson,
by disclaiming the traditionalist concept that contemplates the
match only at the end of the lesson.
In the initial phase we have contemplated an activity for articular
mobility in general or movement control, to be matched, most of
the time, with the use of the ball.
For example:
1. ball control exercises - with the ball in the hand, kick the ball
once with various parts of the foot and catch the ball after one
bounce only (hip, ankle mobility etc.). Further to developing the
articular mobility of the relevant parts of the body it also favours
their sensitivity.
2. pre-acrobatic activities: in order to make the child aware of
various aspects linked to body movement in various situations, in
the air or on the ground, by changing the relationship among
segments of the body. Important perceptions that determine a
constant increase in movement control, in particular in the
various “key phases” in his lifetime.

CENTRAL PHASE
This period is organised according to the objectives to be fulfilled. It
may be organised according to a logical sequence that expresses
the didactical meaning that you wish to obtain and therefore the
specific characteristics and the particular aspects of the curricular
phase. The sequence of the considered activities will have to
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 initially favour the acquisition of technical notions, whereas in a
second phase more room will be provided to activities that require
more physical commitment.
The circuit structure is often used as it involves the pupils more and
is advisable especially in the first age groups when you need to
work with small groups in smaller spaces.
The activities that characterise this phase are mainly oriented
towards the satisfaction of the following kind of objectives:
• TECHNICAL-COORDINATIVE - FROM THE ACQUISITION OF THE
TECHNICAL MOVE TO ITS USE: it is the didactical container in which
you insert all the games, exercises and activities that determine
mainly technical learning. Essentially we consider the activities
that solicit in the child the acquisition of sensorial and perceptive
information, a base for an adequate structuring of the child's
coordinative baggage (see paragraph “Coordination Skills”), a
fundamental premise for the formation of technical abilities;
• TACTICAL - COGNITIVE - FROM THE SOLUTION OF INDIVIDUAL
PROBLEMS TO SOLUTIONS OF COLLECTIVE PROBLEMS: it is the
didactical container in which you insert all the activities that solicit
in the child the acquisition of cognitive notions and that will allow
him to be aware of various game situations. This way the child will
be continuously solicited to solve problems linked to the nature of
the game, individual ones before and collective ones afterwards.

Tactical training will have the chance to realise itself through the
structuring of games of a situational kind and themed matches,
favouring an efficient choice of behaviour on a technical level.
Therefore the proposed activities in this container will determine an
improvement of the decision making abilities, of processing
personalised (individual) “strategies”, like the ability to play in a group,
thereby learning the bases of “operating” in a team. In terms of the
three categories, as mentioned before, the “tactical-cognitive”
definition will have to be more specifically referred to the various ages.
194
For the Little Friends category the didactical container has been
divided into “collective games” and in “game and match situations”.
As far as the Cubs are concerned it has been divided into “collective
games and game situations” and in “match games” and finally,
concerning Beginners in “game situations” and “match games”.
The effect of this division is represented in the illustrations of the
relative graphs, as well as the practical exercises.
• PHYSICAL-MOTORY - FROM THE BASIC MOTOR SKILLS TO THE USE
OF CONDITIONAL SKILLS: it is the didactical container which,
through specific exercises, determines learning and
improvements of the physical profile and movement control. The
young boy, according to the age group, and on the basis
therefore of the bio-physiological characteristics of the age,
needs to be stimulated on the basis of the various opportunities
that the infantile organism presents as a response of functional
adaptation. (see paragraph “Key Phases”). Therefore in the
smaller children there are more senso-motory activities, instead of
purely physical. In any case the proposed practical activities will
always have, as much as is possible, a playful component and,
possibly, the ball will always be present.
We have furthermore considered in the various activities the
movement behaviours that are specific to football, which we can
summarise in the following pattern (see TABLE 18, D'Ottavio 1994)
VARIANTS: they represent a didactical possibility referred to the three
didactical containers: TECHNICAL-COORDINATIVE, TACTICAL-
COGNITIVE and PHYSICAL-MOTORY, which allow, through a partial
change of the basic exercise, to propose activities that have an
adequate degree of difficulty compared to the potential of the pupils.
In every activity we therefore have the possibility of changing: the
space, the distances and the routes, the rapidity and ways of
execution, the number, roles and tasks of the players, the type of
teaching material (balls, pins, smaller goals, etc., the ways of

Primary Secondary
• Running and walking with the ball Control, dribbling
• Jumping and/or hitting the ball Passing, shooting, deviating
Throwing, tackling, kicking
• Jumping and/or receiving the ball Stopping, intercepting
Catching, controlling, hitting
• Moving without the ball Freeing from cover, marking,
directing, anticipating
TABLE 18 - Specific Movement conducts in football (D'Ottavio, 1994)

195
 providing information with visual signals (colour, movement of the
ball, of team mates and/or opponents, etc.) either with acoustic
signals (whistles, hand clapping, sound of the ball, etc.) or with
other perceptive-sensorial opportunities. All this in relation to the
needs of the children and the pre-established or verified technical
objectives during the lessons, in order to make the structure of the
exercise more adequate (see ILLUSTRATION 35).

Technical
characteristics
of the children

Didactical programme didactical unit

Fundamental Response of the

structure of children to
the exercise the exercise

VARIANT OF
THE EXERCISE

ILLUSTRATION 35 - Use of variants to the exercise in the Didactical Programme -

D'Ottavio document from the Specialisation Degree course in Sport
Science and Techniques, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, 2003

FINAL PHASE
At the end of the lesson it is appropriate to leave some free time to
the young players who, until that moment, even if they have had
fun, have had to submit to your indications. In this phase, letting the
children play freely, you will have the opportunity to verify whether
or not the moves you have proposed during the lesson have been
acquired by the children, or in any case accepted, observing if
they use them spontaneously.
Therefore normally the final phase coincides with an activity, or a
game, in a free form. This phase also represents an important time
to communicate with the pupils, regarding the issues of the lesson,
in order to verify (feed-back) possible changes at a conceptual as
well as behavioural level.

FREE PLAY: In every lesson it is necessary to have time for free play,
very important for the instructor who “observes and evaluates”,
and very important for the young player who “expresses” his
creativity, his imagination, his knowledge of how to “live” with
others and the obtained level of learning. We also stress the fact
196
that it is not always necessary to insert this training method at the
end of the lesson. Many times, in particular with smaller children, it
is necessary to have more free time in the lesson, some times at the
beginning, some times as a part of a training circuit, letting the
children and young ones to choose the games (not necessarily
matches), the rules, the dimensions of the field and the goals.
Basically an activity, at that time, that is completely on their terms.

Summarising: in the lesson sheet you will find indications of:

1. the dominating technical objective
2. the exercises and the times that are necessary to complete them
3. the didactical material
4. the duration of the lesson; from 80 to 100 minutes based on the
age of the children.

197
 A. appendix: The Application of Psychology
in Football Schools

A key element in the teacher's activity regards the

comprehension of the sources from which the young boy
obtains information regarding his competence level. The
psychologists agree in sustaining that the individuals that possess a
high perception of their athletic competencies are very motivated
to continue committing to that activity, they are oriented towards
improving their abilities further and obtain pleasure from practicing
their sport. On the contrary, the young individuals who think they
are less competent are also unmotivated, less persistent in reaching
improvement objectives and they perceive the athletic experience
as less attractive. It is, therefore, possible to affirm that the
perception of competence is an element of mediation between
obtained results and the demonstrated mastery and the enacted
behaviours during the athletic action. On these terms, the
instructor's behaviour, in his role as a teacher, is extremely important
because, thanks to his training proposal, the children of the Football
School will carry out activities that will allow them to acquire those
athletic and psychosocial abilities that have been described in the
technical guide. To learn is however not sufficiently motivating to
continue in that specific activity, it needs to be associated to the
awareness of having learned. As we have repeated several times
in this Technical Guide, a task of the instructor is to solicit the
children to become aware of what they have learned and of what
they need to do to improve.
Furthermore, it is from the conjoint action of these two components,
having learned and being aware of having learned, that intrinsic
motivation is triggered, which implies the will to persist in playing
football. Intrinsic motivation is the internal impulse that sustains the
commitment to an activity in which one obtains satisfaction from
what one does, on the contrary of extrinsic motivation, which is
based on external reinforcements (e.g. prizes, money, particular
recognition). Intrinsic motivation is based on the need and the
desire of the child to feel competent and determined in relation to
his surrounding environment. In an athletic environment, these
children show pleasure and interest towards the activities they carry
out, by committing to the exercises and the games that are
proposed by the instructor, independently from prizes and rewards.
They are children that are interested in new exercises, stimulated by
the difficulties they find and that they commit to overcome.
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On the contrary, the less intrinsically motivated children commit
themselves if they see the possibility of prizes and rewards from the
teacher or from the parents. They prefer easy exercises in which
they know they will be successful. They need the teacher to
motivate them and control their commitment.
Furthermore, the children that are aware of their motory and athletic
abilities face the proposed activities with security, they volunteer
themselves when there is a new exercise to carry out even if it is
difficult, they are able to measure themselves against their team
mates without any fears. On the contrary, children with a reduced
perception of motory competence move in a more clumsy way and
tend to avoid comparing themselves to their peers.

Finally, the young individuals that perceive themselves as competent

and intrinsically motivated develop positive expectations regarding
the possibility of continuing to acquire and improve their skills. In this
way a virtuous cycle closes, for which the perception of athletic
competence is based on the learned elements from the Football
School, and in turn the motivation to persist in this activity and the
child expects to continue having positive experiences, developing
an attitude of trust regarding the instructor (ILLUSTRATION 1a).

To return to motivation is in any case important because intrinsic

motivation is present in every learning process, as in any situation in
which an individual (trainer, parent or manager) is in the condition
of influencing the behaviour of another person. The basic elements
of this type of approach to the study of motivation are:
1. The fundamental element of this theory consists, as we have said,
in the idea that each individual wants to know that the result of
his actions depend on him. Therefore every external intervention
aimed at reducing this type of perception will provoke a
reduction of intrinsic motivation. It happens in all those situations
in which the young person commits to the maximum only to
receive prizes or for fear of possible punishments. In this case the
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 self-esteem

increase of
perception of
athletic, increase in intrinsic
psychological and motivation
social competence

development of
athletic,
psychological and
social abilities

development of
training programme athletic activities expectations
of the instructor
of success

choice of the pupil's

objectives

ILLUSTRATION 1A - Pyschological model for the participation in athletic activity. The

choice of the shared objectives among pupils and teachers
stimulates the subject to commit to athletic activities. This in turn
determines the affirmation of a positive cycle in which the acquisition
of athletic abilities and the increased awareness of his own motory
and athletic abilities sustain the interest toward that activity as well as
the expectation of continuing to improve himself and to obtain
satisfaction. Furthermore, the awareness of having learned new
abilities determines, in time, an increase of self-esteem. It is necessary
for the instructor and the pupil to cooperate in establishing common
objectives, that are adequate to the level of physical abilities, motory
and athletic competencies of the young boy.

child does not express himself with movement for the pleasure he
obtains, for example from the match or from learning something
new, but because he is moved by the desire of receiving some
form of external appreciation. Furthermore, the young person
acting in this way places himself in the hands of a person that will
give him prizes according to his personal parameters, which may
completely differ from his own.
2. The perception of competence and the enthusiasm derived
from challenging situations sustain intrinsic motivation. The
interventions of the trainer should increase the perception of
personal effectiveness, that way the child will know that his
commitment and the strategies he has used are appropriate for
him to reach the objectives he has set himself. In fact, it is
200
 necessary to stimulate in the boys the growth of an attitude of
complete responsibility regarding their motory and athletic
actions, teaching them to completely take advantage of the
instructions provided by the coaches.
3. It is not decisive if the reinforcements are material (trophies,
athletic equipment, gadgets) or symbolic (based on personal
appreciations). It is the informative content of these
communications. Every young person, after the coach's
intervention, may feel himself controlled or demotivated or
understood at a rational level or even absolutely enthusiastic;
which is best? To have a coach that mainly establishes a
relationship based on logical aspects of the performance
(explaining the technical components of the athletic move to
the young boy and therefore providing specific technical
instructions), as well as on the positive emotional transmission
(psychological support aimed at sustaining the young person's
conviction in his ability to face any athletic situation).
4. Furthermore, the orientation towards the task favours the increase
of intrinsic motivation. Differently from result orientation, especially
in children, it may have a negative influence. For task orientation
we intend the conviction of the boy of the fact that “it is thanks to
my commitment that I am becoming better and better at playing
football”. On the contrary an excessive emphasis on the result to
obtain may entail a reduction of commitment, which will probably
be maximum in the activities he is already good at. Therefore,
coaches that are task oriented are those that reinforce in the child
first of all their commitment to the exercises and games and only
secondarily their focus on technical results of their actions,
providing them with instructions on how to improve.
To be more specific, it is possible to identify which sources of
information that the young people use to evaluate their degree of
competence. In fact, if for the children in a pre-scholastic age the
judgement of competence is essentially based on the mastery of
simple movement tasks and on the feed-back received from adults
that they interact with most frequently, from the ages of 5-7 the
children show a tendency to evaluate their competence by
comparing them to those of their peers. This activity of social
confrontation becomes more and more evident during the years of
elementary school and reaches its maximum point at the end of
infancy/beginning of adolescence. During adolescence, on the
other hand, young people learn to integrate the information
provided by a greater number of information sources.
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 Furthermore, as an effect of cognitive maturity at the end of
infancy one can notice, also, a significant interiorisation of
standards of success. In this way the child develops internal
parameters of success, which will allow him to express relatively
autonomous evaluations regarding his performances.
Most research results, some of which have also been conducted in
football (for an overview see Cei, 1998), have shown:
• 8-9 years - The children of this age indicate as main sources of
information on their competence the results of the game and the
feedback from adults, and show that the pleasure of feeling like a
part of the group, with entails being with friends and making new
ones is the dominating motivation and has the role of stimulus of other
motivations regarding having fun and acquiring competencies.
• 10-11 years - The children of this age that perceive themselves as
competent indicate that their main sources of information
regarding their competencies is confrontation with their peers,
personal performance parameters corresponding to those they
have interiorised during their athletic experience and the
emotional components linked to the sport. On the contrary, those
who are less convinced of their competencies normally use more
external information sources such as, for example, the objective
results of the performances.
• 12-14 years - The children of this age indicate as a main sources of
information on their competencies the evaluations of their coach,
the confrontations with their team mates and internal criteria.
Whereas, like in the preceding age group, the less confident ones
use more external criteria such as the objective results of their
performances and feed-back from their parents and spectators.
Other variables also intervene on the evaluation process of their
own competencies and above all those regarding the
chronological age and cognitive development. In fact, studies that
have made comparisons between the evaluations of the teachers
and those of the young boys have highlighted the perception of
competence becoming more accurate between the ages of 10-
13 compared to the preceding ages.
To summarise, it emerges that the evaluations of the instructors should
be used to establish the basis for the establishment of the young boys'
own internal criteria to examine the results of their performances. They
are solid foundations that favour a psychosocial training
characterised by an autonomy of judgement and psychological
independence in considering his own strong and weak points.
The parents should not carry out a teaching role or technical
202
reinforcement, but a role of psychological support of their son's
commitment. This function should not be considered as a reduction
of role on the part of the family but, on the contrary, essential in
proving to the child that they are happy with his actions and that
they encourage him to persist in playing football independently
from the results he obtains, with out therefore conditionally granting
their support according to athletic success.

B. appendix: in
To Let Them Grow Healthily
a Football School

F or children, playing football must not only be a time of fun and

games, but also an important factor of psychophysical growth.
Children from 6 to 12 years old that go to a Football School show an
unexpected resistance in long duration activities, made up of the
sum of many different brief exercises, in which moments of various
intensity are alternated. The activity therefore does not seem
repetitive and monotonous, but fun, rich in variations and new things.
Locomotor activity that is carried out with due care (see ILLUSTRATION
4b), during the football lessons allows the children of this age to learn
to take on a correct posture, a corporal setting that is not seen to be
a static concept, but as an expression of the child's personality and
therefore linked to his psycho-physical development; movement
and games are therefore an important expression of it.
Movement and play proposed without athletic overload, which
would otherwise bring on problems, especially in the articular
cartilage of the locomotor system (see ILLUSTRATION 5b).
For children who have problems of muscular development (under
developed or lacking in tone), or skeletal development ( tendency
to scoliosis, cyphosis, winged scapulae, flat feet…), participating in
Football School is particularly useful facilitating elasticity and
articulation, therefore having a positive influence on changing
posture. Even children that suffer from asthma, especially allergic

203
 asthma, find benefits in the positive effects of this kind of activity.
Finally, also for children that have different problems, such as
difficulty of coordinating movements, slow reflexes and reactions
and socialisation problems, Football School seems to be very
helpful (see ILLUSTRATION 1b).
Football School, which should be carried out in an appropriate
area (see ILLUSTRATION 7b), is also the environment in which bad
nutrition habits, which are the cause, among others, of diseases
such as obesity, diabetes, arterial hypotension, can be corrected,
pathologies that are all the more frequent in sedentary children. In
such a case a constant control of body weight is important, as the
development of adipose tissue (fat) occurs especially in this phase
of life. It is therefore imperative to prefer foods that are rich in iron,
calcium, vitamins of group B, D, PP, to those that are high in
biological values such as protein in meat and eggs, as well as fish.
Finally, milk must always be also present in children's nutrition.
It is also important to divide the daily nutrition rations into 5 portions,
according to the child's school and Football School commitments
(see ILLUSTRATIONS 2b and 3b).
The popular habit of taking liquid saline integrators must be beaten,
as they are useless at this age, but children should be advised to
drink water, which is essential during matches and training sessions.
What we have said so far for boys is naturally also valid for girls, who
have begun going to football schools in the past few years.
To go to Football School, respecting also a few rules related to
hygiene (see ILLUSTRATION 6b), for children, means to help them grow in
good health and in harmony with their bodies and others, which are
the basics to become strong and healthy adults, self-confident,
happy and -if they are lucky - talented “good and successful players”.

The 10 “reasons” to motivate children to go to Football School

• It helps to prevent paramorphisms in the muscular - skeletal system
• It increases and perfects respiratory condition
• It eliminates negative ponderal-statural ratios
• It improves cardio-circulatory parameters
• It has a positive influence on psychological disturbances
• It improves the ability to coordinate movements
• It improves resistance to infective diseases (he gets sick less)
• It makes the child stronger and more resistant
• It regularises organic functions (sleeping, appetite, intestinal function…)
• It improves impact of articular solicitations
ILLUSTRATION 1b
204
 NUTRITION GUIDELINES
The guidelines are for reference purposes for nutrition and health and
are aimed at providing practical advice.
1) Weight control
Excessive body weight increases the incidence of disease such as
cardiovascular, diabetes and hypertension.
2) More cereal, legumes, vegetables and fruit
They contain complex carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral salts and, like
legumes also protein.
3) Better not exaggerate with salt
Its excessive consumption, more than 6 grams a day, may bring on
various risks such as favouring the onset of cardiovascular diseases.
4) As much variation in nutritional choice as possible
To guarantee a sufficient intake of all nutritional substances, try and
vary nutritional choices as much as possible and the combination
between various foods, thereby eliminating the necessity to use
specific integrators. To help you in your daily choice, eat one kind of
food in each of the following categories: a) cereal and tubers, b) fruit,
vegetables and fresh legumes, c) milk and derivations, d) meat, fish,
eggs and legumes, e) condiment fats, preferably of a vegetable origin.
5) How much fat and which fat
As far as quantity is concerned, be aware of invisible fats contained
in food, and as far as quality is concerned, prefer vegetable fat to
animal fat.
6) Sugar and sweets: how and how many
Keep count of the amount and frequency of intake of sweet foods
and drinks during the day, and prefer sweets with a low fat content
and more complex carbohydrates (baked products), check sweet
spreadable products
7) Alcoholic beverages: if so, in moderation
ILLUSTRATION 2b

Typical daily food ration for children of 6-12 years old that go to
Football School
• Breakfast: plenty: milk or tea, bread or toast, with jam or honey, dry
biscuits (avoid snacks), cereal, yoghurt and squeezed juice.
• Mid-morning snack: one piece of fruit or a few dry biscuits.
• Lunch: plate of pasta or rice; seasonal fruit if the training session is
planned for the first hours of the afternoon. If more than 3 hours will
pass between lunch and the training session, add a portion of meat,
preferably white or fish or ham or cured beef in minimal quantities.
• During training: sip water from time to time, it is the only integration
that the child really needs.
• Snack after training: Juice or shake with a few biscuits.
• Dinner: a plate of soup or even better “minestrone”, meat, fish,
eggs, cheese with a portion of vegetables or fruit.
ILLUSTRATION 3b

205
 The 10 “hows” of protecting children that go to Football School
• Medical check-up to certify good health (compulsory)
• Check-up once a year to evaluate their growth and health
• Do not use medicine without medical authorisation (never
nutritional integrators)
• Do not hurry them to go back to Football School after infective
illnesses or injuries even if they are not serious.
• Get them into the habit of showering after training sessions
• Get them to dry themselves well after showering
• Remind them not to walk barefoot in the locker rooms
• Get them into the habit of using 13 studded boots, never 6
• Get them into the habit of eating well
• Teach them to drink water during exercises and matches, always in
moderation
ILLUSTRATION 4b

The 10 precautions to avoid lesions to the osteo-articular and

muscular system in children
• Avoid making them carry out brusque and violent movements, of
which the direction, breadth, speed and intensity are not well
controlled.
• Avoid constantly and continuously keeping the articulations heavily
loaded. Even the load of the sole body weight, if maintained for too
long in immobility can be negative.
• Avoid letting them sustain heavy loads to rigid articulations, e.g.
jumping to the ground with rigid lower limbs, falling down on the
“bottom”.
• Avoid them forcing the articulations over their natural limit of
excursion, when it causes pain.
• Avoid execution of movement without warming up.
• Avoid violent vibrating solicitations: they are decidedly damaging
to the articulations, when they are directly forced on the latter.
• Avoid exercise when an articulation is in pain.
• Avoid execution of movements when tired, as it is easier to incur in
articular trauma.
• Avoid intense workload after a long period of immobility, for
example if limb has been in a cast.
• Avoid incorrect running (knocking the heel to the floor) on hard
surfaces or with inappropriate footwear (rigid soles, hard heel, etc.)
because this causes the inflammation of the Achilles tendon and
the whole region of the heel
ILLUSTRATION 5b

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 14 rules of hygiene for children to observe in football school
• Nails are to be kept at a proper length (cut and filed); toenails, if too
short at the corners and compressed in shoe, could become in-
growing and the fingernails, if too long could cause injury in case of
contact with the opponent.
• Nails are to be kept clean to avoid the accumulation of dirt and the
probable formation of infective clusters.
• Underwear (socks, knickers, undershirts etc.), when in contact with
changing room benches, floors and other external wear, could
cause skin infections.
• Bathrobes and towels, should not be left on the floor or on dirty
objects. It is better never to share towels.
• In a bag it is better to keep various kinds of objects in separate
compartments or wrappings.
• The child should feel “good” and “healthy” and physically and
psychologically ready to commit to training.
• There shouldn't be any sickness, disturbances, fever, etc, during and
after training.
• The bladder, like the intestine, should be evacuated before the
beginning of a training session; the child will feel freer and better
disposed to move and performance will improve.
• During training: if it is cold the child should be well covered, but not
too much in order to limit sweating; if it is hot, he must be lightly
dressed, but not too much to avoid catching a cold if he is sweaty.
• If there are long pauses, it is better to have something ready to
cover up with during this time.
• At the end of training, change clothes, after a shower. Sweaty
clothing, even if they are dry, are full of organic substances of sweat
that have a tendency to retain humidity as well as to emit
disagreeable smells.
• The clothing used for training is best if made out of material that
allows transpiration without belts or laces that could stop circulation
• Be careful of exposing the children to the sun especially if the
radiations are intense, it irritates the skin and the network of
capillaries on it, which could cause simple redness to circulatory
disturbances an even burns and ulcerations.
• Be careful of ice and wind, they alter the balance of the skin that
may and has to be protected with the application of appropriate
products.
ILLUSTRATION 6b

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 5 precautions of sport facilities of the Football School
• Do not walk barefoot especially in the shower and in every other
part of the changing rooms: the risk of skin diseases, is the same as
in a swimming pool (use flip-flops or slippers).
• Public hygiene facilities are a point of possible infection for various
kinds of illnesses. One must avoid, as much as possible, contact with
these facilities and wash hands as soon as possible.
• In changing areas, especially when hot and sweaty, and in washing
areas, it is best to have an adequate temperature (about 18°),
without air currents that could dangerously chill the body.
• Use appropriate equipment in good conditions;
• Check for the absence of rough or cutting edges and objects that
could break and become dangerous
ILLUSTRATION 7b

7 general suggestions to always be applied in a Football School

• Every training session should come after an adequate warm-up and
concluded with breathing and relaxing exercises.
• When tiredness becomes high it is best to interrupt activities because
when one is tired one is more subject to: pulled and contracted
muscles; twists and articular traumas in general, circulatory
disturbances; gastrointestinal disturbances.
• If there is a disturbance of any kind, it is best to interrupt work.
• If suddenly the child feels weak and loss of balance, it could be a sign
of imminent fainting.
• Even when the child is already able to carry out an athletic move, it
mustn't be initially carried out at the maximum possible performance.
• Any activity must be carried out in fully controlled and aware
conditions with very clear objectives.
• Advise children in Football School to sleep at least 8/9 hours. If they
sleep less than this they will be tired and sleepy for the whole day.
ILLUSTRATION 8b

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C. appendix: For an Adequate Medical
Assistance During Training
Sessions and Matches

W hoever provides first aid to an injured athlete is only rarely,

in amateur contexts, a doctor or trained personnel.
Logically, it is necessary for every athletic operator to know what to
do in case of necessity. But it is also necessary for them to know
what they must absolutely avoid so that their intervention does not
result in prejudicing the evolution of an injury or, in very serious
cases, the life of the injured person, even if they have the best
intentions of giving first aid. The mind should focus on the possibility
that the conservation of the well-being of the organism of an
athlete could only depend on the timeliness and above all the
correct conduct of the intervention, and confer the responsibility to
any operator. Whoever notices, reading the first aid instructions,
that their preparation is not sufficient, should not hesitate to seek
information or go to a first aid training course.

ATHLETIC FIRST-AID RULES

Urgency: the key word of first aid.
Competence: the fundamental component for a perfect first aid
situation.
Facilities: the completion of a capillary organisation.
These are the key points on which the entire sector of medical
assistance should be based, even in sporting contexts in case of
athletes and/or spectators in serious difficulty.
Today we cannot count on improvised assistance, on the good will
of whom, by chance, witnesses the situation.
To face the necessity of an ever increasing qualitative level of the
aid provided, organisations and facilities have been built to
competently intervene in a few minutes. But the problem of first aid
assistance, or “saving” in cases of emergency, remains open.
Here, therefore, lies the necessity of always providing an adequate
medical organisation independently from the athletic level and the
age group of the participants, which takes the local medical
facilities into account. An organisation that therefore knows how to
face all the possible scenarios on the field, beginning from the
availability of an adequate medical room with medical material
that is appropriate for various first aid treatments and organised by
personnel that, even though they are not professionals, at least are
aware of the first aid objectives.
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 It is always desirable to have the presence of personnel that is aware
of the first aid procedures and knows how to put them into practice.

PROGRAMME OF AN ADEQUATE “MEDICAL

ASSISTANCE” DURING ATHLETIC ACTIVITIES
To plan an adequate medical assistance we must take the
following aspects into consideration:
• Number of participants
• Number of expected spectators
• Age of the athletes
• Availability of a first aid kit
• Availability of certain means of communication
• Location of the sports facility or location of the event
• Location (distance) from other close hospitals
• Location of ambulances on the territory and their availability

APPARENT SCENARIOS ON PLAYING FIELDS

AND RELEVANT INTERVENTION PROTOCOL
There are two scenarios that can be found on the field and the
relevant intervention protocols to be applied:
A. Witness of inanimate injured person
- Evaluation of the mechanism of the trauma (dynamic)
- Execution B.L.S. with ABC of first aid if traumatised in
cardiacand/or respiratory arrest (execution of cardio-pulmonary
reanimation)
- Restore security position
- Call for help, information, directions

B. Witness of cooperative injured person

- The account of the injured person
- General evaluation of the injured person
- Segment evaluation (wound, contusion, capsule-ligament lesion,
fracture, haemorrhage, spinal-cord lesions, cranial trauma,
thorax, abdominal…)
- Immobilisation
- Restore security position
- Call for help, information, directions

FIRST AID MATERIAL THAT IS APPROPRIATE

FOR VARIOUS TREATMENTS
Every athletic facility should be equipped with the following first aid
material:
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“MEDICATION” Kit
- material to clean wounds of the injured and hands of the rescuer
- mono-use latex gloves - medicated bandages - band-aid roll -
hydrogen peroxide- gauzes for medications
“IMMOBILISATION” Kit
- collar - Immobilisers of upper and lower limbs
“RIANIMATION” Kit
- reanimation mask
Miscellaneous
- thermal blanket - cooling spray - ready ice-pack - elastic
bandages of various measurements

The Juvenile and Scholastic Sector hopes that every facility for
athletic activity, and in particular juvenile activities, the Clubs
should have a Semi-automatic Defibrillator which may be used
“exclusively” by personnel that has been trained through proper 5-
hour courses managed by specialised personnel (for example the
Italian Emergency Service “118”).

PRACTICAL FIRST AID PROCEDURE OF

MEDICAL “ATHLETIC” AID
(witness of a traumatic event)
Every first aid person should be able to:
- evaluate the injured person in the emergency situation: (cardio-
circulatory and/or respiratory arrest, cranial trauma, spinal
trauma, state of shock)
- enact B.L.S. procedures with A.B.C. sequence
- safety position: a) slightly lift the hip of the traumatised person in a
lying down position and place the closest forearm under it, 2)
place the corresponding foot close to the buttock, 3) grasp the
opposite shoulder and hip and pull the victim towards you, 4) flex
the arm outwards by grasping the elbow, 5) flex the head
backwards and turn the head towards the ground, 6) place the
fingers of the hand under the cheek.
- anti-shock position: a) the victim is lying down, b) lift the lower
limbs by 90°degrees, c) keep the lower limbs in this position for a
little while, d) later, position the victim obliquely resting on a
support (e.g. tipped chair)
- place immobilisers on lower/upper limbs and put on collar
- carry out techniques of external haemorrhage arrest
- medicate
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 ASSISTANCE OF NON-QUALIFIED RESCUER
In case of absence of qualified personnel on the field, who is able
to carry out first aid procedures:
- Do not carry out risky manoeuvres
( do not cause harm before salvaging)
- Calm the victim
- Take on the role of leader of first aid
(command the manoeuvres and impart orders with decision, call
for first aid, turn away spectator and carry out necessary
manoeuvres)

B.L.S. PROCEDURE
It is a sequence that allows a rapid evaluation of the vital
parameters and at the same time to solve potentially dangerous
conditions by enacting cardio-pulmonary resuscitation:
A) Evaluation of the state of consciousness and open airways (Airway)
- Call the victim by name and delicately shake him/her
- Make someone call the emergency number (in Italy 118)
- Place the victim on a rigid surface aligning the body and
uncovering the thorax.
- Hyperextend the head (lift the chin with two fingers, and push the
forehead with the palm of the hand)
- Check that the airways are open.
B) Evaluation of respiratory activity
- Execute L.L.F. x 10 seconds (Look, Listen and Feel)
- Check that the emergency number has been called
- Carry out two ventilations using aero-facial mask (2 seconds)
- Check the expansion of the thorax
C) Evaluation of cardiac activity
- Check for presence of cardiac activity for 10 seconds
- Find the point of reference (one finger above the top of the
sternum)
- Compress the thorax rapidly for 30 repetitions
- Alternate the compressions with 2 insufflations
- At the end of the fifth cycle revaluate the patient by checking
circulation first, then breathing then consciousness
- In the absence of signs of recovery continue to resuscitate
- If a pulse reappears and breathing is absent, carry out ventilation
every 5 seconds and check the carotid pulse after 12 ventilations
Remember: continue to resuscitate until a doctor arrives or until you
are exhausted and no longer able to continue.

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MEDICAL AND TRAUMATIC URGENCIES
AND EMERGENCIES
Below we schematically present the emergencies and the
urgencies that may occur on a field

LIPOTIMIC CRISIS (fainting)

Sudden weakness with tendency to temporary loss of conscience,
absence of reactions with insufficient blood circulation of the brain.
Symptoms: sudden fainting, pallor, vertigo, cold sweat, absence of
reactions
Causes: low pressure, fatigue, heat
Dangers: wounds from falling, fainting again because of getting up
too quickly.
Action: lift the lower limbs, loosen tight clothing, check cardiac
pulse and respiration, after regaining consciousness wait ten
minutes before getting up, if unconscious assume safety position.

HEAT STROKE
Abnormal rise in body temperature with arrest of sweating for lack
of transpiration.
Symptoms: hot skin, head ache, vertigo, reddened face, short
breath, arrest of perspiration, muscle cramps, thirst, diarrhoea
(sometimes), high heart rate.
Causes: sultry climate, fatigue in overcrowded environment
Dangers: loss of consciousness, coma.
Action: transport the victim to a cool location, semi-sitting position, ice
pack on head, aspersion of fresh water on body, loosen tight clothing,
check heartbeat and breathing, if unconscious safety position.

SUN STROKE
Excessive heat of skin surface with irritation of the meninges.
Symptoms: Profuse sweating, increasing pallor, head ache, vertigo,
slight neck stiffness, mental confusion
Causes: direct action of sun rays
Dangers: progressive loss of consciousness, state of shock
Action: distend victim in the shade, loosen tight clothing, ice-pack,
if unconscious safety position.

ABDOMINAL COLIC
Painful sudden, violent crisis in abdomen
Symptoms: Pain on the side spreading to the pubic bone and back
(kidney colic), pain on right side spreading to the abdomen and
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 right shoulder (biliary colic), pain in lower right-hand quadrant that
becomes acute when patient is walking (appendicitis).
Causes: kidney stones, biliary stones, acute inflammation
Dangers: aggravation, shock
Action: serene environment around patient, no medicine, no food,
liquid or smoke, hospitalisation.

CONVULSIONS
Inflation of cerebral cortex
Symptoms: it begins with a shout or with a brief stop in breathing,
sudden fall, jumps and violent contractions, tight jaw, foaming of
the mouth, cyanotic face caused by difficulty breathing.
Causes: general epileptic state, non convulsive state
Dangers: injury against angles, furniture…
Action: do not attempt to stop limbs during convulsions, be careful
the patient doesn't hurt himself, place in safety position if possible,
stay close to the patient, hospitalise.

HYPOGLYCEMIC CRISIS
Reduction of normal blood concentration of glucose
Symptoms: sensation of increasing malaise, sudden hunger that
comes with nausea, prostration, profuse sweating, feeling cold,
shrunken pupils, muscular contractions (sometimes).
Cause: diabetes, excessive physical exercise.
Dangers: convulsions, loss of consciousness, shock.
Action: make the patient take sugared water every ten minutes,
hospitalise if patient does not recover.

CEREBRAL CONCUSSION
Loss of consciousness for more or less time caused by shake of the
encephalus.
Symptoms: brief loss of consciousness, headache, mental
confusion, amnesia, sleepiness, torpor, vomit, visual disturbance,
low heart rate.
Causes: cranial trauma
Dangers: intra-cranial compression due to endema or
haemorrhage, respiratory arrest
Action: distend the patient in a lying down position and not in an
anti-shock position, in case of vomit safety position, ice pack on
head, do not provide drink (if patient is conscious), safety position,
icepack on head, check heartbeat and breathing, hospitalise.

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ABDOMINAL TRAUMA
Closed damage to the abdomen
Symptoms: painfulness and ecchymosis (confusion); painful
contraction of abdominal wall, impediment of force inspiration
(case of perforation of an organ); painfulness and alterations of
pulse and pressure (case of internal haemorrhage).
Causes: direct hit to the abdominal wall or counter-shock from a fall.
Dangers: tension of the spleen, kidney, liver even without particular
external signs.
Action: maintain the abdominal wall relaxed by placing a cushion
under knees, check the pulse, do not provide drink, keep body
warm, make patient urinate, hospitalise.

CHEST TRAUMA
Closed damage to the thorax or rib fracture
Symptoms: pain in a precise area that is accentuated with
breathing and coughing.
Cause: direct hit to the area
Dangers: pneumothorax (penetration of air to pleural cavity);
unstable thorax with possible compromise to the pulmonary
parenchyma; haemo-pericardio, arythmia until fibrillation.
Action: hospitalise

WOUND
Lesion in any part of the skin so as to determine laceration
Symptoms: pain, linear cut or contuse laceration.
Cause: contusive trauma, cut lesions
Dangers: haemorrhage, infection (check if patient is covered for
tetanus)
Action: clean the wound, cover and bandage, evaluate if sutures
are necessary on the basis of depth, extension and region.

HAEMORRHAGE
More or less copious loss of blood from blood vessels following
rupture of vascular walls
Symptoms: loss of vibrant red blood and with pulsating force
(arterial haemorrhage) or loss of red blood with a slow flow (venal
haemorrhage).
Causes: trauma with wound, trauma with fracture
Dangers: Haemorrhagic shock
Action: direct compression on the bleeding wound, in case of
arterial haemorrhage compress the artery that fills the region of the
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 trauma in a point between the heart and the wound, the
compression must be made on a bone surface.

TRAUMA OF THE SCROTUM

Traumatic lesion of the scrotal region
Symptoms: bruised testicles from hydrocele or amatocele.
Causes: direct hits
Dangers: laceration to the testicles
Action: ice pack, hospitalisation for tests.

EYE LESION
Trauma that involves ocular globes and connected areas
Symptoms: bruising of the eyelid, haematoma (black eye), sub-
conjunctive stagnation of blood.
Causes: direct hits
Dangers: endo-ocular haemorrhages, damage to the lens,
detachment of the retina.
Action: local application of ice pack, cover the eye, hospitalisation
for tests

LESIONS FOR INSECT BITES (Bees, bumble bees, wasps)

Lesions provoked by insect bites in oral cavity
Symptoms: rapid appearance of endema in the oral mucosa and
on the tongue
Cause: bite with inoculation of irritating substance
Dangers: suffocation
Action: make the patient suck ice continuously, hospitalisation. Bee
poison (acid) is neutralised with touches of diluted ammonia solution.
Wasp poison (basic) is neutralised with vinegar and lemon juice.

NOSE BLEED
Loss of blood from nasal cavity
Symptoms: loss of blood from nostrils, which can also leak into the
pharynx and be swallowed
Causes: nasal trauma, with no apparent causes in infancy.
Danger: shock
Action: head must be more elevated than the body, head bent
forwards (for abundant nose bleeds), head bent backwards (for
other cases, and keep mouth open to breathe, compress nostrils,
nasal tampons, cold packs on the neck.

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EAR BLEED
Loss of blood from the external hearing passage
Symptoms: slight loss of blood from hearing passage
Causes: head trauma
Dangers: fracture of skull base
Action: do not arrest blood loss with tampons, safety position on the
side of ear bleed, ice pack on the head, urgent hospitalisation.

ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Necrosis of myocardial tissue from imbalance between demand
and income of oxygen.
Symptoms: constricting thoracic pain in retro-sternal region with
possible spreading to the shoulder and most frequently on the left,
epigastric pain, anxiousness, perpiration.
Causes: alteration of coronary circulation
Dangers: pulmonary endema, cardiogenic shock
Action: calm the patient, immediate hospitalisation.

VERTEBRAL TRAUMA
Lesion to the spinal cord
Symptoms: intense pain, rigidity of injured region, loss of sensitivity
Cause: falls that provoke distortions, luxations and fractures to the
vertebrae
Dangers: marrow lesions, marrow shock
Action: do not move patient, stop any movement and hold up the
head, immediate call for help.

MUSCULAR LESIONS
Lesions from direct and indirect trauma on the muscular system
Symptoms: localised pain, local bruising, functional impotence,
muscular spasm
Causes: hyper stretching, impact
Dangers: calcifications
Action: ice pack, compression with bandaging, immobilisation.

ARTICULAR LESION
Lesion due to trauma that determines hyper-distension or laceration
of the capsular-ligament system, it is different from distortion and
luxation (where there is also a permanent loss of articular cap ratios)
Symptoms: periarticular bruising, bleeding in articulation, painful
articular movements and pain when articulations are loaded,
instability.
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 Causes: solicitations beyond the limit of normal flexibility.
Dangers: permanent ligament laxism
Action: unload articulation, ice pack, elastic bandaging, raise the
affected limb, in case of luxation hospitalise immediately.

TENDON LESION
Partial or total traumatic lesion to the tendon fibres
Symptoms: sudden “click” followed by acute pain, bruising and
successive ecchimosis, inability to carry out movements that require
the integrity of injured tendon and its muscle.
Causes: violent distension due to energetic muscular contraction.
Dangers: aggravation
Action: ice pack, keep weight off the limb, immediate
immobilisation, hospitalisation for tests.

FRACTURE
Traumatic lesion to the bone
Symptoms: violent and localised pain that increases close to the
fracture, functional impotence, sound of rubbing bones in
movement.
Causes: violent indirect and direct traumas, or brusque and violent
torsions, or squashing.
Dangers: shock
Action: immobilisation of the injured region as it is found, ice-pack,
hospitalisation.

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