Heat Transfer

Heat, Q, is defined as the transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature. Thermal energy, on the other hand, is the energy associated with the random, or
vibrational and rotational motion of particles (e.g. electrons, atoms, molecules, etc) in a substance. For a
given material and mass, the higher the temperature, the greater is the thermal energy. Heat transfer is
a study of the exchange of thermal energy through a body or between bodies which occurs when there
is a temperature difference. When two bodies are at different temperatures, thermal energy transfers
from the one higher temperature region to the one with lower temperature. Heat always transfers from
hot to cold. Heat transfer processes are classified into three types:

1. Conduction
This involves the transfer of heat by the interaction between adjacent molecules of the material.
2. Convection
Convection is the process in which heat is carried from place to place by the bulk movement of
the fluid: e.g. smoke rising from a fire
3. Radiation
In this process, heat is conducted via electromagnetic waves.

CONDUCTION

Conduction through plane wall

𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐶
Cooler body
Warmer body
𝑄ሶ

𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐶 𝑄ሶ

Illustrated in the figure above are the factors that influence the conduction of heat through a bar whose
ends are in thermal contact with two bodies, one of which is kept at a constant higher temperature
while the other is kept at a constant lower temperature. Let 𝑄 represent the amount conducted through
the bar from the warmer end to the cooler end. Then:
  𝑄 is proportional to the time 𝑡 during which conduction takes place: 𝑄 ∝ 𝑡
 𝑄 is proportional to the temperature difference ∆𝑇 between the ends of the bar:
𝑄 ∝ 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 = ∆𝑇
 𝑄 is proportional to the cross-sectional area 𝐴 of the bar: 𝑄 ∝ 𝐴
 𝑄 is inversely proportional to the length 𝑙 of the bar: 𝑄 ∝ 1⁄𝑙

Combining these proportionalities, and introducing a proportionality constant, 𝑘, which is called the
thermal conductivity, results in the following equation for the rate of heat conduction:

𝑄 ∆𝑇
= 𝑄ሶ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑡 𝑙

Where :

𝑄ሶ = rate of heat transfer (measured in Watts)

𝑘 = thermal conductivity[𝑊/(𝑚. 𝐾)]

𝐴 = the surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer (𝑚2 )

The rate of heat transfer equation above is commonly known as Fourier’s Law of Conduction. A larger
∆𝑇 causes more heat to flow and ∆𝑇 = 0 means no heat flows between the two ends, since they have
the same temperature. The quantity, ∆𝑇⁄𝑙 is called the temperature gradient; it tells how many ℃ or 𝐾
the temperature changes per unit distance moved along the path of heat flow.

Thermal resistance (R) is mathematically defined as:

∆𝑇
𝑄ሶ =
𝑅

∆𝑇 = 𝑅𝑄ሶ

𝑙
𝑅=
𝑘𝐴

Thermal resistance has SI units of 𝐾/𝑊. For a compound slab containing several materials of thickness,
𝑙1 , 𝑙2 , … … …, and thermal conductivities 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 . … … ..the rate of energy or heat transfer through the slab
at steady state is:

(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 )
𝑄ሶ =
∑ 𝑅𝑖

𝑙𝑖
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑘𝑖 𝐴

Where 𝑇𝐻 and 𝑇𝐶 are the temperatures of the outer surfaces (which are held constant) and the
summation is over all slabs. For resistances in series (see composite plane wall picture below),
 𝑅𝑇 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 .

Suppose we have two layers of different materials at two temperature extremes as shown in the figure
below. These layers are in series because the heat flows through one and then through the other. The
rate of heat flow through the first layer is the same as the rate of heat flow through the second layer,
otherwise the temperature would be changing. Looking at one layer at a time:

ሶ 𝑇 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑅
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑋 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑅2 and 𝑇𝑋 − 𝐶 1

Adding the two together:

(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑋 ) + (𝑇𝑋 − 𝑇𝐶 ) = 𝑄ሶ (𝑅2 + 𝑅1 )

𝐿2 𝐿1
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑄ሶ (𝑅2 + 𝑅1 ) = 𝑄ሶ ( + )
𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘1 𝐴

Example

One wall of a house consists of 0.019 m − thick plywood backed by 0.076 m − thick insulation. The
temperature at the inside surface is 25.0℃, while the temperature at the outside surface is 4.0℃, both
being constant. The thermal conductivities of the insulation and the plywood are, respectively, 0.030 and
0.080 𝐽(s. m. C°), and the area of the wall is 35 m2. Find the heat conducted through the wall in one hour
(a) with insulation and (b) without insulation.

Solution
 (a) First, the temperature 𝑇 at the insulation-plywood interface must be determined. In calculating
𝑇, we use the fact that no heat is accumulating in the wall because the inner and the outer
temperatures are constant. As a result, 𝑄insulation = 𝑄plywood :

∆𝑇𝑡 ∆𝑇𝑡
[−𝑘𝐴 ] = [−𝑘𝐴 ]
𝑙 Insulation 𝑙 plywood

(𝑇 − 25) (4 − 𝑇)
[−(0.030)𝐴 𝑡] = [−(0.080)𝐴 𝑡]
0.076 0.019

Eliminating the area A and 𝑡, and solving the equation for 𝑇, reveals that the temperature at the
insulation-plywood interface is: 𝑇 = 5.8℃.

The heat conducted through the wall is either 𝑄insulation or 𝑄plywood since the two quantities are equal.

(5.8 − 25)(3600)
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [−(0.030)(35) ] = 9.5 × 105 J
0.076

(b) In the absence of insulation, the amount of heat that would flow through the plywood in one hour
4.0℃−25.0℃
is: 𝑄plywood = 0.080 × 35 × ( 0.019
) = 110 × 110 × 105 J

Exercise

A windowpane that measures 20.0 cm × 15.0 cm is set into the front door of the house. The glass is
0.32 cm thick. The temperature outdoors is −15℃ and inside is 22℃. At what rate does heat leave the
house through that one small window?

CONDUCTION THROUGH A CYLINDRICAL WALL

The surface area (A) for transferring heat through the pipe(neglecting the ends of the pipe) is directly
proportional to the radius (r) and length (l)of the pipe:

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
As the radius increases from the inner wall (𝑟𝑖 ) to the outer wall (𝑟𝑜 ), the heat transfer area increases:

∆𝑇
𝑄ሶ = 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑟

For the problem involving cylindrical geometry, it is necessary to define a log mean cross-sectional area
(𝐴ln ):

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑙 − 2𝜋𝑟𝑖 𝑙 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖
𝐴ln = = = 2𝜋𝑙 [ 𝑟 ]
𝐴 2𝜋𝑟 𝑙 ln ( 𝑟𝑜 )
ln ( 𝐴𝑜 ) ln ( 𝑜 )
𝑖 2𝜋𝑟𝑖 𝑙 𝑖

∆𝑇 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖
∴ 𝑄ሶ = 𝑘𝐴ln ( ) = 𝑘 2𝜋𝑙 [ 𝑟 ] ( )
∆𝑟 ln ( 𝑜 ) 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖
[ 𝑟𝑖 ]

(∆𝑇)
𝑄ሶ = 2𝜋𝑘𝑙 𝑟
ln ( 𝑜 )
𝑟𝑖

Where

𝑟𝑖 = inside pipe radius

𝑟𝑜 = outside pipe radius

𝑙 = length of the pipe

Example

A stainless steel pipe with a length of 10.70 m has an inner diameter of 0.280 m and an outer diameter
of 0.329 m. The temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is 50℃ and the temperature of the outer
surface is 48℃. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 14 𝐽(𝑠. 𝑚. 𝐶°).

a) Calculate the heat transfer rate through the pipe

Both conduction and convection require a medium or material for energy transfer. The third energy
transfer mechanism, radiation is characteristically different from the other two in that it does not travel
through a material medium. Radiative heat transfer uses electromagnetic waves. When emitted radiation
strikes another body and gets absorbed, radiative heat transfer is deemed to have occurred. Radiation
transfer occurs in solids as well as in liquids and gases. All bodies emit energy through electromagnetic
radiation above absolute zero. The most familiar example is the Sun, which radiates at a temperature of
approximately 5800 𝐾. Some bodies emit more radiation than others per unit surface area even though
their temperatures are the same.

Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who postulated that accelerated charges or changing electric currents give
rise to electric and magnetic fields, established the theoretical foundation of radiation in 1864. These
rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation, and they represent
the energy emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of atoms or
molecules. An electromagnetic wave consists of a stream of photons, each of which travels at the speed
of light, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s, in vacuum(empty space). In a medium (non-vacuum), this characteristic speed
of an electromagnetic wave is reduced by the refractive index, 𝑛, of the medium through which it is
propagating:
𝑐
𝑣=
𝑛

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency (𝑓) and wavelength (𝜆), where:

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Frequency is measured in (Hz) and the commonly used unit of wavelength (𝜆 ) is the micrometer (𝜇m) or
micron, where 1 𝜇m = 10−6 m. Unlike the wavelength and the speed of propagation, the frequency of an
electromagnetic radiation depends only on the source and is independent of the medium through which
the wave travels. It can vary in range from a few cycles to millions of cycles and higher per second.

In Einstein’s theory for electromagnetic radiation, each photon is considered to have energy given by:

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆

Where the physical quantity, ℎ = 6.625 × 10−34 J. s is the Plank’s constant. Since both 𝑐 and ℎ are
constants, the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, shorter
wavelength radiation possesses more powerful energy (X-rays and gamma rays are highly destructive).

Although all electromagnetic waves have the same general features, waves of different wavelengths
differ significantly in their behavior. The electromagnetic spectrum classifies radiation according to
wavelengths of the radiation. The main types of radiation are (from short to long wavelength): gamma
(𝛾) rays, X-rays; Ultraviolet (UV); visible light, infrared (IR), microwave, and radio waves. Thus,
electromagnetic radiation covers a wide range of wavelength, from 10−10 𝜇m for cosmic rays to 1010 𝜇m
for electrical power waves. Different types of electromagnetic radiation are produced through various
mechanisms:

 𝛾-rays are produced by nuclear reactions

The short-wavelength 𝛾-rays and X-rays are primarily of concern to nuclear engineers, while the long-
wavelength microwaves and radio waves are of concern to electrical engineers. The type of
electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is the thermal radiation emitted as a direct
result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance.
Temperature is a measure of the strength of these activities at the microscopic level, and the rate of
thermal radiation emission increases with increasing temperature. Thermal radiation, continuously
emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute zero, is also defined as a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that lies in the wavelength range between 0.1 𝜇m and 100 𝜇m since
radiation emitted by bodies due to their temperature falls almost entirely into this wavelengths range.
What we call light is the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies between 0.40 𝜇m and
0.76 𝜇m.

The rate (𝑄ሶ = 𝑄 ⁄𝑡) at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation depends on the object’s
surface area A and the temperature T of that area in kelvins (K). Thus the power radiated by an object of
surface area 𝐴 is proportional to the fourth power of its surface temperature, 𝑇:

𝑄ሶ = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇 4

In the equation above, called Stefan’s Law of radiation, the universal constant 𝜎 is called the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant: 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W⁄m2 . K 4 . Emissivity, 𝑒 is the number between 0 and 1,
characterizing the surface. Black objects have 𝑒 ≈ 1; while shiny objects have 𝑒 ≈ 0.
A good emitter of radiation is also a good absorber. Emissivity is the same for emission and absorption.
If an object at temperature 𝑇1 has surroundings at temperature 𝑇2 , both radiate in proportion to 𝑇 4 . The
net rate of radiant heat flow is:

𝑄ሶ = 𝑒𝜎𝐴(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )

If 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 , the net heat flow to surroundings, object cools.

If 𝑇1 < 𝑇2 , the net heat flow from surroundings, object heats up (its temperature increases).

If 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 , there is no net heat flow to surroundings; object and surroundings are in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal radiation emission is a direct result of the vibrational and rotational motions of atoms,
molecules, and electrons of a substance.

An idealized body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it is called a blackbody. A blackbody
absorbs not only all visible light, but infrared, ultraviolet, and all other wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation. Note that the higher the temperatures, the shorter the wavelength.

The total power radiated is not the only thing that varies with temperature. The wavelength at which
the maximum power is emitted decreases as the temperature increases. The wavelength of maximum
radiation is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature:

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2.898 × 10−3 m. K

Where the temperature 𝑇 is the temperature inn kelvins and 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the wavelength of maximum
radiation in meters. The above equation is called Wien’s Law.

Example.

An athlete is sitting unclothed in a locker room whose dark walls are at a temperature of 15℃. Estimate
the rate of heat loss by radiation, assuming a skin temperature of 34℃; 𝑒 = 0.70 and the surface area
of the body is 1.5 m2 .

Solution
Use Kelvin temperatures:

𝑇1 = 34℃ = (34 + 273) K = 307 K; 𝑇2 = 15℃ = 288 K

𝑄ሶ = 𝑒𝜎𝐴(𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ) = (0.70)(5.67 × 10−8 )(1.5)(3074 − 2884 ) = 120 W