Technical Writing Essentials: Punctuation Guide

Audiences in technical writing need information quickly and accurately. Information

should be clear, direct, and concise. For any of this to be accomplished, you must
have a conscious knowledge of language structure and conventions—and one of the
key components of that knowledge is grammar and punctuation.

This guide is provided to expand your knowledge of punctuation, its correct (as well
as incorrect) usage, and its stylistic benefits. You’re provided a definition and
exploration of each piece of punctuation, and then incorrect and correct examples,
with an explanation of the errors and some alternate solutions.

William Strunk, author of Elements of Style, wrote, “A sentence should contain no

unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts” (32).
Part of that efficiency and effectiveness is punctuation. Punctuation is another tool in
your writer’s toolbox, which you must have a working knowledge of to use
effectively and grow your communication skills.

There are so many options available to you, which you can consider and appropriately
apply to your rhetorical situation and audience.
 Comma: One of the most versatile pieces of punctuation is the comma. Too often, we
, think of commas simply in terms of right and wrong—correct and incorrect. Commas
certainly do have rules: they can be used in sentences to indicate a pause (and thus
emphasis), to separate items within a list, and to mark the place of a thousand in
numerals, among other functions. They shouldn’t connect two independent thoughts
without some kind of conjunction, but more on that later.

However, commas are by nature stylistic. They change the flow, the sound of how a
sentence, an idea is read and perceived. You can create a pause, mix up pacing,
extend a train of thought, or otherwise creatively alter the way your readers interact
with a piece of writing. Removing them can create feelings of restlessness and speed
up a sentence. None of these are about correctness—they’re about style and how you,
the writer, can control more than just word choice.

To accomplish more with commas—and other punctuation—the rules and

conventions are still important to understand. The following are some common errors
(like comma splices) and unintentional mistakes people make that you should
consider as you write, in technical spheres and elsewhere.

Errors and Solutions

Comma Splice: A comma splice connects two independent clauses or two distinct
ideas as one sentence without some kind of conjunction (and, but, or, and such). This
is one of the most common errors in writing.
• Incorrect Example: I’m going to the store, I’ll be right back.
• Fix: I’m going to the store. I’ll be right back.
o An alternative solution would be to insert a conjunction: I’m going to
the store, but I’ll be right back. Another fix would be using a
semicolon instead of a period between the two independent clauses:
I’m going to the store; I’ll be right back. An em dash could also be
used: I’m going to the store—I’ll be right back.

Unnecessary Comma: An unnecessary comma creates an entirely different,

unintended meaning compared to when it is omitted. Be careful as you write to ensure
each comma is necessary and conveys what you want—with the following example,
either party-hopping seals and animal poaching.
• Incorrect Example: Stop clubbing, baby seals.
• Fix: Stop clubbing baby seals.

Missing Comma: Similar to an unnecessary comma, a missing comma drastically

alters the meaning of a sentence away from the writer’s intent—in the example
below, regretting love and apologizing. Be wary and proofread.
• Incorrect Example: I’m sorry I love you.
• Fix: I’m sorry, I love you.

Numerals: Typically, when using large numbers (in the thousands and beyond), you
would include a comma to distinguish each group of three digits.
 • Incorrect Example: Pull out a $1000 at the bank.
• Fix: Pull out a $1,000 at the bank.
o Another possibility is spelling out the numeral: Pull out a thousand
dollars at the bank. However, this might dependent on what style is
being employed, between ones like Chicago and APA or even an in-
house company style guide.

Oxford Comma: You knew this one had to be in here. Commas are placed between
items in lists, and for years there has been debate about whether one was needed
before the final conjunction in a list. The Oxford comma has been historically used in
certain styles like Chicago and MLA but not in others like AP and APA. However, in
recent years the Oxford comma has been added to those latter styles as well. The
general rule is if omitting the comma will cause confusion or misunderstanding, then
use it.
• Incorrect Example: I went to dinner with my parents, the Pope and Mother
Teresa.
• Fix: I went to dinner with my parents, the Pope, and Mother Teresa.
 Colon: In the book Punctuate It Right, the author refers to the colon as the mark of
: expectation or addition (1). It’s like a road sign, an arrow pointing forward and
signaling to read on for relevant information.

Commonly speaking, colons are used to inform readers that what follows the mark
explains, develops, defines, or proves what came before. In sentences, they frequently
precede a list of items, introduce a quote, or set up an expansion or explanation of an
idea. Colons are also used to separate hours from minutes in time, chapters and verses
in scripture, and numbers in ratios.

How colons are used—what emphasis they place, where they’re located in a sentence,
and such—are stylistically up to you. They’re a more flexible punctuation mark than
you might think, especially with the more formal air that is normally associated with
them.

Errors and Solutions

Unnecessary Colon: There is no need to include colons that interrupt the flow of lists
that are established in the sentence, and colons should almost never have an
incomplete sentence preceding them. If you aren’t sure whether a colon is needed, try
removing it from the sentence and see if it is still correct without it.
• Incorrect Example: They specialize in: art, languages, and design.
• Fix: They specialize in art, languages, and design.

Unrelated Colon: Whenever a colon is used to connect two independent sentences,

those sentences must be connected in some way—similar to a semicolon (see the
entry after colons). Otherwise, readers are left perplexed, trying to discern the
connection of ideas, which is something you as a writer never want to happen.
• Incorrect Example: I have little time to complete my final project: I want ice
cream.
• Fix: I have little time to complete my final project: my baby is due in a week.

Capitalization: As mentioned in the previous colon error, colons function like

semicolons when connecting two independent clauses. In such cases, don’t capitalize
the first word after the colon unless it’s normally capitalized.
• Incorrect Example: Snowfall continues to pound down: Consequently, traffic
has slowed to a crawl.
• Fix: Snowfall continues to pound down: consequently, traffic has slowed to a
crawl.
o If two or more sentences follow the colon, you do capitalize the first
word in the chain: He made three points: First, it’d take too long.
Second, the price even with the coupon wouldn’t be worth the trip.
Third, he still had to do the laundry.
 Semicolon: The semicolon is often confused and used interchangeably with the
; colon. It is understandable as they often accomplish similar functions, linking clauses
and showing connection. However, a colon is like an arrow pointing forward and a
semicolon is more like equal signs, suggesting that what is joined by the mark is
interdependent—needing one another for complete meaning—and relatively the same
in terms of length and structure.

Semicolons are used at the end of sentences to show a pause, typically between two
independent clauses, that are more pronounced than a comma and signify that the two
are connected. They can also be used in a list that contains internal commas. Use this
punctuation mark when you want to create and emphasize a relationship between two
or more sentences and concepts.

Errors and Solutions

Unrelated Semicolon: As was mentioned earlier with colons, when connecting two
independent clauses they have to be linked; otherwise, audiences will be left confused
and be pulled out of the flow of the writing. The connection between the two ideas
must be clear so the use of a semicolon is justified.
• Incorrect Example: I hope to go home this summer; the sky is so blue today.
• Fix: I hope to go home this summer; it’s way too hot here.

Transitional: Semicolons are used between two independent clauses (as has been
established several times), including when those clauses are linked by a transitional
expression such as however, for example, thus, and so on.
• Incorrect Example: Varying opinions suggest this is not the case, however,
experts disagree with that.
• Fix: Varying opinions suggest this is not the case; however, experts disagree
with that.

Super-comma: Commas are usually the punctuation mark used in a list to divide up
its contents; however, sometimes semicolons can perform that function for lists
within lists. This use of semicolons is known as a super-comma. It makes clear where
the divides are.
• Incorrect Example: The new store has groceries, houseware, and electronics
on the first floor, clothing on the second, and books, music, and food on the
third.
Fix: The new store has groceries, houseware, and electronics on the first
floor; clothing on the second; and books, music, and food on the third.
 Hyphen: Whether to hyphenate words together is a common concern for writers, new
- and experienced. Dictionaries and style guides vary on correct usage; however, the
silver lining there is that, outside of some core principles and conventions, decisions
can come down to stylistic choice. That might sound like a negative, but it gives you
more creative freedom as a writer.

Hyphens are used to join adjectival words and thus indicate that they have a
combined new meaning or that they are linked, to divide a word onto two lines in a
document, and to suggest a continuing or implied idea in a sentence. With hyphens,
you literally have the power to create new words and link ideas in ways that a reader
might never have read or considered before.

Mistakes tend to crop up when adverbs (or words functioning as such) are hyphenated
or when hyphens are used too frequently—as with any writing tool, oversaturation
will limit the its power.

Errors and Solutions

Hyphen Placement: Whenever a compound adjective begins with an adverb that ends
in “-ly,” a hyphen is unnecessary. Also, only include hyphens when the hyphenated
word comes before the noun it’s modifying.
• Incorrect Example: She was a smartly-dressed woman in a style that was
always up-to-date.
• Fix: She was a smartly dressed woman in a style that was always up to date.
o An alternative fix for the above example that uses hyphens: She was a
well-dressed woman, always wearing an up-to-date style.

Hyphen List: Include hyphens in a running list so long as the words being hyphenated
are connected to the same noun. This helps prevent misreading, as readers might not
pick up on the relationship as easily without the hyphens.
• Incorrect Example: The condo has two, three, and four-bedroom options
available.
• Fix: The condo has two-, three-, and four-bedroom options available.

Hyphenation: Whether a word uses a hyphen depends on the style guide being used
or, more likely, the dictionary being employed. The Chicago Manual of Style includes
a table that can be referenced for general use and rules. Check against your style
guide and use dictionaries like Merriam-Webster when unsure.
• Incorrect Example: Mr. Peterson was promoted to chief-of-staff, which was an
eye opener.
• Fix: Mr. Peterson was promoted to chief of staff, which was an eye-opener.
 Em Dash: You might be more familiar with em dashes as a couple hyphens clustered
— together, as that’s historically how they’ve been signified. Some computer programs
will even create the dash from that setup. (For your reference, there are keyboard
shortcuts to create em dashes: for a Mac it’s “shift,” “option,” and hyphen, while for a
PC it’s “control,” “alt,” and the minus button.)

Em dashes are used to indicate breaks in thought, to create a parenthetical statement

within a sentence, and in the place of various punctuation marks; depending on the
context, these dashes can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons, each with
a different effect.

Of the three dash marks (the other two being hyphen and en dash), this is the longest
and the most versatile, with more options and creative license available to you.

Errors and Solutions

Spaces: While some businesses still include spaces around dashes (like newspapers),
generally it’s reasonable assume that spaces are not employed in most styles.
• Incorrect Example: Most places — if they’re up to speed — will not have
spaces around dashes.
• Fix: Most places—if they’re up to speed—will not have spaces around dashes.

Multiple Dashes: It’s best to play it safe and only use two dashes in a given sentence
to avoid confusion, for yourself and your readers. It also makes the sentence and ideas
drag on for too long.
• Incorrect Example: The court reached a verdict—guilty—which was
unexpected—the accused had one of the best lawyers in the country.
• Fix: The court reached a verdict—guilty; this was unexpected, as the accused
had one of the best lawyers in the country.
o Another possible fix: The court reached a verdict of guilty, which was
unexpected—the accused had one of the best lawyers in the country.
There are many possible ways to change the sentence to make it
correct, and each could have a slightly different emphasis and flow.

Other Punctuation: If the parenthetical statement within the em dashes were instead
surrounded by parentheses, then there would be a comma after the concluding
parenthesis. With em dashes, however, extra punctuation is not needed.
• Incorrect Example: Once she discovered the problem—it was a big one—, she
began to panic.
• Fix: Once she discovered the problem—it was a big one—she began to panic.
 En Dash: Completing our exploration of dashes is the en dash, which is used with
– spans or ranges of numbers, dates, directions, and times. As with hyphens and em
dashes, there should be no spaces around the punctuation mark. (And as with the em
dash, there are specific keyboard shortcuts for making an en dash: for a Mac it’s
“option” and hyphen, while for a PC it’s “control” and the minus button.)

Here’s a professional tip for you: never use two or three or however many hyphens in
place of en or em dashes. This is an incorrect practice carried over from typewriters
days, when hyphens were the only available option on keyboards. This is seen as
unprofessional and dated, which is never a good way for your writing to be perceived.

Errors and Solutions

Hyphen versus En Dash: En dashes are used with number ranges such as dates, not
hyphens.
• Incorrect Example: The 1996-97 seasons was the team’s best.
• Fix: The 1996–97 season was the team’s best.

Spelled Out: If you introduce a span of numbers with words like from and between,
don’t use an en dash. Rather, use to or and, respectively.
• Incorrect Example: The Civil War occurred between 1861–65.
• Fix: The Civil War occurred between 1861 and 1865.

Compound Adjectives: Most compound adjectives will simply use a hyphen to show
the connected nature of the words. However, when an element of that compound
adjective is open (in the example below, “Newbury Award”), change the hyphen to
an en dash.
• Incorrect Example: She is a Newbury Award-winning author.
• Fix: She is a Newbury Award–winning author.

Direction and Conflict: En dashes are used instead of hyphens between words that
indicate direction or conflict.
• Incorrect Example: The Libertarian-Democrat debate will be taking place in
the building next to the north-south railway.
• Fix: The Libertarian–Democrat debate will be taking place in the building
next to the north–south railway.
 Apostrophe: Not to be confused with the figure of speech apostrophe, the
‘ punctuation mark is used grammatically to indicate possession, the omission of letters
or numbers, and plurals for individual letters.

Apostrophes are usually associated with contractions, which are steadily becoming
more accepted in various forms of writing, but there are less common applications
and more common mistakes, particularly with unexpected possessives and personal
pronouns.

Errors and Solutions

Contractions: Contractions are a shortening of words by combination, signaled by an
apostrophe. You can always tell if one is needed in your sentence by spelling the
potential contraction out.
• Incorrect Example: Its looking like he didnt do his homework.
• Fix: It’s looking like he didn’t do his homework.
o Put into practice what was mentioned above about spelling
contractions out: It is looking like he did not do his homework. If the
apostrophe were not included, it would be possessive of looking,
which makes no sense.

Plurals with Single Letters: This use of the apostrophe clarifies that a plural is being
used for singular letters. In essentially all other cases you would not use an
apostrophe for plurals, included years (1980s).
• Incorrect Example: Mind your ps and qs. It’s a phrase that originated in the
mid-1800’s.
• Fix: Mind your p’s and q’s. It’s a phrase that originated in the mid-1800s.

Confusing Possessives: Possessives are generally formed with an apostrophe and an

s—even with x’s and z’s and plural nouns. Also, apostrophes should never be
separated from their attached word by punctuation.
• Incorrect Example: Mr. Draxs’ kids have left lots of their childrens’ toys at the
Greens.’
• Fix: Mr. Drax’s kids have left lots of their children’s toys at the Greens’.
“” Quotation Mark: When pulling directly from someone else’s work and words, be it a
song title or its lyrics or an excerpt from a scholarly article, you’ll signal that the
words are not your own with quotation marks. These are used most commonly to start
and complete a quote, title, or segment of dialogue.

However, quotation marks can also highlight and emphasize certain terms to readers,
often in an ironic sense. This usage is called scare quotes. If employed, the writer
must be clear on what feeling and intention—hence why such quotes are recurrently
preceded by the phrase so-called.

Another professional tip is to ensure that you use smart or “curly” quotation marks
rather than "straight"—the former is more modern and should be the default for, at the
very least, any kind of published work.

Errors and Solutions

Quotes Inside Quotes: When quoted material includes quotations within itself, use
single quotation marks inside the double ones.
• Incorrect Example: “When he talks about “the meaning of life,” he does so
quite ironically.”
• Fix: “When he talks about ‘the meaning of life,’ he does so quite ironically.”

Adjacent Punctuation: Unless punctuation is part of an original quotation, everything

except for commas and periods should be placed outside of quotation marks.
Otherwise, it seems like the punctuation is a part of the quotation, which often is not
the case.
• Incorrect Example: His recent article is titled “Misery Loves Everyone’s
Company;” it offers a solution to what the author calls “involuntary social
isolation”.
• Fix: His recent article is titled “Misery Loves Everyone’s Company”; it offers
a solution to what the author calls “involuntary social isolation.”

Song Title: Song titles should be placed within quotation marks—albums should be in
italics (though if the entire sentence is in italics, like the below example, then the
album wouldn’t be in italics to differentiate it from the other text).
• Incorrect Example: I love the song The Only One Who Gets Me from Charles
Kelley’s album, “The Driver.”
• Fix: I love the song “The Only One Who Gets Me” from Charles Kelley’s
album, The Driver.
 Asterisk: No doubt you’ve read an advertisement that made a bold, enticing claim but
* then had a little star at the end of it. Then, in noticeably smaller text, there’s an
annotation, amending or clarifying the claim—or maybe it doesn’t even refer you to
anything. Asterisks are perceived like promises, committing that further exploration
and illumination will come.

As mentioned, asterisks are used to reference an annotation, though they can also
stand in for omitted writing—that you the writer have changed or have some further
comment to be made. Each of these have common errors, often due to where the
asterisk is place and what, if anything, it replaces.

Errors and Solutions

Adjacent Punctuation: Place the asterisk after punctuation marks—treat it the same as
a superscript numeral. No space before that punctuation.
• Incorrect Example: Mrs. Thompson stated that the decision was sound*.
• Fix: Mrs. Thompson stated that the decision was sound.*

Multiple Asterisks: Using a singular asterisk works fine so long as there is only one
reference or footnote on a given page. However, if multiple ones are used, then it
could get confusing as to what is being referred to; therefore, you should increase the
numbers of asterisks.
• Incorrect Example: The data suggest that we need to make radical changes to
our infrastructure.* We also have to alter our hiring policy to reflect modern
practices.* This is supported by the branch manager.*
• Fix: The data suggest that we need to make radical changes to our
infrastructure.* We also have to alter our hiring policy to reflect modern
practices.** This is supported by the branch manager.***
o An alternative solution would be to change the asterisks to a numbered
list: The data suggest that we need to make radical changes to our
infrastructure.1 We also have to alter our hiring policy to reflect
modern practices.2 This is supported by the branch manager.3

Omission: There are a number of options available for omitting parts of words. When
using asterisks, omission generally involves vowels more than consonants, but the
context should still be clear—but not too clear so as to render censorship pointless.
• Incorrect Example: My boss told me he “didn’t give a da*n” about my
excuses for failing.
• Fix: My boss told me he “didn’t give a d**n” about my excuses for failing.
o An alternative option for omission employs em dashes: My boss told
me he “didn’t give a d— —n” about my excuses for failing. Another
possibility is brackets if it’s quoted material, like the example: My boss
told me he “didn’t [care]” about my excuses for failing.
() Parenthesis: Several punctuation marks can set of parenthetical—meaning related or
supplementary—statements in sentences, which can include just single words or
fragments or even multiple sentences, and each one has a different feel. Commas can
enclose entire statements, and they largely feel neutral and matter-of-fact. Dashes are
more abrupt and better highlight and emphasize.

Parentheses suggest that the information contained within is complementary but not
necessary. They are stronger than a comma and—like dashes—do not grammatically
impact the surrounding sentence, a rule that often leads to unintentional mistakes.

Errors and Solutions

Punctuation Placement: When parenthetical statements are included at the end of a
sentence and are a part of that sentence, the concluding punctuation should be outside
the parentheses.
• Incorrect Example: Go to the store (it’s about a mile away.)
• Fix: Go to the store (it’s about a mile away).
o Another possible fix would be to make two sentences: Go to the store.
(It’s about a mile away.)

Verbs: Whatever is included inside the parentheses must not be grammatically

necessary to a sentence. Therefore, the verb tense should match the subject—this can
sometimes sound awkward, so rewording the sentence can be effective (see below).
You can tell if the parenthetical material is necessary by taking the parentheses—and
words within—out of the sentence and seeing if it still works.
• Incorrect Example: The president of the company (and his assistant) were
supposed to arrive an hour ago.
• Fix: The president of the company (and his assistant) should have arrived an
hour ago.

Translations: Short translations of texts that are not quoted can be included in
parentheses. (If it is quoted, then it should be in brackets. Also, foreign words should
always be italicized.)
• Incorrect Example: My knowledge of Spanish is limited to hola [hello] and
adios [goodbye].
• Fix: Translations: My knowledge of Spanish is limited to hola (hello) and
adios (goodbye).
[] Bracket: Perhaps not as popular as parentheses, brackets are used in a similar
fashion, enclosing words or figures and separating them from the rest of a sentence as
a parenthetical statement. The distinction comes with where brackets are placed:
inside of quotes. They can also change elements of a quote, altering capitalization or,
as mentioned, adding information for clarification or expansion.

Most issues with brackets come in treating them as being more angular versions of
parentheses, which they are not. They’re certainly tied to parentheses, but they have
specific functions with quotes and changes to written materials.

Errors and Solutions

Changed Quotes: When altering elements of a quote, use brackets rather than other
kinds of punctuation—such as parentheses—to signal that the original material is
being altered by you, the writer.
• Incorrect Examples: They found that “(n)o evidence supports this
conclusion.”
• Fix: They found that “[n]o evidence supports this conclusion.”

Brackets in Parentheses: In the event that parentheses are required within parentheses,
brackets are then used instead.
• Incorrect Example: She toured the country and gave lectures (while
simultaneously publishing a book (2008)).
• Fix: She toured the country and gave lectures (while simultaneously
publishing a book [2008]).

Errors: The Latin term sic means “thus” or “so”; this indicates that a mistake has been
left in from an original quote and is not the fault of you, the writer. The word sic
should be italicized, but the enclosing brackets shouldn’t be—the inverse is used in
the below example.
• Incorrect Example: The representative’s statement said that “human error
were responsible.”
• Fix: The representative’s statement said that “human error were [sic]
responsible.”
... Ellipsis: Have you ever trailed off when unsure what to say next in a conversation or
presentation? The written equivalent of that is an ellipsis, or three periods one after
the other. Ellipses (the plural form) are used in sentences—often quotes—to signal
the omission of writing that is either superfluous or is understandable from context
clues, ensuring that only the most relevant information is presented.

However, ellipses can also be used to indicate incomplete thoughts (like the trailing
off previous mentioned), provide a brief pause, or suggest a nervous and awkward
silence.

Tone is an important part of writing, and tools like ellipses—and a number of other
punctuation marks mentioned and to be mentioned—aid in conveying this to readers.

Errors and Solutions

Beginning and Ending a Quote: When a quote is introduced as part of a sentence,
ellipses aren’t needed before or after, even if some material has been omitted. Ellipses
can be used in quotes—see the final example (“Omission”).
• Incorrect Example: Abraham Lincoln said that “. . . this government cannot
endure, permanently . . .” when divided.
• Fix: Abraham Lincoln said that “this government cannot endure,
permanently” when divided.

Spacing: Microsoft Word and similar programs have automatic ellipses generators,
but the spacing is insufficient for some styles. AP accepts no spaces, but for other
styles like Chicago, type out the spaces between, before, and after the periods to form
clearer ellipses points.
• Incorrect Example: I didn’t want to say it … but you’ve left me no choice: I do
think the dress makes you look fat.
• Fix: I didn’t want to say it . . . but you’ve left me no choice: I do think the
dress makes you look fat.

Omission: Most styles advocate including a period before an ellipses that is followed
by a new sentence and capital. How the ellipses itself is formatted depends, but it’s
generally the case that if the word after the ellipses is capitalized, you should have a
period before said ellipses.
• Incorrect Example: Thoreau stated, “I learned . . . that if one advances
confidently in the direction of his dreams, . . . he will meet with . . . success . . .
He will put some things behind . . . In proportion as he simplifies his life, the
laws of the universe will appear less complex.”
• Fix: Thoreau stated, “I learned . . . that if one advances confidently in the
direction of his dreams, . . . he will meet with . . . success. . . . He will put
some things behind. . . . In proportion as he simplifies his life, the laws of the
universe will appear less complex.”
 Period: Easily one of the most common punctuation marks, the period is used at the
. end of a sentence to show the conclusion of an idea or an abbreviation. Periods are
like stop signs, signaling a greater pause and concluding a complete idea and clause.
While texting and other online trends tend to no long use periods as such, most forms
of professional writing (business, scholarly, and such) still use periods as such.

Of course, most know what a period does, but it has some less well-known uses, and
its placement can be confusing when combined with other punctuation marks, leading
to an assortment of complications and errors.

Errors and Solutions

Multiple Punctuation: When a sentence ends with an abbreviation, its concluding
period serves as both the terminal, ending punctuation and the period for the
abbreviation.
• Incorrect Example: Jonathan said, “It’s late. We’ll continue this tomorrow at
eight a.m.”.
• Fix: Jonathan said, “It’s late. We’ll continue this tomorrow at eight a.m.”

Spacing: Back when typewriters were a major writing tool, two spaces were placed
after a period; today, however, a single space is more often preferred.
• Incorrect Example: The document was written on a typewriter. It’s amazing
how technology has changed since then. I can’t believe it.
• Fix: The document was written on a typewriter. It’s amazing how technology
has changed since then. I can’t believe it.

Abbreviations: Particular style guides ultimately determine what periods are included
with what abbreviations, but a loose, general rule is that periods are included in
lowercase and mixed-up (in terms of capitalization) abbreviations and removed for
all-uppercase ones.
• Incorrect Example: The F.B.I. found traces of Na.Cl. in the victim’s ears, and
he’s just been identified as Mr Alvin Armstrong, a Ph.D. professor of
sociology.
• Fix: The FBI found traces of NaCl in the victim’s ears, and he’s just been
identified as Mr. Alvin Armstrong, a PhD professor of sociology.
 Exclamation Point: “He had a heart attack.” “He had a heart attack!” While both of
! these are grammatically accurate, one more successfully gets across the situational
distress and concern likely associated with it, and that is the one with the exclamation
point. Exclamation points are used at the end of sentences to signal excitement,
outcry, or at least greater emphasis.

To be effective, exclamation points should be used in moderation—more so than even

other punctuation marks. The effect is greatly lessened with too many repeated uses,
to the point that it becomes basically like a period. Therefore, be careful and employ
the exclamation point only where truly needed and appropriate.

Errors and Solutions

Terminal Punctuation: Both question marks and exclamation points are terminal
punctuation (as are periods), so they should never be used together in a single
sentence, though there is a term for this: interrobang. In the below example, either
could be used, depending on intent, but one should be chosen so as to be correct.
• Incorrect Example: What in the world are you doing?!
• Fix: What in the world are you doing!

Unnecessary Comma: If an exclamation point is used in the middle of a sentence, like

with dialogue, the comma that would normally be included inside the concluding
quotation mark is removed.
• Incorrect Example: “Never mind!,” Doug yelled.
• Fix: “Never mind!” Doug yelled.

Titular Exclamation: When the exclamation point is part of a title or proper noun,
then a comma should be used—as grammatically necessary.
• Incorrect Example: After spending years at Yahoo! he finally got the job he
wanted at Google.
• Fix: After spending years at Yahoo!, he finally got the job he wanted at
Google.
 Question Mark: As its name would suggest, a question mark is used at the end of a
? sentence to indicate a direct question or to express uncertainty or doubt. Indirect
questions or requests may seem like they should end with questions marks, but such
would actually conclude with periods.

Common shortcomings with question marks emerge from placement adjacent to other
punctuation and whether it should be applied to a given statement.

Errors and Solutions

Placement in Quotes: Unless quoted material is itself a question, place the question
mark outside of quotation marks to show that it isn’t part of the original quote and is
rather part of the outside sentence structure.
• Incorrect Example: What do you mean by “it’s time?”
• Fix: What do you mean by “it’s time”?

Unnecessary Comma: As mentioned before with exclamation points, if a question

mark is used in the middle of a sentence, such as with dialogue, then the comma that
would normally be included inside the concluding quotation mark is removed.
• Incorrect Example: “What time are we having dinner?,” the girl asked.
• Fix: “What time are we having dinner?” the girl asked.

Requests: Though phrased as a question, requests should actually end with a period
rather than a question mark.
• Incorrect Example: Would you run this over to our neighbor?
• Fix: Would you run this over to our neighbor.

Uncertainty: You can imply uncertainty by adding a question mark into text to
suggest following up and clarifying information. Use parentheses for regular text and
brackets for quotes. Some authorities remove the space before the question mark,
making it part of the uncertain word, while others are more inclined to have a space to
allow for better flow. Choose whichever fits your appropriate style guide.
• Incorrect Example: The doctor advised me to only take three [?] Aspirin a
day.
• Fix: The doctor advised me to only take three (?) Aspirin a day.
 Ampersand: Most people are familiar with ampersands from names like AT&T and
& brands like Dungeons & Dragons. It is used to represent the conjunction and,
commonly with business names and with document sources in scholarly and other
forms of formal writing.

Some style guides advocate ampersands and other recommend spelling out the and.
Be clear on what your specific company uses. When it is used with abbreviated
business names or common expressions, do not include spaces around the ampersand.

Errors and Solutions

Flowing Text: You should spell out the and in most texts, titles, and so on; the
ampersand isn’t a perfect replacement. (The following examples will show some of
those acceptable instances.)
• Incorrect Example: My schedule for today is I’m going to work, the gym, &
the spa.
• Fix: My schedule for today is I’m going to work, the gym, and the spa.

Citation: Correct citation methods depend on the style being employed. Chicago and
MLA would have you spell out the and (as well as use the Oxford comma), while
APA is more inclined toward ampersands without the comma, as seen above. Use the
appropriate style for the business or genre.
• Incorrect Example: Studies suggest that the current method for creating
nuclear power could be made more efficient (Smith, Jones, & Brown).
• Fix: Studies suggest that the current method for creating nuclear power could
be made more efficient (Smith, Jones & Brown).

Business Names: When business names (that are themselves abbreviations) include
an ampersand, no spaces should separate the letters and ampersand.
• Incorrect Example: My phone’s dead—guess it’s time to visit the AT & T
store.
• Fix: My phone’s dead—guess it’s time to visit the AT&T store.
 Slash: The slash is not commonly used outside of informal communication. Almost
/ everyone who’s ever sent a text message has used “and/or” to suggest either or both
of stated possibilities. However, slashes are used in more formal and professional
spheres between other alternatives (functioning similar to the word or), as well as
with fractions, ratios, and line breaks in flowing text for poetry and musical lyrics.

There are two forms of slashes: forward and backward. They are not interchangeable
and will be distinguished with other common mistakes associated with slashes.

Errors and Solutions

Direction of Slash: A backward slash should not be used interchangeably with a
standard forward slash. A backward slash is really only ever used in computer coding.
• Incorrect Example: It makes no difference—use a colon\semicolon.
• Fix: It makes no difference—use a colon/semicolon.

Poetry and Music: Poetic and musical line breaks are signaled by slashes. New lines
are capitalized, and the slash should have spaces on each side of it.
• Incorrect Example: Robert Frost in his poem “The Road Not Taken” wrote, “I
took one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference.”
• Fix: Robert Frost in his poem “The Road Not Taken” wrote, “I took one less
traveled by, / And that has made all the difference.”

Normal Spacing: When in doubt, don’t include spaces around slashes. There are
certain exceptions listed in Chicago, and there should be spaces when suggesting line
breaks in poetry (as seen in the previous example), but generally spaces aren’t
needed. Definitely do not have a space after a slash and not one before—commit to
no spaces or including spaces; in whichever case, be consistent.
• Incorrect Example: You could go to the mall and get a pretzel / an ice cream
cone.
• Fix: You could go to the mall and get a pretzel/an ice cream cone.