Advantages of High Voltage Power Transmission and Distribution

Generating stations are usually located at places far away from the power consuming centers. As
for example, thermal power stations are located at places where coal and water is available in
abundance. Similarly hydro electric power stations are also situated at places where water head is
available for running the turbine.
On the other hand, power consuming center are usually cities and industrial towns that are
located at a significant distance away from the power generating stations. So power transmission
is necessary over a long distance from the generation to the power consuming and distribution
centers.
Also, three phase transmission is advantageous because though it consists of three single phase
systems, the numbers of conductors required are four and not six.
Let us consider a three phase system as shown below:

Fig. 1
In this case, transmission loss = 3.I2.R
Where I is the current per phase and R is the resistance per phase
If P be the power to be transmitted then the fraction of transition loss that can be permitted is
denoted by
Power loss under rated load
X (permitted fraction of transition loss) =
Power supplied (rated)
In this case, normally the value of X is specified.
Again, P  3Vph I ph cos  3VL I L cos

P2
Transmission loss = 3I L R  3
2
R
3VL cos2
2

1
 l
2 P2  ρ
P R A , where the symbol have their usual meanings.
 
VL cos 2 VL cos 2
2 2

Note that here l is the length of the transmission line and A is the cross sectional area of the line.
From the above expression, we can find X as follows:
P2  ρ  l
Transmissi on Loss A  VL2 cos 2
X 
P P
Pρ l
 (1)
AVL cos 2
2

Pρ l
and, A = (2)
XVL2 cos 2

Now, volume of copper = 3Al, for three lines

Pρ l 2
=3 , from (2)
XVL2 cos2

From the expression of the volume of copper it is clear that as the transmission voltage VL is
increased the volume of the copper decreases and there by the cost of the copper is reduced.

High Voltage transmission provides following advantages;

1) With the increase in transmission voltage the size of the conductor is reduced. This further
reduces the cost of supporting structure materials.

2) For the same power to be transmitted, with the increase in transmission voltage, line current is
reduced and hence line losses are reduced.

3) Low current at higher voltages reduces the line drop and thus better voltage regulation is
achieved.

4) At higher voltages, line losses are reduced and hence transmission efficiency is improved.

Though higher system voltage provides the above advantages, it also suffers from the following
difficulties and hence for any system, transmission voltage cannot be increased beyond an
optimum value.

2
Limitations of increasing system voltage
1) With higher voltages, the insulation requirement is more, resulting in more insulation cost.
This further increase the cost of line supports.

2) With the increase in voltage of transmission, more clearance is required between conductors
and ground. Hence higher tower are required.

3) With the increase in voltage of transmission, more distance is required between conductors
and ground. This feather necessitates longer cross arms.

The following curve may be used to find the optimum system voltage.

Fig. 2

The above diagram is valid for particular amount of power transmission and length of the
transmission line. If power increases, curve for copper cost shifts towards the right and so does
the voltage for minimum total costs. Therefore transmission voltages have to be increased when
power increases.

If the length of the transmission increases the conductor cost increases as the conductor cost is
proportional to square of the length of the transmission line and the insulation cost increases
proportional to the length of the line. In that case, the resultant cost curve shifts towards the right
giving higher transmission voltage.

3
Empirical formula for optimum voltage
Above analysis is based on very simplified assumptions, such as, the insulation is proportional to
the transmission length as well as voltage of the line, but it gives a qualitative idea why the
transmission should be at a higher voltage as the power and the length of the transmission line
increases. The following empirical relation may be used to determine the optimum voltage.
Load in kVA
V = l kV, where l= length of the transmission line in km
150

D.C High Voltage Transmission

HVDC transmission provides following advantages over HVAC transmission.

1) For insulation in an AC transmission system, the peak value has to be taken into account,
whereas the real power transmitted is dependent upon the rms value. In the case of DC
transmission, peak and rms values are identical. So in DC transmission there is a saving in
insulation cost. In other words, AC transmission requires more insulation material compared to
the DC transmission for the same voltage level.

2) In both cases of transmission, for the same peak stress (kV peak), there is more corona loss on
the conductor surface including radio interference in case of AC transmission than in case of DC
transmission.

3) When power is transmitted through cables, DC transmission is always preferred, since there is
no continuous charging current involved to feed the cable capacitances in case of DC.

4) In DC there is no skin effect involved.

5) There is a limit of power transmission through AC. This is due to the fact that the angle
between sending end and receiving end voltages („‟in Fig. 3) can not be allowed to exceed a
critical value because of he stability consideration, considering the role of line inductances and
capacitances in AC. For DC transmission, there is no question of phase differences; the only
voltage drop in transmission is the resistive drop.

R+jX

ES
ES ER
 ER

 IX
I IR

Fig. 3

6) A DC line requires no reactive compensation.

4
7) No synchronous operation is required in DC system.

8) A DC link is often used to interconnect two AC systems at different frequencies.

In spite of the above advantages, the DC transmission system suffers from following
disadvantages:

1) Cost of terminal equipments

To use HVDC for transfer of power, or when two AC systems with different frequencies are
interconnected through DC link, it is necessary to convert AC to DC at one end and to convert
DC to AC at the other end. This conversion needs rectifying and inverting equipments, which
increase the system cost. Also this conversion requires large MVAR and generates harmonics.
As a result filters are required and thus the overall system cost is further increased.

Fig. 4

2) Circuit Breakers

High power DC circuit breakers are difficult to manufacture. These difficulties arise due to the
fact that there is no zero crossings in a DC system. The interruption of DC circuit requires that
the steady or fault current should be forced down to zero by some method. In case of this
interruption, the arc created in the contacts in the breaker is not self-extinguishing as there is no
such zero crossing, and various other methods are to be incorporated in breakers for this arc
extinction, thereby increasing the system cost.

5
Insulators
There are two way of power transmission e.g. (i) Overhead line and (ii) Underground cables.

Overhead lines are economical since main insulation is air with porcelain and glass insulation
provided at the supporting towers.

Creepage distance

Creepage distance is the shortest path between two conductive parts (e.g. the high voltage
conductor and the earth conductor between which an insulator is placed) measured along the
contours of the external surface of the insulation.

Protected Creepage Distance

That part of the creepage distance on the illuminated side of the insulator which could lie in
shadow if light were projected on to the insulator in a direction at 90 0 to the longitudinal axis of
the insulator. It is this part of the insulator that remains protected from rain and dust when kept in
outside atmosphere.

Fig. 5

Breakdown of insulators
There are two methods of breakdown e.g.

i) Flashover ii) Puncture

i) Flashover or spark over the insulation surface through the adjacent air, connecting those parts
(conductors), which normally have the operating voltages between them. Since flashover is the
breakdown of the surrounding air, flashover is not a permanent failure and the insulator can be
used when the flashover stops. But however repeated flashover causes a mark along the surface
of the insulator, called tracking that makes a weaker surface prone to breakdown.

6
ii) Puncture is a breakdown of solid insulation material between high voltage conductor and the
grounded part. Puncture causes permanent damage of the insulator i.e. if puncture takes place,
the insulator cannot be used again.

During design, it is desirable to have flashover than puncture to save the insulators. Hence
insulators are so designed that the flashover voltage is lower than the puncture voltage.

Fig. 6

Difference between dry and wet flashover is that, during dry condition the flashover takes place
only through the shortest air path where as in wet condition it would be partly through air path
and partly through wet and conducting insulator surface. As the distance of c in Fig. 6 that has to
travel in air without the aid of wet insulator surface is less than b, wet flashover voltage is
smaller than the dry flashover voltage.

Insulating Material

Overhead line insulations are produced from high quality wet process porcelain or toughened
glass. Porcelain insulations are usually glazed in brown colour over all exposed surfaces, but
sometimes cream coloured glazed insulations are also used. Porcelain has been used from the
very beginning as an insulator material and is still being used.

Pre-stressed or toughened glass has also been used in constructing line insulators. The material is
placed in a furnace that heats it above its annealing point of about 720°C. The glass is then
rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inside of the material remains at the higher
temperature for a short time. As the inner material gets some time to cool, the inside surface of
the glass contracts more than its outer surface during this process. This induces compressive
stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass.
Toughened glass insulators have their surface layers in a state of high compression due to which

7
their resistance to mechanical and thermal stresses is greater. Following are the advantages of
toughened glass insulators over porcelain:

1. Toughened glass insulators possess greater mechanical strength and therefore, there is
less breakage in transport and installation.
2. They have high thermal shock resistances and therefore, damage from flashover is less.
3. The toughened glass insulations have greater puncher strength.
4. The life of a toughened glass insulator is more.

Type of insulators

There are four type of insulations in construction with overhead transmission lines e.g.
i) Pin insulators, ii) Disc insulators, iii) Suspension insulators and iv) Strain insulators. Other
than these four types of insulators, Post insulators are often used in high voltage systems.

Pin insulators
Pin insulator is supported on forged steel pin or bolt, which is secured to the supporting structure.
This structure is generally earthed. The straight line conductor is tied to the top groove by
binding wires. Binding wires get their support through the side groove that is provided. Single
piece type pin insulator are used for lower voltage, but for higher voltages two or more pieces are
connected together to provide sufficient thickness of porcelain and adequate creepage path. Pin
type insulator are used for system voltages less than or equal to 33kV.Beyond 33kV pin type
insulations become uneconomical. Pin insulators are so designed that the surface becomes
equipotential so as to have less leakage current. The main body or stem is made along the field
lines for more mechanical strength.

Fig. 7 (a) One-piece pin insulator; (b) two-piece type insulator.

8
Disc insulators

Fig. 8

Fig. 8 shows a disc insulator designed for 11kV. Normally disc insulators have a height of 16-18
cm and diameter of 28-29 cm. Doted line indicates creepage distance. If the system is to
withstand higher voltage, a number of such discs are connected in series to provide a higher
voltage insulation.

Suspension insulators

The cost of a pin type insulator increases as the working voltage is increased.
Beyond 33kV this type of insulator is uneconomical. For this reason high voltage lines are
insulated by means of suspension insulators in which the line conductors are suspended below
the point of the support by means of the insulator or a string of insulators. A string of suspension
insulator is formed by joining a number of discs together for HV lines. For example, 132 kV line
needs 11 to 13 discs whereas a 230 kV line requires 18 to 20 such disc insulator.

Fig. 9 Example of a double circuit HV line with suspension insulators.

9
Advantage of the suspension insulation

Suspension insulations provide number advantages. For example:

i) Each insulator is designed for a comparatively low working voltage around 11kV and the
insulation for any required voltage can be obtained by using a string of suitable number of discs.

ii) In the event of failure of an insulator, only the defective unit instead of the whole sting has to
be replaced.

iii) In the event of an increase in the operating voltage of the line, the situation can be met by
adding the requisite number of units to each string, instead of replacing all insulators. For pin
insulators, replacement is essential.

iv) The mechanical stresses are reduced since the line is suspended flexibly; with pin type
insulators the rigid nature of the attachment results in the fatigue causing ultimate brittleness of
the wire, induced due to the alternating nature of the stress.

Strain Insulator

Normal suspension insulator cannot take the

horizontal tension where the line has sharp
bending or where the line terminates. For
that reason there are strain insulators made
up of horizontal discs as shown in figure.
There are jumpers, which connects the two
ends of transmission line bypassing the
grounded mast.

Fig. 10
Post insulator

Post insulators are made for support of high voltage equipments in

a substation. Corona shields area generally employed to increase
the equi-potential area. So that the lines of force and hence the
electric stress near the HV terminal is reduced.

Fig. 11

10
Insulator Profile

Pin and other type of insulator are so designed that the surface of sheds becomes equipotential so
as to have less leakage current. The main body or stem of the insulator is made along the field
lines for more mechanical strength.[Field lines always try to contract and so as to force the stem
.If it is along the field lines the stem will be stronger.]

Field Lines

Equipotential line Surface of Sheds

Body of insulator

insulator

Form factor of insulator

Form factor of the insulator an insulator is defined by either of the following way:

L
dL
F.F =  D
0 L
Where L = Entire creepage length

DL = Diameter at a creepage length

L
Elemental creepageat a point

0
Circumference at that point

From factor can also be defined in terms of height (h) i.e.

h
d .h
F.F =  D
0 h
Where Dh = Diameter at height h

11
Voltage distribution in suspension insulators

Fig. 13

Fig. 13 (a) shows a suspension insulator and Fig. 13 (b) shows its equivalent circuit. In a
suspension insulator each disc forms a capacitance in between two pins and these capacitors,
usually called the mutual capacitor, has been taken to be of same value for simplicity. Let this
mutual capacitance be C. Also another set of capacitances are formed between the metal fittings
or pin of each insulator and the body of the tower which is at earth potential. These capacitances
are also equal in magnitude and have been shown in Fig. 13 as C. These capacitances are usually
called shunt capacitance or ground capacitance.

Let the ratio between the mutual capacitance and ground capacitance be m i.e.
mutual capacitance C
 m
ground capacitance C
or, C = mC

Let at any instant, the potential of HV conductor is positive and equals to V. The potential
distribution across the discs and the polarity of the charge distribution are shown in Fig. 13 (b). It
is clear from the figure that

12
V = V1+V2+V3+V4

Net charges at nodes 1, 2 and 3 will be zero as these nodes are not connected to any supply
source. Then the amount of charge entering at node 1 will flow to the ground through shunt
capacitance and mutual capacitance connected to node 1.

The charge entering at node 1 = mCV2

so, mCV2 = mCV1 + CV1 (a)

at node 2, mCV3 = mCV2 + C(V1 + V2) (b)

because this second ground capacitance will have a potential of (V 1+V2) w.r.t earth.

at node 3, mCV4 = mCV3 + C(V1 + V2+ V3) (c)

V1
From (a) it may be written V2  V1  (1)
m

(V1  V2 )
From (b) it may be written V3  V2  (2)
m

(V1  V2  V3 )
From (c) it may be written V4  V3  (3)
m

From the (1), (2), & (3) it is obvious that V4>V3>V2>V1 i.e. as we move towards the live
conductor, the potential across the discs increases. The maximum potential will be across the
disc connected to the HV terminal, and the minimum potential will be across the disc connected
to the cross arm at earth potential. The above relations are also valid for rms values as they
satisfy instantaneous voltage distribution.

Let us now express V2, V3 &V4 in terms of V1.

 1
From equation (1), V2  V1 1   (4)
 m

V1  V2
From (2), V3  V2 
m

 1 V
 V2 1    1
 m m

2
 1 V
 V1 1    1 [Substituting V2 in term of V1 from (4)]
 m m

13
  3 1 
 V1  1   2  (5)
 m m 

(V1  V2  V3 )
From (3) V4  V3 
m
 1 V V
= V3 1    2  1
 m m m

Substituting V3 & V2 in terms of V1, from (4) and (5) we get

 3 1  1 V  1 V
V4  V1 1   2 1    1 1    1
 m m  m  m  m  m
 3 1 1 3 1   1 1 1
 V1 1   2   2  3   V1  2   
 m m m m m  m m m
 4 4 1  2 1 
 V1 1   2  3   V1   2 
 m m m  m m 
 6 5 1 
 1   2  3  (6)
 m m m 

Thus all the voltages have been expressed in terms of V1. When the total voltage is specified, V1
can be calculated.

Problem: Calculate the maximum voltage across a string of suspension insulators as shown in
Fig. 14, if the maximum voltage per unit cannot be allowed to exceed 17.5 kV.

V1 8C

C V2
8C
V
C V3 8C

Fig. 14

Mutual Capacitanc e 8C
In this problem, m   8
Ground Capacitanc e C

 1
 V2  1  V1  1.125V 1
 8

14
  3 1 
And V3  1   V1  1.39V 1
 8 64 
Now we know that maximum voltage will be V3, as it is nearest to the live conductor.
According to problem 1.39V 1  17.5kV  V1  12.58kV

V2  1.125V 1  V2  14.15kV and V3 = 17.5kV

 V  V1  V2  V3  44.23kV
Now, it is known that this 44.23kV across the total string is the potential with respect to earth,
i.e, the phase voltage.

 Actual transmission line voltage  3.V  76.6kV Ans.

Mechanism of failure of suspension insulator

Now, the bottom insulator nearest to the live conductor experiences maximum voltage drop.
Hence, electric stress is maximum across this disc and flashover of the string takes place initially
from this bottom insulator disc in case of overvoltage. After the flashover has taken place in this
bottom disc, the entire voltage appears across the remaining discs, all of which are now under
overvoltage and disc next to the bottommost disc again has maximum voltage (and hence electric
stress) across it causing it to flashover. This process continues still the whole string flashes over.

String Efficiency
String efficiency of a suspension insulator is the measure of non-uniformity of voltage
distribution across the insulator. The more the string efficiency, the more will be the uniform
potential across the discs of a suspension insulator. String efficiency is defined as

voltage across the whole string


no. of discs  voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor

Alternatively it may be expressed as:

voltage across the whole string


no. of discs  maximum voltage across any disc

String efficiency may also be defined as:

flashover voltage across the whole string


no. of discs  flashover voltage of a single disc

15
Method of improving string efficiency

In order to improve the string efficiency or in other wards to reduce the non–uniformity in
voltage distribution around a suspension insulator effort should be made to have higher value of
the ratio between mutual capacitance is to ground capacitance „m‟. Again since „m‟ is the ratio
between capacitance of each unit to the shunt capacitance, so either the value of the unit
capacitances are to be increased or the value of the shunt capacitances are to be decreased. The
following are the method of improving string efficiency.

i) Use of longer cross arms: To get higher string efficiency or less non-uniformity of voltage
distribution, earth capacitances can be reduced by using longer cross arms. In that case distance
between insulator and tower body increases leading to less earth capacitance. But this makes the
tower costly.

ii) Use of graded units: In this method longer discs or disc of higher capacitances are used
towards the line end.

Fig. 15

Consider charge balance at node A,

a 2 CV  a1CV  CV

 a 2  (a1  1)

At node B  a3 CV  a 2 CV  C.2V or a3  a 2  2

At node C  a 4 CV  a3 CV  C.3V or a 4  a3  3

16
i.e. in general a n 1  (a n  n)

Though this method gives maximum string efficiency reducing the number of discs to minimum,
this is not practically possible to manufacture such varying size of discs. Further the
workmanship to discriminate the position during installation is difficult to obtain in practice.

iii) Static shielding by grading ring: One way of improving string efficiency is increasing the
values of capacitances of the discs and decreasing the earth capacitances. The other way is
compensation for the charges passing through the earth capacitances. This is done by using a
guard ring or grading ring.

Fig. 16

For uniform voltage distribution let n numbers of discs are connected as shown in Fig. 16. Let
the capacitances formed between the guard ring, maintained at the conductor potential, and pins
of the insulating disc be C1, C2, C3…C5.

Considering charge balance at point A,

mCV  CV  mCV  (nV  V)C 1

C
or (n  1)C 1 V  CV  C1 
n 1

17
At point B mC.V  C.2V  mC.V  (nV  2V)C 2
2C
 C2 
n2

3C
Similarly C 3 
n 3
p.C
and in general, C p  where p < n (1)
np
Thus, if the ring can be arranged such that the capacitances C1, C2, C3…C5, etc. are formed
according to eqn. (1), all the voltages across the mutual capacitances will be same and the string
efficiency will be maximum. Though it is not practically possible to get the above capacitance
distribution, there is a definite improvement in string efficiency by using grading ring.

Ex: A string made up of 8 suspension insulator is to be filled with a grading ring. If pin to earth
capacitances are all equal to C, find the values of line to pin capacitances that will have uniform
voltage distribution over the string.

Given, n = 8
p.C
General equation: C p 
np
C
 C1  ;
7
2.C C
C2   ;
82 3

3.C 3
C3   C;
83 5

4.C
C4   C;
84
5C
Similarly, C5  ; C 6  3C; C 7  7C
3

Damp Deposit condition

If there is dew, fog or light rain on the dusty insulator surface, the condition is known as damp
deposit condition. The individual disc capacitances increase because of the increase in the
effective conducting surface. As a result, the effect of earth capacitance in damp deposit
condition is reduced. Further the leakage current over the insulator surface is increased and
hence the voltage distribution is improved. In this case, uniformly distributed resistance appears
across the disc insulators.

18
Arcing Horn or Ring

Arcing Horn

Arcing Horn

Fig. 17

Whenever flashover takes place through the surface of the insulator, a phenomenon called
tracking takes place. This tracking can be distinguished on the insulator surface by a distinct
marking line, depending on the severity of the flashing. This marking line is a relatively low
resistance path in the insulator surface and is prone to repeated flashover through the same
tracking line. Tracking causes a permanent damage to the insulators. That is why arcing horns as
shown in Fig. 17 are used. The tips of the arcing horns are deliberately made sharper. Hence the
field intensity is high at the tips of the arcing horns causing the air to ionize between the two
arcing horns and not along the insulator surface. In fact a pair of arcing horns is used across the
string to prevent the damage of insulator surface during the flashover. As shown in Fig. 17,
flashover occurs along the dotted line sparing the insulator surface. The lower horn improves the
string efficiency acting partially as the grading ring and hence, the lower horn is sometimes
replaced by a structure called arcing ring.

19
Problem: Each conductor of a 33 kV, 3-phase system is suspended by a string of three similar
insulators, the mutual capacitance of which is 9 times the shunt capacitance between each unit.
Calculate the voltage across each insulator.

9C
Here m  9
C
According to general expression,
 1
V2  1  V1
 9
 3 1
and V3  1   V1
 9 81 
33
since V1+V2+V3 = total phase voltage =
3

 1  3 1 33
we get V1  1  V1  1   V1 
 9  9 81  3
and from there, we get

V1  5.51kV; V2  6.12kV; V3  7.41kV Ans.

Problem: A string of six insulator units has self capacitances equal to ten times the pin to earth
capacitances. Find (a) the voltage distribution from top to bottom insulator as a percentage of
total voltage; (b) the string efficiency.

10C
In this problem m   10
C
According to general expression

20
 1
V2  V1 (1  )  1.1V1 , putting m = 10
m
(V  V2 )
V3  V2  1 , putting V2 = 1.1V1, and m = 10,
m
1  1.1V1
V3  1.1V1   1.31V1
10
 V  V2  V3  (1  1.1  1.31)V1
V4  V3   1   1.31V1  = 1.651V1
 m  10
 V  V2  V3  V4  (1  1.1 1.31 1.651)V1
V5  V4   1   1.651V1  = 2.157V1
 m  10
 V  V2  V3  V4  V5 
V6  V5   1 
 m 
 1  1.1  1.31  1.651  2.157 
 2.1571V 1   V1
 10 
 2.87891V 1
 (1  1.1  1.31  1.651  2.16  2.88)V 1  V
 V1  9.9% of V
V2  1.1V1  10.89% of V
V3  1.31V 1  12.97% of V
V4  1.65V 1  16.3% of V
V5  2.16V 1  21.4% of V
and V6  2.88V 1  28.5% of V
V
and finally, string efficiency   100  58.5%
6  0.285V

Problem: A string of six suspension insulators is to be graded to obtain a uniform distribution of

voltage across the string. If the pin to earth capacitance are all equal to C and the mutual
capacitance of the top insulator is 10C, find the mutual capacitance of each unit in terms of C.

We know for graded units

a n 1  a n  n
The first unit is 10C
The second unit will be a1  1  (10  1)  11C
The third unit will be a2  2  (11  2)  13C
The fourth unit will be a3  3  (13  3)  16C
The fifth unit will be a4  1  (16  4)  20C
The sixth unit will be a5  1  (20  5)  25C

21
Problem: Investigate the voltage distribution over a string of three-suspension insulators for
which the equivalent capacitance arrangement is shown in the sketch. The self capacitance of
each unit is C. (a) Express the voltage across each insulator as a percentage of the line voltage to
earth, (b) If the capacitance to the line of the tower link pin were increased to 0.3 by means of a
guard ring, investigate the redistribution of voltage. (c) Find for each case the “String
Efficiency”.

(a)Without guard ring

Let the line to earth voltage =V

C
Here m  5
0.2C
Given, voltage across the insulators starting from the earth is V1, V2 and V3 respectively
Applying charge balance equation at node A
CV 2  0.1C(V  V1 )  CV1  0.2CV 1
V2  1.3V1  0.1V (1)
Applying charge balance equation at node B
CV3  0.1C[V  (V1  V2 )]  CV 2  0.2C(V 1  V2 )
Or V3  0.3V 1  1.3V 2  0.1V  1.99V 1  0.23V (2) (substituting V2 in terms of V1)
Again V1  V2  V3  V
or V1  (1.3V 1  0.1V)  (1.99V 1  0.23V)  V
or 4.29V 1  1.33V or V1  0.31V (3)
i.e. V1  31% of V
 V2  1.31  0.31V  0.1V  0.3V (4) [putting V1 from (3) in (1)]
i.e. V2  30% of V
and, V3  1.99  0.31V  0.23V  0.3869V (5) [putting V1 from (3) in (2)]
i.e. V3  39% of V

22
(b)Using Guard ring

The statement of the problem means that, using the guard ring, the added capacitance of the
insulator, which was previously 0.1C in the circuit, has now became 0.3C
so, the equation (1) remains unchanged
i.e. V2  1.3V 1  0.1V (6)
However equation at node B is modified as shown below
CV3  0.3C[V  (V1  V2 )]  CV 2  0.2C(V 1  V2 )
V3  2.45V 1  0.45V [Substituting V2 in terms of V1 and simplifying]
 V1  (1.3V 1  0.1V)  (2.45V 1  0.45V)  V
or V1  0.326V i.e. V1  32.6% of V
 V2  1.3  0.326V  0.1  0.324V  32.4% of V
 V3  2.45  0.326V  0.45V  0.349V  34.9% of V

(c) String Efficiency

V
  100%  85.47% without guard ring
3  0.39V
V
  100%  95.5% with guard ring
3  0.349V

23
Corona
Corona is the formation of a faint luminous glow surrounding the conductors when the operating
voltage is sufficiently high. For an overhead transmission system in atmosphere, air act as a perfect
insulator when the potential difference between the conductors is small. If an alternating potential
difference is applied to the conductors, sustained charging current will flow due to the capacitance
of the line. As long as air is subjected to uniform electric field intensity less than 3000kV/meter or
30kV/cm, the flow of current between the two conductors of the line in air is negligibly small for
practical purposes. As system voltage is increased, field intensity increases and reaches the critical
value of 3000kV/meter. In that case, the air in the immediate vicinity of the conductors no longer
remains a dielectric but ionizes and become conducting. This breakdown of air is accompanied by
the following phenomena:

1. A faint violate glow appears around the conductor which is visible in the dark.
2. A hissing sound is heard.
3. Conductors tend to vibrate.
4. Ozone and oxide of nitrogen are produced.
(All the above four phenomena can be collectively called as corona.)
5. There will power loss associated with corona
6. Formation of corona creates radio interference.

If the voltage gradient is increased further, the size and brightness of the luminous glow increases
until a spark or arc is established between the conductors because of the complete breakdown of
the insulating properties of the air between them. The spark may occur before corona formation if
the conductors are sufficiently close. The effect of the corona is more pronounced at the protruding
tips of the conductors due to localized higher field intensity.

Theory of corona formation

Normally free space always has few electrons and ions, which under the action of high electric
field are accelerated. These accelerated electrons hit other neutral atoms. If the velocity of the
electron (or ion) is large enough so that the impact is high, then the electrons from the neutral
atoms are detached and the hitting electron creates two electrons and one positive ion by collision.
Newly generated electrons will also take part in collision process resulting in more free electron
and positive ions. If this process continues, large number of electrons and ions are created and the
air becomes a conductor with copious supply of electron and positive ions, called plasma and
breakdown takes place through the air.

Considering the above process of breakdown, if the distance between the atoms is small i.e. mean
free path is small, electrons will not be able to attain sufficient velocity between two successive
collisions. To make the collisions effective (for sufficient ionization) in case of smaller mean free
path the electric stress or force is to be increased. So breakdown strength is more in case of denser
air. Also, as air density depends upon temperature and pressure, we can derive the following
relationship.
At 200C and 760 mm of Hg

Breakdown strength of air is = 30 kV/cm

At any other temperature and pressure= 30 δ kV/cm

0.386 p
Where is known as the air density correction factor and δ
273 t
Where t is the temperature in 0C and p is the barometric pressure in mm of Hg

Let us consider a conductor of radius r on which the charge is q as shown.

q
At a distance x, the field intensity produced by the conductor is E =
2π 0 r x
As this distance is decreased, obviously the stress will increase and at x = r, i.e. on the conductor
surface, the stress will be maximum.

Thus, air on the conductor surface has highest stress. When this stress exceeds the breakdown
strength of the air, a partial discharge occurs, known as Corona. There is a faint luminous glow
with violet colour surrounding the conductor and at the time there is a hissing sound with the
formation of ozone as can be detected by its smell.

Corona Current

V critical

T
V critical

Wavefrom of Corona Current

1
From the corona current waveform it is clear that extra current flows during corona and hence
there will be power loss during corona. But most important problem is the high frequency
disturbance that they cause to the radio transmission systems as radio interference.

Corona is a self checking process. The effective diameter of the conductor increases due to corona,
as the surrounding air becomes conducting in nature. This causes lower voltage stress on the
surface and tends to check the progress of corona.

Disruptive critical voltage for corona is that voltage of conductor which causes breakdown of the
air just on the conductor surface. This voltage is generally expressed in kVrms

Single phase two conductor system

The above figure shows a line consisting of two conductors each of radius r and the distance
between the conductors being d. The two conductors are oppositely charged.

The line to line capacitance between the conductors Cab, can be expressed by the general
expression as

πε 0 ε r
C ab F/m
d
ln
r

Again since the two conductors are oppositely charged, the potential of any point midway between
the conductors is zero, such that there is a zero potential plane midway between a and b. The
capacitance between each conductor and point of zero potential n is Cn, and its value is obviously
twice the value of Cab, considering two symmetrical C n in series

2π 0 r
Cn F/m
d
ln
r
2π 0 r
Again q C.V .V C/m (1)
d
ln
r

2
The stress at any point p situated at a distance x from conductor a is given by

E = E a - Eb

q
Where Ea = stress at p due to charge +q on conductor a and is equal to kV/m
2π ε 0 ε r x

And Eb = Potential gradient at p due to a charge – q on conductor b.

q
Eb kV/m
2π ε 0 ε r (d x)
q 1 1
E kV/m
2π ε 0 ε r x d x

The potential gradient will be maximum at the conductor surface i.e. for x = r ,

q 1 1
E max kV/m
2π ε 0ε r r (d r)

Normally d is very large compared to r, and the second term in the expression may be
1
neglected i.e. 0
(d r)

q
E m ax kV/m
2π ε 0 ε r r

Now substituting q from equation (1) we get

2π ε 0 ε r V 1 V
E m ax . kV/m (2)
ln
d 2π ε 0 ε r r r ln
d
r r

The disruptive critical voltage can be calculated from the above equation (2).
Let Vd be the disruptive critical voltage then the general equation would be
Emax = rms breakdown voltage of air air density correction factor
Vd 30
.δ 21.1δ (breakdown voltage of air is 30kVp/cm)
d 2
r ln
r
Where is the air density correction factor.

3
 Note that in the left side of the equation, the voltage has to be expressed in kV and distances
are in cms

d
Vd 21.1 δ r ln kVrms to neutral
r

Three phase line

For these type unsymmetrical lines, usually transpositions are done. So the capacitance of each
line wrt neutral will be

q 2π ε 0ε r
C F/m (w.r.t. neutral)
V d
ln
r
1
Where d = d1.d 2 .d 3 3

2π ε 0ε r V
q C.V C/m
d
ln
r
q V
and E same as case of two conductor
2π ε 0ε r r r ln d
r

Therefore disruptive critical voltage Vd will hold the same expression i.e.
d
Vd 21.1 δ ln kVrms to neutral
r
It is worth mentioning here that in both the cases it has been assumed that d is very large
compared to r and thus the stress on the conductor surface is due to its own charge neglecting the
effects of other conductors.

4
In practice, in addition to air density correction factor, another correction is applied in the
expression for Vd. This correction is used to take care of the condition of the conductor surface.
Let that correction factor be ‘md’
d
Vd 21.1 δ m d r ln kVrms to neutral
r
(Applicable to both single phase and three phase system)

md = 1 for polished surface

= 0.98 to 0.93 for roughened or weathered surface
= 0.87 to 0.80 for stranded conductors

Above values of md are valid for fair weather. Under fog, rain or smoke, md is about 80% of the
above value.

Visual Critical Voltage or Visual Corona Voltage

0.3
Visual Corona voltage Vv is that voltage which causes breakdown of air at a distance r 1
δ.r
away from the conductor center.

Corona starts

r
Visual Corona
x
0.3
x r 1
.r

q
Stress at a radial distance x is E x
2π ε 0 ε r x

Where q is the charge per unit length and equals to CV

2π ε 0ε r
q C.V .V
d
ln
r

5
 V
Ex
d
x ln
r
Substituting V by Vv and equating to 21.1 in case of air,
Vv
21.1δ
d
x ln
r
d
Vv 21.1 δ x ln kVrms to neutral
r
Putting the value of x,
0.3 d
Vv 21.1 δ r 1 .ln kVrms to neutral
δ.r r
Now introducing correction for surface for visual corona

0.3 d
Vv 21.1 δ m v r 1 ln kVrms to neutral
δ.r r

Where mv is the correction factor.

mv = 1 for smooth conductor

= 0.93 –1.0 for wires
= 0.72 for local corona for stranded conductor
= 0.82 for decided corona for stranded conductor

For stranded conductors, localized corona takes places at a point at much lower voltage, whereas
continuous corona all along the length of the conductor i.e. the decided corona takes places at
higher voltage.

Peek’s formula for corona loss

242 r
PC (f 25) (V Vd ) 2 10 5
kW / km / line
δ d

Where = air density factor

f = frequency in Hz
r = radius of the conductor in cm
d = Conductor spacing in cm
V = Rms Voltage to neutral in kV
Vd = rms disruptive voltage to neutral in kV

6
Ex –1 Determine the disruptive critical voltage and visual corona voltage of a grid line operating at
132 kV. The conductors being 37/0.286 cm dia ACSR has a spacing of 4m. Temperature and
pressure being 15.6ºC and 737 mm of Hg. Take md = 0.83 for fine weather. Reduce md to 80% for
rough weather.

[Stranded conductors usually have a central wire around which there are successive layers of 6, 12,
18, 24 wires. Thus for n layers, the total number of individual wire can be generalized as 3n(n+1),
plus the central wire. If the diameter of each strand is known to be d, overall diameter of the
stranded conductor will be (2n+1)d.]

Given, for ACSR, total number of strands = 37, individual dia (di) = 0.286cm

From formula, if no. of layers be n,

1 3n(1 n) 37
or (n 4)(n 3) 0 n 3

overall diameter D = (2n 1)d i

=7 0.286
0.286 7
So, radius of conductor r 1cm
2
Given, spacing between the conductors (d) = 400cm
And from the data supplied,

0.386 737
Air density correction factor δ 0.985
273 15.6

Also, for fine weather m d 0.83

So, under fineweather condition, using standard formula for disruptive critical voltage

d
Vd 21.1 δ r md ln kVrms to neutral
r
400
21.1 0.83 0.985 1 ln
1
103.35 kVrms to neutral

And, under rough weather condition, given md 0.8 0.83

So, overall Vd becomes
Vd 0.8 103.35kV 82.7kV kVrms to neutral

7
Visual Corona
0.3
For visual corona, the radial distance at which it occurs is x r1 1.3, for calculated r
δ.r
and
d
Vv 21.1 δ m v x ln
r
161.9 m v
Applying the values of mv for stranded conductor,
For local corona, Vv 161.9 0.72 116.6 kVrms to neutral
And for decided corona Vv 161.9 0.82 132.76 kVrms to neutral

Ex –2 In a threephase, 50 Hz overhead line, each conductor has a diameter of 25 mm and are

arranged in the form of an equilateral triangle. Assuming fair weather conditions, air density
correction factor = 0.95 and inequality factor = 0.95, calculate the corona power loss per km of the
three phase line. The voltage between lines is 220 kV and spacing between the lines is 1.38 m.

Applying Peek’s formula for corona loss

242 r
PC (f 25) (V Vd ) 2 10 5 kW / km / line
δ d
And applying the expression for Vd
d
Vd 21.1 δ r md ln kVrms to neutral
r

135
Vd 21.1 0.95 0.95 1.25 ln ( the inequality factor is included in this expression)
1.25
111.97 112 kVrms to neutral

2
242 1.25 220 5
PC (50 25) 112 10
0.95 138 3
= 4.1 kV / km / line

Note: Advantage of this corona loss is to dissipate the energy of over voltages caused by lighting
and switching.

Ex-3 Determine the disruptive critical voltage and visual critical voltages for local and general
corona on 3-phase overhead transmission line, consisting of three stranded copper conductors of
equilateral triangle. Air temperature and pressure are 21ºC and 735mm of mercury respectively.
Conductor diameter, 1cm; inequality factor 0.85; and surface factors 0.7 and 0.8, for local and
decided corona respectively.

0.386 735
0.965
273 21

8
Conductor radius = 0.5cm

240
Vd 21.1 0.965 0.85 0.5 ln [always remember when using this formula, distances
0.5
must be in cms]
53.4 kVrms to neutral
Vd 53.4 3 92.5 kV between lines
0.3
For visual corona: x r 1
δ.r
0.7154
240
Vv (local) 21.1 0.965 0.7 0.7154 ln
0.5
62.95 kVrms to neutral
Vv (local) 62.95 3 109 kV between the lines
109
Vv (decided) 0.8 125kV between the lines
0.7

Radio Interference

If the polarity of the electrode in a non-uniform field is negative, the corona appears at a lower
voltage whereas, the breakdown or disruptive discharge takes place at a higher voltage compared
to the values when positive.

It has been found that as the field intensity or voltage of a conductor is gradually increased, the
first regular sequences of discharge take places during –ve half cycle. This happens at a value
well below the critical voltage and even before any measurable corona loss appears. These
discharges are accompanied by radio interference. Further increase of field intensity increases
the radio interference, but the phenomena is still restricted to the –ve half cycles until the critical
level is reached, when interference start appearing during +ve half cycle also. Radio
interferences (RI) therefore precede corona loss and are more pronounced during rain.

Above the critical voltage of corona, increase in radio interference is very rapid. The ratio of
increase is dependent on the conductor surface and diameter, being lower for smooth and large
diameter conductors. To avoid too much interference, it is specified that the lines must be
operated at a voltage so that the radio interference (RI) field intensity does not exceed 500
microvolts/m. The radio interference levelcan be measured by small hand held radio noise
meters.

9
Bundle Conductors

Bundle conductors are more economical at 400kV and above. However a 220 kV line with two
conductors, bundle are economically justified because following are the advantages of bundle
conductors.

1. Since the effective surface area of the conductor increases, the field stress on the conductor
surface decreases. In other words, higher disruptive voltage for corona is obtained with bundle
conductors.

2. Less corona loss and radio interference due to higher disruptive critical voltage.

3. Less skin effect.

L
4. Less surge impedance. (Since, surge impedance is and as area increases, L decreases).
C

5. Again the phase angle difference between Vs and VR decreases. So, using bundled conductors
more power is transmitted through the same lines without affecting stability.

Disadvantages

1. Increased circuit cost.

1
2. Increased charging current due to the increase in capacitance C .
d
ln
r

10
Overvoltage
High voltage equipment in a system is required withstand the abnormal overvoltages that
appear sometime besides the normal system voltage. These overvoltages are mainly

Power frequency overvoltages

Lighting overvoltages

Switching overvoltages

Power Frequency overvoltage

The power frequency overvoltage may be due to unbalance faults or capacitance loading
(in case of unloaded transmission line, called the Ferranti effect). But these overvoltages
are limited to 20% to 30% of the rated voltage

Lightning overvoltage
Overvoltage due to the lighting hit on the transmission line is much above the rated
voltage. For system voltages upto 300kV, all the transmission equipments are designed
on the basis on lightning overvoltages. Lightning is the main consideration for
overvoltage transmission line and also for open-air substations. Above 300kV, both
lightning and switching voltages are main consideration in the design.

Phenomenon of lightning

Lightning is the discharge between heavily charged cloud and earth.

1
Charge formation

Normally clouds have negative charge concentration in the lower part and positive charge
over the upper surface. Further there are a few pockets of +ve charges in the lower part.
These charges are formed mainly due to air friction and ion conduction.

Discharge process

Discharge through air takes places gradually. Due to concentration of charges in the
lower part of the cloud, high stress is developed and ionization starts just below the
cloud. This ionization leads to the development of conductive channel initially for a short
length as the generation of positive ions reduces the field intensity. The negative charges
in the cloud comes down through this conductive channel and the positive charges are
absorbed in could. This leads to high field concentration at the tip of the conducting
channel and ionization proceeds further in a different direction and this process
continues. These leading channels are called leaders. As these leaders descend in steps,
they are also called stepped leaders. When the leaders have reached 50 to 100 m from
earth, the point of lightning hit is decided. This distance is known as the striking distance.
If there is a transmission line, which is at much higher level then earth, the lightning hit
takes place on these lines.

When the lightning hits a transmission line, we can presume as if a high voltage source is
connected to the transmission line. Transmission line contains distributed capacitances
and inductances. Because of these reason the lighting voltage moves gradually in both
direction by charging the capacitances through series inductances and this charging
current flows to the ground. From ground, positive charge starts flowing the conducting
channel to the clouds and gradually neutralizes the cloud charges, known as return stroke.
As the lower surface of the cloud is negatively charged 90% of the lighting stroke is of
negative polarity. The lighting current has approximately constant waveshape and
amplitude. Electrical engineers designate lightning strikes by means of kilo-amp rating,
e.g. 10kA, 20kA etc.

Lighting stroke may be two types, e.g. direct lightning strokes and indirect lightning
strokes. When lightning strikes a line conductor, the strikes are known as direct stroke.
Under direct stroke, the current divides and flows in each direction along the line. The
line is subjected to a voltage given by the product of the lightning current and half the
surge impedance of the line. This voltage causes a flashover of line insulation to earth. It
has been observed that the risk of lighting flash overvoltage decreases with the increase
in operating voltages.

The negative charge on lower part of the cloud and the leader stroke induce positive
charges on the ground surface, earth conductor and other grounded objects. Some of
these positive charges flow to the phase conductors by leakage through insulations and
through neutral points of transformers.

2
A lighting discharge in the vicinity of the line will cause the field to collapse and the
positive charge on the conductors to be released and initiate indirect lighting transients.
The charge on the earth wire travel down to earth through the towers and those on the
phase conductors travel along the conductors and are dissipated through corona and
resistance loss. The induced surges are equal in on three phases, have usually positive
polarity, and their wave front is typically 10 s. The crest value depend on the stroke
current, distance from the stroke, height of phase conductor, the presence of shield wires,
but in all cases, it rarely exceed 200kV. Thus the indirect strokes while capable of
producing flashover on 11kV lines, have little practical significance for lines of 33kV and
higher operating voltage.

Velocity of propagation of traveling wave

Let us now determine the velocity of traveling wave when lighting hit a transmission line.
For this purpose it will be assumed that as if a voltage source with step input is connected
to the line. The transmission line is modeled with distributed capacitances and line
inductances.

Initially all the capacitances are at zero potential since they are not charged. Then the first
one is charge after the closure of the switch. Next it discharges over the inductances and
charge the second capacitor and this process continues, creating a wave propagation.

In the following figure, let us take a small part of the system, marked as dx, at any
distance x. Let dx is the small distance traveled by the wave in time dt.

step input

X dx

Let L = Inductance per unit length in H/m

C = Capacitance per unit length in F/m
v = Velocity of traveling voltage or current
E = Induced voltage in that section

3
Also, let the number of turns per unit length be N, that is forming the inductance. (Note
that practically this inductance is due to the length of the conductor, and no such number
of turns exists).
Then the number of turns at small distance dx is N.dx
N LI
By definition of inductance, L = , or = per unit length.
I N
L.I
Then, the flux linkage in the inductance for the distance dx is N.dx = LI.dx
N
d dx
Now, rate of change of flux linkage = L.I = E
dt dt
dx
Again since this is the velocity v, E = L.I.v - (1)
dt
Now, since the capacitance per unit length is C, for that length dx, capacitance is C.dx
Again the current through the condenser in the concerned section being
dq C.dx.E
I (as dq = small charge in the section dx, capacitance = C.dx and voltage
dt dt
is E)
dx
= C.E = C.E.v -(2)
dt
Multiplying (1) & (2) we get
E I = L.I.v C.E.v
1
or v m/sec -(3)
LC
And, by dividing (1) by (2) we get
2
E LI E L
or
I CE I C
E L
I C
E L
i.e. For forward wave.
I C
E L
and For backward wave.
I C
L
This ratio is known as surge impedance or characteristic impedance and is written
C
as Z c. It has the unit of Ohm.

Surge impedance for transmission line

d
L μ 0 ln H/m
r

4
 ε0
C F/m
d
ln
r
1
LC = 0 0 v , velocity of light
μ 0ε 0
L μ 0ε 0 1 1
So, = = v , velocity of light
C C v.C μ 0ε 0
1
Now putting line capacitances about 6.67pF/m, becomes about 500
v.C
So, Z c 500 Ω (450 to 600 )

Surge impedance for Cables

R
Cable inductance L μ 0 ln H/m where r Conductor radius and R Sheath
r
radius
ε 0ε r
And, cable capacitance C F/m
R
ln
r
1
LC = 0 0 r v , velocity of light
μ 0ε 0
L μ 0ε 0ε r εr 1
So, = = v , velocity of light
C C v.C μ 0ε 0
Now putting cable capacitances of about 100 pF/m, and r = 2.25
εr
becomes about 50
v.C
Z c 50 (40 to 60 )

5
Case I: Lighting hits the line

When lightning directly hits the line, half of the total current flows through two adjacent
towers, as shown in the following figure.

Let I = 10 kA
I 10
E Z (500 ) kV 2.5 MV
2 2
This voltage will travel towards the tower and will appear across the line insulators.
Flashover will take place if the line insulators cannot withstand this voltage.

Case II: Lighting hits the tower

In this case, tower surge impedance is of the order of 100

For lightning current = 10kA,
Tower voltage V = 100 10 103 volts = 1MV

6
So 1MV will be induced in the tower. In such a case tower potential will be higher than
the conductor potential and a back flashover takes place between the tower and the
conductor.

Reflection and refraction of Waves

Whenever a traveling wave meets a discontinuity i.e. a change in surge impedance of the
line, there will be partial refection and partial transmission of the wave. In fact, the
incident wave gives rise to two waves, one of which is transmitted forward and the other
that is reflected back. This discontinuity in the line may arise due to the change in circuit
characteristics e.g. junction of two overhead lines and a cable, the end of the line, forked
line, the junction of the line with terminal apparatus, etc.

To develop general expression for reflection and refraction coefficients, a junction of two
lines with surge impedances Z1 and Z2 are considered.

Let Z 2 Z1
At the junction, where Z 2 Z1 , there will be development of reflected and transmitted
wave.
Point to remember: The voltages are not negative here, but since the reflected current
flows in opposite direction than the incident current, the current directions are opposite
and are reflected only in current equations, not in magnitudes.

Vt
Then, Vt Z 2 .I t or, I t (1)
Z2
Vr
Vr = Z1.Ir or, I r (2)
Z1
Vi
and Vi Z1 .I i or, I i (3)
Z1

7
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the impedances in the respective section, suffixes i represent
incident voltages and currents, r represents reflected parameters and t represents thae
transmitted parameters.

As Z2>Z1, we can see that Vt greater than both Vr or Vi

Since voltage and current waves are continuous at the junction, it may be written that

Vt Vi Vr (4)
Since Ir is flowing in opposite direction to that Ii, then if Ii is considered positive, then Ir is
considered as negative.
I t Ii ( Ir ) (5)

Again dividing (1) by (2) we get

Vt Vi Vr Vi Vr
Z2
It Ii Ir Vi Vr
Z1 Z1
Z2 Vi Vr
or (6)
Z1 Vi Vr

From (6), using componendo and dividendo

Z2 Z1 Vi Z2 Z1
Vr .Vi (7)
Z2 Z1 Vr Z2 Z1

From equation (5)

I t I i I r (again remember this is current equation and so, sign of reflected current is
opposite.

Vt Vi Vr
or from (1)
Z2 Z1 Z1

Z1
or Vi Vr Vt . (8)
Z2

Adding (4) and (8) we get,

Z1
2Vi Vt 1
Z2

8
 2Z 2
Vt .Vi (9)
Z1 Z 2

(7) and (9) gives the expression of reflected and transmitted waves in terms of the
incident wave and surge impedances.

Extreme cases:

Case-i: Z 2 i.e. open circuited line.

Vt
In this case I t 0 , this means no current is transmitted (1)
Z2
Z2 Z1
Vr .Vi
Z2 Z1

Vi [Since Z 2 , then Z 2 Z1 Z2 ] (2)

Vt Vr Vi 2Vi (3)

and as It = Ii-Ir ,
Ii = Ir, as It = 0, from (1) (4)

An open circuit at the end of a line demands that the current at that point be zero at all
times. Thus when an incident current wave Ii arrives at the open circuit, a reflected wave
equal to Ii is at once initiated to satisfy this boundary condition. The resultant voltage at
the open end is twice the incident voltage.

9
Case-ii: Z 2 0 i.e. short circuited line

Z2 Z1
Vr .Vi = -Vi as Z2 = 0 (1)
Z2 Z1
Vr - Vi
Ir now, as Vr = -Vi from (1), I r = -Ii (2)
Z1 Z1
Then, Vi+Vr = Vt = 0 (3)
and It = Ii-Ir = Ii – (-Ii) = 2Ii (4)

The unique characteristic of the short circuit is that the voltage across it is zero. When an
incident voltage Vi reaches a short circuit, the reflected voltage wave must be –Vi to
satisfy the condition that the voltage across the short circuit is zero.

Case-iii: Resistance termination

Let a transmission line is terminated by a resistance R as shown in figure.

So,
Vt Vi Vr (1)
also, Vt = It.R
Vt Vi Vr
and I t I i I r or
R Z1 Z1

10
 Z1
or Vi Vr Vt . (2)
R
Z1
(1) + (2) gives 2Vi Vt 1
R
2R
or Vt .Vi (3)
R Z1
R Z1
and, Vr Vt Vi Vi (4)
R Z1

Case-iv: Line terminated with surge impedance Z2 = Z1

In this case,
Z 2 Z1
Vr .Vi = 0 (as Z2 = Z1) (1)
Z 2 Z1
Vr
and Ir 0 (2)
Z1

also Vt Vi Vr Vi 0 Vi (3)
and, I t I i I r I i (4)

i.e. there will be no reflection. Such a line where no reflection occurs, the incident
voltage and current will be entirely absorbed by the load. Such a line with receiving end
impedance equal to its characteristic impedance is said to be correctly terminated or
matched. It is also called a flat line or an infinite line, because nothing is reflected back.

11
Junction of transmission line and cable

Let us consider an example when a lighting impulse developing in an overhead line meets
a cable.
Z line = 500 and Z cable = 50

2Z 2
Recalling the formula, Vt .Vi and Z1 = Z line Z2 = Z cable
Z1 Z 2
2 50
Vt Vi 0.182Vi
500 50
The transmitted voltage through cable will be reduced to 18.2% of the induced voltage in
overhead line. So cable reduces the surge voltage if it is connected to transmission line.

Reverse case

Suppose the impulse voltage traveling through the cable meets an overhead transmission
line.

2Z 2
Vt .Vi and Z1 = Z cable Z2 = Z line
Z1 Z 2
2 500
Vt Vi 1.82Vi
50 500
The transmission voltage will be 82% higher than the induced voltage.

Two overhead lines joined by a cable

Let us consider two overhead transmission lines having surge impedances 500 each are
joined by means of cables of surge impedance 50 as shown in fig . Let the impulse
voltage developed in the 1st transmission line is Vi.

Here Vt1 = 0.182Vi as shown above.

Now this Vt1 is the incident wave in the cable.
1
So Vt2 will be 0.182 1.82Vi 0.3312Vi Vi
3
This shows the voltage in the second overhead line is reduced approximately to one third
to that of the incident voltage. Cable is therefore useful in reducing surge transmitted to
substation.

12
 Forked line

Let a line of surge impedance Z1 bifurcate into two branches of surge impedances Z2
and Z3, then, so far as the voltage waveform is concerned, the transmitted wave will be
same for both branches, since they are in parallel. On the other hand, the transmitted
currents will be different as Z3 Z2.

Let Ei, Ii be the incident voltage and current

Er, Ir be the reflected voltage and current
Et, It2 be the transmitted voltage and current along Z2
Et, It3 be the transmitted voltage and current along Z3

Et Et
Then It2 and I t 3
Z2 Z3
Also Ii – Ir = It1 + It2
Ei Er E t E t
(current equation at junction)
Z1 Z1 Z 2 Z 3
Ei (E t Ei ) Et Et
or
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z3
2E1 1 1 1
or Et
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z3
2E1
Z1
Et
1 1 1
Z1 Z2 Z3

13
In general let us consider the following case;

Here, I t I t1 I t2 I t3 .......... ..... I tn (1)

I t Ii I r (2)
Vt Vi Vr I t .Z eq (3)
Vt Zt1.I t1 Zt2 .I t2 Zt3 .I t3 .......... ...... Ztn .I tn (4)
and, from (1) we get
Vt Vt Vt Vt V
.................... t (5)
Zeq Zt1 Zt2 Zt3 Ztn
1 1 1 1
so, .......... ......... (6)
Zeq Z t1 Z t2 Z tn
Again , from (2) I t Ii I r
Vi Vr
or I t or Vi Vr I t .Z1 (7)
Z1 Z1
(3) + (7) gives,
2Vi I t .(Z 1 Zeq )
2Vi
It (8)
Z1 Zeq
2Vi
and from (3), Vt . Z eq (9)
Z1 Zeq
When ‘n’ lines are connected to the bus having same surge impedance Z1,
Z1 2Vi Z1 2Vi
Zeq Vt
n Z1 n n 1
Z1
n
2
Example: when n = 2, Vt = Vi
3

14
The above equation shows the voltage transmitted through diverged lines of the bus bar is
2
reduced to the ratio , where n is the total no of lines through which the wave is
n 1
transmitted.

Ground Wires

Direct lightning strokes on transmission lines constitute the major sources of outage in
power systems. The objective of a good line design, therefore, should be to reduce the
number of outage during lightning i.e. the inductance of direct strokes to the system
should be minimum and also the overvoltage arising out of the few strokes that may still
hit the lines should be kept to a minimum. For both the purpose ground wire is found to
suitable.

Ground wires arranged above the phase conductors and grounded at every tower can
reduce the incidence of direct strokes on lines, acting as a shield to the phase conductors.
The probability of strokes striking the ground wire instead of phase conductors is
more.The degree of protection afforded depends upon the disposition of the ground wire
with respect to the phase conductors. Due to the presence of the ground wire, the
potential gradient in the neighborhood of the line conductors are reduced, Since a charged
cloud induces charges of the same sign on the both the line conductors and ground wire.
In general, ground wires should meet the following requirements:

a) Ground wires must be kept high above the line conductors and disposed in such a
way so as to interrupt the direct stroke. It is customary to call the space around a
ground wire, in which the probability of lighting stroke is low, as the protective zone.
The protective zone of a ground wire is the regions below a quarter circles drown
with its center at the height of the ground wire and its radius equal to the height of the
ground wire above the ground. The phase conductors need to be located in protective
zone.
b) Ground wires must have enough clearance above the line conductors at mid span.
This will ensure that no side flash to a phase conductor would occur during the time
interval required for reflection from towers to reach the mid span and reduce the
voltage there.
c) The tower footing resistance must be low enough to avoid flashover.

15
Case 1: Lightning hit on the ground wire

Let Vi be the induced voltage on the ground wire.

I
Vi Z g .
2
500
Let Zg = 500 Zt = 125 and I = 5 kA, then Vi 5 kV = 1250kV
2
The voltage Vi traveling over the ground wire reaches the junction of ongoing ground
wire and tower.

Voltage transmitted through tower

2Z eq 2 100
Vt2 .Vi 1250 kV 416.67kV
Z g Z eq 500 100
This is the voltage instantaneously appears across the line insulator which may produce
back flashover. But in real case, the insulators are not subjected to such high voltages
because of a negative reflected voltage from tower base. In fact the incident voltage
traveling through the tower body gets reflected from the tower base and the net voltage
appearing across the insulator is the resultant of these two voltages.
If the tower footing resistance = R (= 10 ), then the following figure may explain the
phenomena.

16
 R Zt 10 125
Vr .Vt2 416.67 355kV
R Zt 10 125
In the time required by the peak value of incident wave to reach the insulator, the
reflected wave from junction of tower and ground also reaches the insulator, so that, the
resultant voltage appearing across the insulator is 416.67-355 = 61.67kV.
What is interesting is that, the equation shows that lower is the tower footing resistance,
higher is the negative reflected voltage that ultimately leads to less resultant voltage
across the insulator. So tower footing resistance should be as low as possible.

Note: Let the tower height be 30m and velocity of the traveling wave =300m/sec.
So, time to reach the base =30/300 =0.1 sec.
The reflected wave will appear across the insulator 2 0.1 =0.02 sec later than the
lightning.

17
Case II: Lightning hit on tower

Here we can see three parallel paths one through the tower and two paths through ground
wires.

If we assume I = 5kA then Vi = I Zeq= 5 83.33 = 416.65kV. However without the two
ground wire, this voltage would have been 5 125 = 625kV i.e. the ground wires have
reduced the incident voltage Vi developed due to lightning.

Again, as before, this voltage Vi will travel towards the tower base and the reflected
negative voltage will develop.
If the tower footing resistance = R (=
10 ), then
R Zt 10 125
Vr .Vt 416.67
R Zt 10 125
= - 355kV
so that the resultant voltage is
approximately,
416.67 – 355 = 61.67kV

What is interesting is that, the system

comprising the tower and the ground
wires always keeps the resultant
voltage to 61.67kV, wherever the
lightning strike may be. This leads to
an effective protection system.

18
Bewley’s Lattice Diagram
Surge on a power system are subjected to repeated reflections at terminations, junctions,
towers and similar discontinuities. It is necessary to consider the successive reflection of
traveling waves. Bewley suggested a simple time–space diagram or lattice diagram
method. The lattice diagram is explained in connection with calculation of voltage build
up at the ends of a short length of an underground cable connected between two overhead
transmission lines as shown in figure below.

Let
Z1 = surge impedance of the overhead lines
Z2 = surge impedance of the cable
α1 = line to cable reflection factor
α2 = cable to line reflection factor
β1 = line to cable transmission factor
β2 = cable to line transmission factor

Then
Z2 Z1 Z1 Z2
1 2
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2

2Z 2 2Z 1
β1 β2
Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2

Let a surge of magnitude V travels along Z1 towards the junction of Z1 and Z2. As the
wave reaches the junction 1, a fraction of incident wave is reflected back to the
transmission line and another fraction is transmitted into the cable and travels towards the
junction of Z2 and Z1. When it reaches another junction 2, a fraction of it is reflected back
in to the cable and the other fraction is transmitted in to the overhead line. The voltage
reflected back in to the cable at the junction of Z2 & Z1, travels through the cable towards
the junction 1 of cable and a fraction of this is again reflected in to cable while another
fraction is transmitted in to the left-hand side overhead line. In this way successive
reflection and refraction take place at the two ends.

19
The voltage at any point on the system can be obtained at any instant by algebraic
addition of all the waves that have passed the point in both directions, upto the instant
under consideration.
For example, we want to calculate the transmitted voltage in section on the right upto
time 2t, where in the diagram, the time axis is gradually progressing from line 0 to t, 2t,
etc. The transmitted voltage is then simply V0 2t β 2 β 1 V β 2 α 22 β 1 V

Now a days standard computer programs are available to keep a record of multiple
reflections in an integrated power system.

Switching Overvoltage
Switching overvoltages is caused by many factors. Some of the highest overvoltages are
recorded while interrupting inductive current before their natural zero (so L di/dt will
cause overvoltage).

Interruption of capacitive current can lead to buildup of an excessive overvoltage if

tripping of circuit breaker occurs. Capacitive current may be due to load current of
capacitor bank used for power factor improvement, or may be due to the charging current
of long unloaded transmission line. Let us consider the following circuit.

20
Normally in a circuit breaker arc is extinguished when currents reaches natural zero .At
that time the voltage across the capacitance is –Vm, (as capacitor voltage lags the
capacitor current by 90º) where Vm is the peak value of the supply voltage. The voltage
across the capacitance is retained at –Vm whereas the voltage at the generator terminal
oscillates and reaches +V m. At that time when the generator voltage has reached +V m, the
voltage across the switch contact (which is open) is 2V m. As a result arc may re-strike
followed by high frequency current, the supply voltage maybe considered to be remain
fixed at Vm since its frequency is much less compared to the high frequency currents. So
the situation can be explained with the help of a similar case of DC switching condition.
At any instant,
the voltage across the capacitor Vc (t) Vclose Vclose Vc (0) cosω t
where,
1
ω , the natural frequency of the LC system
LC
Vc(0) is the charge remaining across capacitor before switching
Vclose is the voltage at the time of closing (or restrike) the contact of breaker
We can write Vclose = Vrestrike
So, in first case,
Vc(0) = – Vm and Vrestrike = +Vm (maximum voltage difference across contact)

Vc (t) Vm Vm ( Vm ) cosω t
Vm 2Vm cosω t
Now, when there is a current zero, if ωt = π, Vc(t) = 3Vm
At that instant since current also reaches zero, arc extinction takes place, similar to
opening of switch, and the capacitor retains its voltage of 3V m.
The voltage across the capacitance is held constant at 3Vm while the generator voltage
goes on changing and when the generator voltage becomes –Vm and the voltage across
the contact thus become 4Vm. In this case, it may so happen that the contacts cannot
withstand the stress and another restrike takes place.
So, Vrestrike = –Vm (maximum voltage difference across contact)
and the standard expression can be written as
Vc (t) Vm ( Vm ) 3Vm cosω t
Vm 4Vm cosω t
Again at ωt = π, Vc(t) = -5Vm
At that instant since current also reaches zero, arc extinction takes place.

This process, if continues, will lead to charge pumping in capacitor, giving rise to
massive overvoltage. But, this does not happen practically. This is because, during
breaking, the contacts of the breaker move apart continuously and a time comes when the
overvoltage is also insufficient to cause restrike. Normally the circuit breakers are so
designed, specially their mechanism for contact movement, that atmost only one re-strike
can take pace leading to three times the peak voltage of the system.

21
Modern circuit breakers for E.H.V. system are practically re-strike free. The switching
surges of the extra high voltage system are mainly due to the following two cases.

A. Line energization: Impedance of unloaded line i.e. open circuit line or line
terminated through an unloaded transformer.On energization of such a line there will
be voltage doubling at the far end.
B. Line de-energization: A severe situation arises when a line is reenergized with
trapped charge on the line from previous switching.

Let the line is switched on when the capacitor is charged to –Vm due to tapped charges

Then again, the standard expression is

Vc (t) Vm Vm ( Vm ) cosω t
Vm 2Vm cosω t
Now, when there is a current zero, let ωt = π, Vc(t) = 3Vm where the arc is
extinguished. This overvoltage is usual to occur.

22
 Grounding practice and over-voltage due to earth fault.
Underground system
Let us consider a simple ungrounded system as shown in fig .The line conductors have
capacitance between one another and to ground as represented by delta and star connected sets
of capacitances.

The delta set of capacitances have little influence on the grounding of the system and will there
for be disregarded. The charging currents IR ,IY and IB lead the respective phase voltages by 90 0 .
In magnitude, each of these currents are

Vph
IR  IY  IB 
XC

Where Xc is the capacitance of the line to ground. Since these currents are balanced no current
flows to earth.

Next let us consider the situation when a phase to earth fault in line B occurs.

1
The current in phase B has two components;
1) IBR, through phase B, the fault and capacitance C R to the phase R conductor and
2) IBY, through phase B, the fault and capacitance C Y to the phase Y conductor.

The voltages driving these currents are VBR & VBY respectively and since the current is
predominantly capacitive they lead their respective voltages almost by 900 as shown by phasors
in the figure.

From the phasors, we can calculate

V 3.Vph
I BR  BR 
XC XC
3. Vph
Similarly I BY 
XC

The resultant current in phase B the vector sum of IBR and IBY.
Vph
 I BR  I BY  3.I BR  3.
XC

The following observations can be made from above:

1) In an ungrounded neutral system ,under a single line to ground fault the voltage to earth of the
two healthy phases rises from their normal phase to neutral voltage to full line value. This may
result in insulation failure.
2) The capacity currents in two healthy phases increase to 3 times their normal values. This is
due to neutral shift, as shown in the following phasors. Remember that in this case, the neutral is
not directly grounded and this causes the overvoltage.

2
3) The capacity current in faulty phase is 3 times its normal value.

4) A capacitance fault current, I BR  I BY , flows into earth. A capacitive current in excess of

about 4 amperes may be sufficient to maintain an arc in the ionized path of the fault. The
persistency of an arc due to the flow of capacitive current gives rise to a condition known as
‘arcing ground’ in which results in high frequency oscillations being superimposed on the whole
system to build up high overvoltages. It has been observed that under arcing ground conditions
the phase voltage of the system may rise to 5-6 times its normal value. The build up of high
voltages may result in insulation breakdown.

Solidly grounded system

In the case of solidly grounded system (neutral point is solidly grounded) ground faults of one or
two phases produce large currents so that earth fault relay can operate and circuit breaker
disconnects the faulty section. Usually many such ground faults are of temporary nature, such as
tree branches falling on line and gets burnt due to the heat of the arc. For that reason circuit
breakers usually operates on auto-reclosing mode i.e. the circuit breakers are closed after a few
cycles. Though the supply is restored after a short while, absence of supply releases the starter
switch of different motors under operation. This needs restarting several machines in a plant.
This the most disadvantage for a solidly grounded system.

3
To reduce the fault current so that the arc due to fault is extinguished automatically at its natural
zero, ungrounded or reactance grounded system can be used, but there is a possibility of arcing
ground overvoltage in those systems.

Reactance grounded system

In reactance grounded system fault current is reduced by connecting reactance between neutral
of the transformer or generator and ground.

Here, comparing with the previous phasor, we can see that the inductor current lags the faulty
phase voltage by 90º. This current is almost in opposition with the resultant capacitive current as
shown in the left. Thus the net current through phase B is reduced preventing the amount of fault
current. But at the same time, since there is no direct connection of neutral and earth, neutral
shift is obvious to occur. Another case of arching overvoltage also occurs in this case as shown
with respect to the following figure and expressions. This overvoltage arising from high
frequency oscillation is not so pronounced in case of floating neutral due to absence of inductor.

4
The figure is drawn similar to the switching of breaker with capacitive loading. Recalling the
same expression, at any instant,
the voltage across the capacitor Vc (t)  Vclose  Vclose  Vc (0)cosω t
where,
1
ω , the natural frequency of the LC system
LC
Vc(0) is the charge remaining across capacitor before arcing
Vclose is the voltage at the time of arching

Now putting Vclose =Vm and Vc(0) = 0 in the above equation, we get

VC  Vm  (Vm  0)Cos1t  Vm  Vm Cos1t

The peak value of the voltage in the above expression = 2Vm.

This voltage is double the normal voltage (peak) stressing the system insulation and the whole
process will be repeated if restrike takes place when Vc = 2Vm and the voltage rises to 4Vm.

The above analysis is also valid for under grounded system. Neutral reactance X n will be
replaced by capacitance between the system and the earth. A fault amount will again be reactive
and arc extinction will take place V =Vm
This phenomenon is known as arcing ground and occurs in reactance grounded or ungrounded
system. This arcing ground phenomenon can be avoided and fault current can be reduced by
a) Resistance grounded system
b) Peterson coil (resonance) grounded system

Resistance grounded system

Resistance, R, will appear in series with (Lg + Ll/2 ) in the single-phase equivalent circuit drawn
before. The fault amount is not purely reactive and supply voltage at amount zero will be much
less than Vm .The maximum over voltage of the system is thereby reduced. But losses are very
high in resistance grounded system.

Arc suppression coil or Peterson coil Earthing

In the arc suppression coil method of earthing the arcing grounds danger has been eliminated and
the system is approximated to the isolated neutral system, in which one or two healthy phases
continue to supply power and complete shutdown is avoided.
It operates on the principle that if an inductance of appropriate value is connected in parallel with
the capacitance, the fault current can be reduced considerably or even it can be neutralized.
An arc suppression coil is an iron-cored reactor connected between the neutral of the power
system and earth. The reactor is provided with tapping so that it can be tuned with the
capacitance of the system. The function of the arc suppression coil is to make arcing ground fault
self extinguishing and in the case of sustained faults, to reduce the earth fault current to a
comparatively low value so that the system can be kept in operation with one line earthed.

5
The arrangement has been shown in the Figure-1. L being the Peterson coil and R is the faulty
line. Let the capacitance of the two healthy lines be C B and CY and each equal to C farad. Figure
2 shows vector diagram. VRN, VYN& VBN are the voltages of the respective lines to neutral and R
is earthed VRY and VRB are the voltages of the sound lines to earth.
The currents flowing are:

IB = .C.VRB from line R to earth leading VRB by 900

IY = .C.VRY from line Y to earth leading VYB by 900
V
IL = NR from neutral to earth lagging VNR by 900
L
The resultant of IB and IY is I B  I Y  3..CVRB i.e. I B  I Y  3C.VL where VL =VRB =
VRY = line voltage, and in phase opposition to IL .

Hence if IC = IB +IY = IL, there will no current through the earth fault and there will be no arc.
For this condition to be satisfied:

VNR
 3..C.VRB
L

Again VNR is equal to the system phase voltage & VRB being line voltage.

VNR 1 1
  3..C. 3.VNR Or 3..C  L 
L L 3 2 C

1
Or 3.L  i.e.
C
X C  3X L

When the above condition is satisfied arcing ground is prevented.

6
7
Design and protection of H.V. system

Costly equipment of the system is protected against overvoltages by:

i) Using protective device

ii) Increasing insulation level of equipments.

Now to improve the insulation level, the high voltage equipment are subjected to artificial
lightning impulse generated in the laboratory. This creates overvoltage across the insulation of
the equipment. This level of overvoltage that the equipment has to withstand is also specified in
the IS. The standards of the lightning impulses are specified in IS

Lighting over voltage is specified by its wave front time wave tail time as shown in the following
figure.

According to IS, front time = 1.2  30 % s and tail time = 50  20 % s

In laboratory equipments are tested for lighting over-voltage, applying this wave form with the
tolerance in peak value =  3 %.

Similarly, for switching over voltage waveform, the following waveshape is specified for testing
purposes.
Front time = 250 20 % s
Tail time = 2500  60 %
Peak voltage to be applied   3 %

Lightning overvoltage is independent of system voltage as it is a natural phenomenon. On the

other hand, switching overvoltage depends on Vm i.e. maximum value of system voltage. In fact,
for the design of HV system, we have to consider abnormal voltages, such as lightning and
switching voltages, in addition to normal operating voltages. The systems below 300kV are
designed on the basis of lightning overvoltage only. At this range, switching overvoltages are
much smaller and taken care of automatically. In EHV range (300kV-765kV), lighting and
switching overvoltages are comparable and both are to be considered. For UHV system (above
765kV) switching surges are of main consideration.

8
Design and protection of high voltage systems
Use of ground wires

Lighting overvoltages can be reduced substantially by the use of ground wires. There may be one
or two ground wires and they should be properly located to shield the line conductor from the
direct strokes. Optimized clearance among the line conductors, from line conductors to tower
ground wire, and from ground itself must be maintained. To make the ground wire effective
tower footing resistance should as low as possible.

Use of protector tubes or expulsion type lightning arrestor

Ordinary rod type arresters can be used, but they have the problem of continuing the power
frequency current even when the overvoltage is gone. This is due to the ionization path between
the gap and the heavy power frequency current involved. To prevent this, the lightning arresters
are designed specially, called the protector tube.

Protector tube is a gas forming tube with an external gap and another internal gap. The internal
gap is a special tube, normally having low pressure. During the application of the lighting
voltage two gaps break down simultaneously and impulse current is diverted to earth. Due to the
arc formation inside the internal tube, gas formation takes place because of some proprietary
materials present in the tube. This gas formation increases the pressure in the tube. Meanwhile,
the impulse is over, and power frequency current arc is blown off when the current reaches zero,
aided by the high pressure inside the tube. As the arc is extinguished, the gas is again absorbed
within the special material like a reversible process. The pressure inside the tube falls and the
system is returned to its initial state. Due to the gas generated in the tube through the arc across
the internal gap, the time of operation is very small and there is no circuit interruption.

9
Volt-time characteristics of equipment

Every equipment undergoing impulse test has to exhibit certain specifications. On application of
impulse, its time to undergo breakdown from the point of application of impulse is specified as
its volt-time characteristics. The user must know this characteristic and apply the equipment
suitably. The meaning of the curve is: if, an impulse of peak value Y kV is applied to the
equipment, the breakdown takes places at x s from the time of application of the impulse.

Insulation co-ordination of the substation equipment

In a substation there are busbars, CTs, PTs, CBs, Isolators etc. Also there are transmission line
and transformers.
Except the main transformer, all equipment are given an insulation of withstand voltage level
higher than that can be transmitted by a transmission line. There is not much additional cost
involved in increasing the withstand level of these equipments. The transformers are very costly
equipments and this cost is very sensitive to the choice of insulation level. The economic
consideration leads to reduce level of insulation lower than that of the transmission line but the
transformer must be protected by special lighting arrestors known as non-linear type lighting
arrestor or valve type arrestor.

10
High voltage cables
For populated areas like cities and towns, the power transmission is done by means of
high voltage cables. Power transmission is also done by cables across seas.

Insulating material for cables :

Jute or (Vulcanized India Rubber) VIR is usually employed for LV cables. Paper is
mostly used insulating material in high voltage cables. The paper is mostly used in India.
Paper is by itself porous and hygroscopic. It requires impregnation with suitable oiling
compound, which is mineral oil along with resin. Resin increases the viscosity so that
there are no drainages from one part of the cable to other part at the
winding/manufacturing temperature.
Lead sheath is invariably used over the insulation in the cables. It prevents the access of
moisture to paper and provides some mechanical protection against rough handling.

Single core cables

Armoring is not used over single core cable because of large power loss and high
resistance drop because of large flux developed in high permeability steel. But sheath loss
cannot be avoided in single core cables, as the cable must be provided with a sheath.

Sheath
In order to provide an impervious layer to protect the cable from moisture, which affects
the insulation, metal sheathing is provided. Lead is widely used as sheath material. At
present, some alloys of lead are also used. These alloys can withstand the internal
pressure of the pressurized cables.

Aluminum is also competent as a material for cable sheath. Aluminum sheath has a small
weight and higher mechanical strength than the lead sheath. It has a greater conductivity
and is easy to manufacture and install. It has good screenings properties for AC work. It
eliminates the use of armor usually required in lead sheath cables. An aluminum sheath
can withstand the required gas pressure without reinforcements. Owing to its greater
conductivity, the aluminum sheath of low voltage cable may be used as neutral
conductor. Thus there is no need of separate fourth neutral conductor.

Recently, corrugated seamless Aluminum (CSA) sheath is becoming popular these days.
It has better bending property, reduced thickness and less weight. It has mainly used in

1
high voltage oil filled cables and telephone cables. The corrugated cables are very
flexible and can be bent easily. Also the sheath is not distorted unduly at repeated
bending and therefore, it is not damaged.

Protective Covering
Lead sheath cables are subjected to mechanical damage, corrosion and electrolytic action
when laid direct in the ground. To protect the sheath from these actions, bitumen and
bituminized material (paper, Hessian etc) or Polyvinyl Chloride is used. Layer of fibrous
permeated material with waterproof compound applied to the exterior of the cable is
called serving.

Armouring
One or two layer of galvanized steel wires or two layer of metal tape armoring is applied
aver Hessian or jute bedding to protect the sheath from mechanical damage. For
longitudinal sheath requirements, steel wire armor is preferred. The steel tape is coated
with preservative compound .The two tapes are wound helically in the same direction
such that the outer layer covers the spaces between the twins of the inner layer. Single or
double wire armor is used depending on the degree of protection required. Single wire
armor consists of wire applied over compounded bedding. In the case double wire armor
a fabric tape is used as a separator between two layers of wires. The direction of lay of
the two layers are opposite to each other. This reduces torsion effects and gives extra
mechanical strength. Double wire armor is used for cables with higher tensile strength,
for example, along sloping routes, in mines, under water etc.

The presence of magnetic material within the alternating magnetic field of a single core
cable produces excessive losses. For this reason, single core cables are either left
unarmored or, if necessary, they are armored with non magnetic materials like tin, bronze
or silicon bronze tapes or wires. In the case of multi-core cables the resultant alternating
magnetic field is zero. There is no heating loss in the armor.
Aluminum has been used recently as an armor material due to its non-magnetic
properties, high conductivity and mechanical strength. It is particularly use full for single
core cables working on AC. Aluminum or aluminum alloy wires are used for armoring.

Three core cables (Belted cables)

Each of the three-conductor cores is wrapped with oil-impregnated paper, in a three core
cable. The cores are then assembled with a filler material. The assembly is enclosed by a
paper insulating belt. A sheath is provided above the belt. The other things are done in the
usual manner. A belted cable is shown below.

2
Belted cables are usually used up to 22 kV. Belted cable has one disadvantage that, as the
field develops in side the cable is rotating one, a tangential stress alone the surface of the
core insulation i.e. on the paper is developed. The tangential stress ultimately leads to
development of partial discharge since paper can withstand very little tangential stress.
This type of discharge, starting in the surface of the paper, gradually damage whole of the
paper insulation. This is the reason for which belted cables cannot be used for high
voltage above 22kV.

H-type cable
The elimination of the tangential stress can be accomplished by screening each core
separately so that the cable becomes, in effect, three separate single core cables laid up
within the same protective covering. The H-type cable, invented by the Hochstadter
consists of three paper-insulated cores, and over the insulation of each is wound a
perforated moralized paper. Perforated aluminum foil or copper tape is used so as to
maintain the homogeneity between the outside-impregnated paper and inside paper. By
the use of metallic screen (which is maintained at earth potential) electric field is made
radial.

3
S.L. Type cable
In this type each core has its own lead sheath and overall lead sheath as usual. The lead
sheath over 3-core and overall lead sheath should make good electrical contacts with each
other.

H.S.L Type cables

In this type individual cores are covered with a layer of aluminium foil or copper–tape
inside the lead sheath. This screen eliminates the bad effects of the any void between
insulation and sheath.

Stress in the Cable

Let the charge per unit length be q in coulomb. Then, the flux density at a radial distance
x is
q
Dx = C/m 2
2π x
 The stress at a radial distance x is
Dx q
Ex   V/m
ε 2π εx
The potential difference between the conductor and sheath is
R
r r
q q
V   - E x dx    dx  ln 
R R
2π εx 2π ε  r 
(Remember: potential difference is the Vtarget – Vstart and our approach is from outer circle
to inner circle)
2π εV
 q C
R
ln
r
q V
And E  V/m
2π εx R
x ln
r
The maximum stress occurs on the conductor surface i.e. when x = r
V
 Em  V/m
R
r ln
r

4
The stress distribution is as shown in fig below

From the stress distribution it is clear that maximum stress occurs at the conductor
surface. So, in order to reduce stress on the conductor surface R may be increased.
Alternatively, better quality insulation is to be employed to withstand the stress on the
conductor surface. However when R is increased additional insulation is to be provided
due to increase in overall dimension. When better quality insulation is used it is not
utilized properly because the magnitude of stress away from the conductor is small. So
the optimum dimensions for the cable are to be determined.

Optimum dimensions
Optimum cable dimensions for the following three conditions are to be determined.

a) Em and V specified, condition for minimum R?

b) Em and R specified, condition for maximum V?
c) R and V specified, condition for minimum E?

Again maximum stress on the conductor surface

V
Em 
R
rln
r
R
For Em to be maximum, the dinominator r ln has to be minimum.
r
d  R
Then,  r ln   0
dr  r

Or,
d
r ln R  r ln r   0
dr
d  d d 
Or, ln R r   r ln r  ln r r   0
dr  dr dr 
 1
Or, ln R   r    ln r  0
 r
R R
Or ln  1 or,  e1  2.718
r r

5
For economical cable R = e.r = 2.718 r ********
V V
Again, E m  
R  e.r 
r.ln r.ln 
r  r 
V

r
V e.V
Or r  and R 
Em Em
Now in order to maintain the ratio R = e.r = 2.718 r , the diameter of the conductor has to
be much higher than that required by its current rating. For that reason either aluminium
conductor can be used in place of copper or copper stranded wires can be used around a
central wire of hemp or lead.

Cable can be made economical by grading. The following two types of grading are
generally employed.
I) Capacitance grading
II) Inter-sheath grading

I) Capacitance Grading

The stress distribution shows that the potential gradient over the conductor surface is
much higher than that away from the surface. In other words if a single dielectric is used
the cable insulation is not utilized properly. One of the solutions is to use better dielectric
over the conductor surface and cheaper dielectric near the sheath. Further it can be
shown that the cable can be made more economical if the dielectric near to the conductor
has higher ‘’ than that away from it. This is known as capacitance grading.

6
If the permittivity of the insulating material away from the conductor is made less, there
is sudden rise in stress from inner dielectric to outer dielectric as shown in the above
figure. As the area under the stress curve is the cable voltage, smaller overall cable
diameter R' R can be used and the cable becomes economical.
Alternatively with the same overall dimensions the cable can be supplied at higher
voltage.
Referring to the following figure,
2  1
q
E1  [E1 stress at point 1, r1 = radius at point 1]
2π ε 1 r1
q
E2  [r1 ≈ r2 since point ‘1’ is just inside the dielectric and point '2’ is just
2π ε 2 r2
outside the dielectrics.]

E2  E1

Capacitance grading –Maximum stress in different dielectrics:

Let q be the charge per unit length. The maximum stress in dielectric 1 will
q q
be E m1  . Similarly maximum stress in the dielectrics 2 and 3 are E m2 
2π ε 1 r 2π ε 2 r1
q
and E m3  respectively.
2π ε 3 r2
q
i.e. E m1ε 1 r  E m2 ε 2 r1  E m3ε 3 r2  ..........   constant
2π

The above relation shows that the product of maximum stress allowable in a dielectric,
dielectric permittivity and the inner radius of the dielectric must be constants. Let G1, G2
andG3 be the strength of the dielectrics i.e. the breakdown stress in different dielectrics
and let  be the safety factor in the dielectric then

7
 q G q G q G
 E m1  1 ;  E m2  2 and  3
2π ε 1 r α 2π ε 2 r1 α 2π ε 3 r2 α
q.α
G 1 .ε 1 r  G 2 ε 2 r1  G 3 ε 3 r3  ......... 
2π
i.e. the product of strength of the of the dielectric, permittivity and inner radius for all
dielectric should be the same for economic cable. However it is very difficult to obtain
dielectric material of widely varying permittivity. For this reason cheaper quality paper
having lower dielectric strength is used where as better quality paper of higher strength is
used near the conductor.

For optimum conditions

E m1.ε 1 r  E m2ε 2 r1  E m3ε 3 r2

Let r = 0.5cm, Em1 =50 kV/cm, Em2 = 40kV/cm and Em3 =30kV/cm;  r1 = 4,  r 2 =3
and  r 3  2.5

For economical cable,

E m1.ε r1 r  E m2 ε r2 r1  E m3ε r3 r2
5040.5 = 40 3  r1 =30  2.5  r2
100
r 1 = =0.833cm
120
100
r2= =1.33cm
75
V  V1
E m1  or V  V1  12.76kV
0.833
0.5ln
0.5
V1  V2
E m2  or V1  V2  15.59kV
1.33
0.833ln
0.833

8
 V  V2  28.35kV
 V2  66  28.35kV  37.65kV [Let V = 66 kV]
V2  V3
 30
 r3 
r2 ln 
 r2 
r3
or V2 – 0 [ since outer layer of the cable is earthed] =30  r2 ln
r2

r  37.65
or ln 3  
 r2  30  1.33

or r3 =3.41 cm

Problem: Find the maximum voltage of a single core lead sheath cable with conductor
diameter 1 cm and inner diameter of the sheath is 5cm. Two insulating material are used
(a) Maximum working potential gradient 60kV/cm; ε r  4 and (b) Maximum working
potential gradient 50kV/cm; ε r  2.5

r =0.5 cm; R =2.5cm

E m1.ε r1 r  E m2ε r2 r1

60  4.0  0.5
 r1   0.96
50  2.5

V  V1
E m1  or V  V1  19.57kV
r 
r ln 1 
r 
 

V1  V2 ( 0)
 50  V1  45.94kV
 r2 
r1ln 
 r1 

9
 V  V1  19.57  65.5kV

Problem: What will be the working voltage if the cable in last example has some better
quality dielectric (  r  4 ) all through its thickness?
V0
 Em
R
rln 
r
or
R
V  E m .r.ln 
r
 2.5 
 60  0.5  ln 
 0.5 
 48.28kV

Thus it is seen that capacitance grading makes it possible to use the cable for higher
voltage.

Problem: A single core, lead covered cable is to be designed for 66kV to earth. Its
conductor radius is 0.5 cm and its three insulating materials, A, B and C have relative
permittivity of 4, 4 and 2.5 with maximum possible stress of 50, 40 and 30 kV/cm
respectively. Find the minimum internal diameter of the lead sheath.

For economic cable,

E m1.ε r1 r  E m2 ε r2 r1  E m3ε r3 r2

or 5040.5 = 40  4  r1 =30  2.5  r 2

 r1  0.625cmand r2  1.33cm

10
We have to find out minimum value of r3

V  V1
E m1  or V  V1  5.578kV
 0.625 
0.5ln 
 0.5 
V1  V2
E m1  or V1  V2  18.879kV
 1.33 
0.625ln 
 0.625 
 V  V2  24.457kV  V2  66  24.457  41.543kV
V2  V3  r  V 0
Again  30 or ln 3   2
 r   1.33  1.33  30
1.33ln 3 
 1.33 
[Since outer layer of the cable is earthed. V3 = 0]
or
 r  41.543 r
ln 3    1.0411  3  e1.0411  r3  3.76cm
 1.33  1.33  30 1.33
 Minimum diameter = 7.53 cm.

Problem: A single core lead sheath cable joint has a conductor of 10 mm diameter and
two layer of different insulating material, each 1mm thick .The relative permittivity are 3
inner and 2.5 outer. Calculate the potential gradient at the surface of the conductor when
the potential difference between conductor and lead sheath is 60kV.

r = 0.5cm
r1 = 0.5 +1 = 1.5 cm
r3 = 2.5 cm [1.5 +1]
Let q be the charge per unit length.
E at any radial distance x can be written as
q
E
2π ε 0 ε r x

11
 V   E.dx
r
q
 V  V1    .dx
r1
2π ε 0 ε r1 x
q r 
V  V1  ln 1  (1)
2π ε 0 ε r1  r 
q r 
Similarly, V1  V2  ln 2  (2)
2π ε 0 ε r2  r1 
Adding (1) and (2) we get,

q 1 r1 1 r 
V  V2  V   ln  ln 2 
2π ε 0  ε r1 r ε r2 r1 
 V2  0
q V
or 
2π ε 0  1 r1 1 r 
 ln  ln 2 
 ε r1 r ε r2 r

q 60
  105.26
2π ε 0  1 1.5 1 2.5 
 3 ln 0.5  2.5 ln 1.5 
 

 Stress at the conductor surface

q  q  1
=   .
2π ε 0 ε r1 .0.5  2π ε r1  3  0.5

= 70.17kV/cm.

Inter-sheath Grading
In this method of grading, the same insulating material is used through out the thickness
of the cable, but it is divided in to two or more layers by providing inter-sheaths. Inter-
sheath are metallic cylindrical sheaths, usually made up of brass or aluminum, concentric
with the conductor. These inter-sheaths are placed between the conductor and the outside
sheath and maintained at suitable potentials by connecting them to tapping from the
supply transformer. The stress on the inter-sheath surface is same as that on the conductor
surface.

12
 V V1
r
r1

Optimum Dimensions

(V  V1 )
Em  = maximum stress in the first layer i.e. on the conductor surface.
 r1 
rln 
r
Similarly, maximum stress in the second layer i.e. in inter-sheath layer
V 0
Em  1
R
r1ln 
 r1 
When maximum stress is same on both the layers,
V  V1 V 0
Em   1
r  R
rln 1  r1ln 
r r 
 1
By the method of addendo
Em 
V
 if a  c  k , then a  b  k  (1)
 r1  R b d bd
rln   r1ln 
r  r1 

Normally, out of the three variables Em, V and R, two are specified and one is to be
optimized for all these cases. As in the single core cable the optimum size is obtained
when Em = minimum, i.e., the denominator of expression (1) is maximum

 (dino min ator)  (dino min ator)

  0, 0
r r1
Now,
 (dino min ator) 
 (r lnr1  r lnr  r1lnR  r1 lnr1 )  0
r r
or, ln r1  ln r  1  0

13
 r1 r
or, ln  1 , or 1  e (2)
r r
 (dino min ator) 
Similarly,  (r lnr1  r lnr  r1lnR  r1 lnr1 )  0
r1 r1
r
or  ln R  ln r1  1  0
r1
R r
or, ln  1 
r1 r1
now from (2) we get
R 1
ln  1  (3)
r1 e
1
R 1
and  e e = 1.88 (4)
r1

Now, putting these values in the expression of Em in (1), we get

V
Em 
 1
(r  1)  r1 1 - 
 e
Now substituting the values of r and r1 in terms of R, we get

V
Em 
R R  1
 1 - 
e  1.88 1.88  e 
V

R
1  e  1
e  1.88

1.88V
Em  (5)
R

The potential of inter-sheath (V1)

V1
We have already shown that E m 
R
r1ln 
 r1 
1.88V R 1 R
Now, we have E m  , ln  1  , and =1.88
R r1 e r1

14
Putting these values, we get

V1
 0.632 or V1  0.632V
V
Therefore inter sheath is to be maintained at 63.2% of conductor potential.

Comparative gain
For an optimum size normal single core cable
eV 2.718V
Em  
R nor R nor
For the same voltage V, same maximum stress and same dielectric material, for inter-
sheath cable,
1.88V
Em 
R is
Then a simple comparison gives
2.718V 1.88V

R nor R is
R nor 1

R is 0.6939
Thus, cable size is reduced to 69.39% in case of an inter-sheath cable compared to simple
optimized cable without inter-sheath.
Now, in case where R is same,
2.718Vnorm
For normal cable, E m 
R
1.88Vis
And for inter-sheath cable E m 
R
Vnorm 1

Vis 1.445

i.e. for the same out side diameters , the cable with inter-sheath can be operated with
44.5% higher conductor potential compared to single core cable.

Limitation of grading
Following difficulties are encountered in practice in the application of grading methods.

1. Disadvantage of capacitance grading: The range of permittivity values of insulating

materials available for cable insulation is limited. Moreover, the permittivity of the layers
may not remain constant during the service period of the cable. Consequently, the stress
distribution may change and may result in insulation breakdown at normal working
voltage.

15
2. Disadvantage of inter-sheath grading: The inter-sheaths, being very thin are liable to
be damaged during transformation or installation. High local stress may develop at the
points of damage leading to breakdown. Also thin inter-sheaths are not able to carry the
charging current of long cable line and thus the current carrying capacity of the cable is
reduced. Inter-sheath grading also presents difficulties in fixing the inter-sheath
potentials.

Problem: An 85kV, single-core metal sheath cable has dielectric material, which can
withstand maximum stress 60kV/cm. This cable is to be graded by means of metallic
sheath. Find the diameter d of inter-sheath and voltage at which the inter-sheath must be
maintained in order to obtain minimum overall diameter. Compare the conductor and out
side diameter with those of an ungraded cable. What will be the maximum allowable
voltage if inter-sheath supply is disconnected in 1st case?

1.88V
We know that in case of an inter-sheath cable E m 
R
Given, V = 85kV, Em = 60kV/cm

85  1.88
R   2.66cm , which is the optimized radius of the cable.
60
So, the optimized overall diameter of the cable is 2.66×2 = 5.32cm (Ans1)
1
R 1
Also, from another expression,  e e = 1.88, where r1 is the radius of the inter-sheath.
r1
2.66
Putting R = 2.66cm, r1 = = 1.414cm
1.88
So, the diameter of the inter sheath is 1.414×2 = 2.828 cm (Ans2)
r
Again 1  e , so putting r1 = 1.414cm, the radius of the live conductor becomes 0.52cm
r
So, the diameter of the live conductor is 1.04cm
From the expression of inter-sheath voltage,
V1  0.632V , where V1 is the inter-sheath voltage
 V1  0.632.V  85  0.632  53.72kV (Ans3)

Now, in case of unsheathed cable,

2.718V
Em 
R
for same V = 85kV, Em = 60kV/cm,
85
R  2.718  3.85cm
60
So, optimized diameter of the cable is 7.7cm (Ans4)

16
 R
Also, for this cable,  e , and so, putting R = 3.85cm, the radius of the live conductor
r
is 1.416cm
Therefore, the diameter of the live conductor is 2.832cm

In case of the graded cable, when inter-sheath supply is disconnected it behaves like an
ordinary cable with conductor radius of 0.52cm and sheath radius of 2.66 cm.
From standard expression for cable,
V
Em 
R
rln
r
Putting Em = 60kV/cm in the above expression,
 2.66 
 V  60  0.52  ln   50.93kV
 0.52 
Therefore cable voltage is to be reduced from 85kV to 50.93kV so that cable stress
remains within limit.

Requirements of E.H.V cables

Following are the requirement s of the extra high voltage cables.

a) The insulation must be free of voids with special arrangements for paper insulated
cables and special manufacturing process for (1) poly-ethylene and cross-linked poly-
ethylene cables and (2) conductor shield.

b) Stranded conductor has rough surface developing high stress. A smooth conductor
surface is obtained by lapping the conductors with several layers of metallised paper,
carbon paper or moralized carbon paper or carbon filled cloth

c) Similarly the shield should also be provided over the insulation to reduce high stress
due to conductor surface. This shield is known as insulation shield.

17
 conductor
Conductor shield
Insulation
Insulation shield

Metal sheald
protecting covering

Special cable for extra high voltage ratings (above 100 kV)

Prevention of void formation has been achieved in the following types of paper cables so
the dielectrics can be operated at higher stress reducing cable size.

Oil filled cable (OF Cable)

Sheath
Paper
Helical metal ribbon
Oil duct

Spacers
Sheath channel
The dielectric is impregnated by low viscosity mineral oil and oil channels are included
within or adjacent to the conductor or near the sheath. The oil is fed from reservoir,
situated at regular intervals and is maintained at a pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2 so that there is
no tendency to form voids and gas bubbles. When there is a tendency of void formation,
oil fills up the space for voids. The oil channel within the conductor has the disadvantage
that the oil reservoir and other accessories are to be maintained at the potential of the
conductor. In 3-phase cables 3 perforated oil ducts near the sheath can be used. In sheath
channels such oil ducts oil remains at ground potential. Providing sheath channel, the
disadvantage of oil duct maintained at line potential can be avoided.

Perforated oil
duct

18
Pipe type OF cable (POF)
The bulk of the underground cable systems installed in USA are high-pressure oil
impregnated paper insulated oil-filled pipe type cable. In contrast OF cables are common
practice in Europe and Japan.
Pipe type cable consists of three phase conductors, each individually insulated, sheathed
and contained within a steel pipe.
Protective layer
steel pipe

Oil at 2000psi
Insulation
Conductor Shield
Conductor

Gas filled cables

There are two kinds of gas filled paper cables available.

a) Gas compression OF cables (External pressure cable)

Conductors are usually oval shaped; so that the conductors can follow thermal expansion
and contraction caused by load variation. Three insulated conductor are accommodated in
a common steel pipe, each single cable core being covered with lead or Al or plastic
sheath. Pipe is filled with N 2 gas at a pressure of 15 kg/cm2 . This acts on the lead sheath
to pressurize the oil impregnated paper insulation, thus preventing oil migration and void
formation.
Conductor
Conductor shield

Insulation shield

Lead sheath
N 2 at
15 kg cm 2
Steel pipe
Protecting Cover

19
b) Gas filled oil filled (OF) cables:
The difference w.r.t. to the gas compression OF cables is that there is no lead sheath or
any other sheath around the insulation and N 2 gas pressurized to 15 kg/cm2 in steel pipe
can diffuse into the insulation and fill any void may eventually formed.

Compressed gas insulated cable (CGIC)

SF6 at 50 kg m 2

Spacer
(Epoxy rasin)

Conductor

Steel pipe

Advantages
1. High dielectric strength (2.5 times as that of air)
2. Low dielectric loss.
3. Excellent heat transfer characteristics.
4. Can withstand very high temperature (150 0 C) so very high power can be transferred.

Disadvantage
Since the cables are usually rigid, there unit length is short (up to 60ft or 18 m), resulting
in a number of joints in field insulation. Special precautions are required for making such
joints at the time of insulation to prevent gas insulation being contaminated and leakage.
SF6 is very costly.

Solid insulated cable – PE and XLPE

Solid insulation is usually extruded over the conductor. Many different materials are
available of which Polyethylene (PE) and cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) are most
widely used.

Advantage of P.E

1. Cost is decreased
2. Dielectric loss is 10% less compared to paper cable.
3. Reactance power is reduced by 40%

20
Disadvantage

The disadvantage of PE is that very high temp reduces its mechanical strength. By using
XLPE cable this disadvantage can be removed. The maximum rated temperature is 70C
and for XLPE it is 90C. Other characteristics are same for both the types.

Non-XLPE cables are used in France and especially for EHV cable, although XLPE
cables have almost replaced them in some other countries like USA and Japan.

XLPE Cable (cross linking process)

In cable fabrication, chemical cross linkage is used almost exclusively. Certain peroxide
compound such as DCP (Di-Cromyl peroxide) are added to polyethylene granulates
before extrusion.
In wet curing process (steam curing process) the vulcanizing is carried out within after
extrusion at about 170C in a steam tube. Both temperature and pressure are supplied by
steam. This presses though most popular, it has got some problem.

a) Comparatively long time is required to dry XLPE insulation so as to eliminate

water molecule which has been trapped in it.

b) Small voids often remain after the water is removed. These voids cause dielectric
breakdown.

To eliminate these difficulties in dry curing process N 2 or CO 2 in place of steam are

employed. Two methods have been devised: One uses this gas only as a pressure
medium, heat being applied to the insulation by radiation (Radiant heating or curing
method) and other uses gas for both purposes.

Void formation and Cable breakdown

Insulation
Void

Lead Sheath

21
Void formation
The formation of voids or air spaces in the dielectrics of a cable is due to the effect of
load cycles. The void may be formed due to faulty material and defective manufacturing
processes.

The void formation due to loading cycles can be explained in the following manner:
On heating due to load current the compound expands and stretches the sheath. When the
cable cools down during light load, the compound contracts but the sheath cannot
contracts developing voids.

Process of breakdown
The voids surrounded by the dielectrics have much higher stress, where  r is the relative
permittivity of the dielectric. Since the dielectric strength of the void is much less, partial
breakdown inside the void takes places, especially in the region near the conductor where
the stress is very high.

C Void

Vp
C dielectric
V1
t
When the supply voltage is DC capacitance Cv of the of the void is shorted during
discharge. The series capacitance C d of the dielectric takes up the full line voltage. As the
voltage across void C v remains at zero, there is no further discharge.

With AC, when the void voltage reaches V1 , a discharge takes places, the voltage across
the void collapses and the ionization in the void vanishes. But the supply voltage rises
further and the voltage across the void increases producing a series of discharges in every
cycles. Therefore in AC the bombardment of ions on the void walls causes erosion and
carbonization which gradually proceeds both way leading to breakdown between core
and sheath. This short of breakdown normally takes a long time and known as tracking
and coring.
Usually when the tree has proceeded for a certain distance, the dielectric loss due to
discharge increase leading to high temperature rise and dielectric decomposition, that
causes final breakdown. This latter type of breakdown is known as thermal instability.

22
Bushing
Purpose of using bushing
Bushing is an insulating system for taking the terminals out of the transformers, circuit
breakers, PTs, CTs, etc.

Oil filled bushing

Porcelain

Transformer or Circuit
Breaker body
Oil

There must not be any air bubble left between conductor and porcelain and any air space
between conductor and porcelain must be filled with oil. Oil filled porcelain bushing are
cheaper and are used for voltages up to 33kV.

Problem: A conductor 2.8 cm diameter is passed centrally through a porcelain bushing

( r = 4) having internal and external diameters of 3cms and 9cms respectively. The
voltage between the conductor and earth clamp surrounding the porcelain is 15kVrms.
Determine whether or not corona will be present in the air space round the conductor.
What is the voltage stress on the conductor if oil fill is used? Given relative permittivity
of oil is 2.5.

r = 1.4 cm, r1 = 1.5 cm, r3 = 4.5 cm.

Let q be the charge per unit length.
E at any radial distance x can be written as

23
 q
E
2π ε 0 ε r x

V   E.dx
rfinal
q
 Vfinal  Vinitial   
rinitial
2π ε 0ε r x
.dx

q r 
Vfinal  Vinitial  ln initial 
2π ε 0ε r  rfinal 
Utilizing the formula,
q r 
V  V1  ln 1  (1)
2π ε 0ε1  r 
q r 
Similarly, V1  V2  ln 2  (2)
2π ε 0ε 2  r1 
Adding (1) and (2) we get,

q  1 r1 1 r2 
V  V2  V   ε ln r  ε ln r 
2π ε 0  1 2 1

 V2  0
V = Vlive conductor = 15kVrms = 152kVpeak (because corona being a partial breakdown
phenomena will take place at peak voltage and not rms)
q 15 2
Therefore, 
2π ε 0 1 r1 1 r2
ln  ln
ε1 r ε 2 r1
Given that, there is air space surrounding the conductor. Hence,  1 = 1
q 15 2
Therefore,  = 61.73 kV
2π ε 0 1.5 1 4.5
ln  ln
1.4 4 1.5
q 61.73
Maximum stress on the conductor surface =   44.1kV/cm
2π ε 0 ε r r 1  1.4
Since the value is more than 30kV/cm, corona will take place.

In case of oil filling  1 = 2.5

Putting in the same expression,
q 15 2 15 2
   70.18kV
2π ε 0 1 r 1
ln 1  ln 2
r 1
ln
1.5 1 4.5
 ln
ε1 r ε 2 r1 2.5 1.4 4 1.5

q 70.184
Maximum stress on the conductor surface =   20.05kV/cm
2π ε 0ε r r 2.5  1.4
Now, since the value is less than 30kV/cm, corona will not take place.

24
Compound – filled bushing
In the case of compound filled bushing synthetic resin bonded paper (SRBP) or epoxy
bushing are used. Epoxy bushings are suitable for indoor use. On the other hand SRBP
bushings have wide range of application. Surface of SRBP is heard and polished, so
porcelain need not be used over SRBP.
Conductor

SRBP

Porcelain
(may or may not
be persent)

Synthetic resin coated hard paper is wound into a cylindrical form under heat and
pressure and at appropriate radial distance conducting layers of paper in the form of
concentric cylinders are used.

For limited capacity for coating and winding machine it is rather difficult to manufacture
SRBP bushings beyond 300kV, on the other hand OIP bushing can be made for voltages
up to 750kV with conducting cylindrical layers at appropriate radial distances.

Problem: A transformer bushing for 50 kV consists of the following;

Outside diameter Permittivity
Copper rod: 4cm --
Treated paper 5cm 3
Compound 10cm 2.5
Porcelain 15cm 5
Find the minimum and maximum voltage gradients.

25
 r  5

 r  2.5
r  3

4
5
10
15

r1 = 2cm; r2 = 2.5cm; r3 = 5cm and r4 = 7.5cm

Let q be the charge per unit length,

q 50
  115.54kV (see the previous problem for
2π ε 0 1
ln
2.5

1
ln
5 1 7.5
 ln
3 2 2.5 2.5 5 5
expression)
q
Maximum stress on the conductor surface =  19.26 kV/cm
2π ε 0  3  2
And this is the maximum stress on paper touching the conductor surface.
Minimum stress on paper will be at the boundary of the paper insulation furthest from the
conductor, i.e., at a distance of 2.5 cm from center.
 E min paper 
q
 15.4kV/cm
2π ε 0  3  2.5
Maximum stress on the compound having  r =2.5 will be at a distance of 2.5 cm from
centre, i.e, the circle nearest to live conductor.
 E max Compound 
q
 18.48kV/cm
2π ε 0  2.5  2.5
Minimum stress on compound will develop at a distance r = 5 from centre i.e, the circle
furthest from live conductor.
 E min Compound 
q
 9.24kV/cm
2π ε 0  2.5  5
Maximum stress on the porcelain will develop at a distance r = 5 i.e, the circle nearest to
live conductor with  r = 5
 E max porcelain 
q
 4.62kV/cm
2π ε 0  5  5
and minimum stress on porcelain will develop at a distance r = 7.5cm.

26
 E min porcelain 
q
 3.08kV/cm
2π ε 0  5  7.5

Stress distribution
100%

75% 75%

50% 50%

25% 25%
0% 0%

The diagram shows the equi-potential lines for a normal bushing. The axial stress near
the earth tank and radial stress over the conductor surface are very high. For this reason
bushing should have a large diameter and considerably large axial length so that stress is
reduced. But this is not practically possible for system above 33kV. For this reason
condenser type construction i.e. Capacitance grading is employed for and above 33kV.

Condenser bushing
In condenser bushing layers of aluminium or tin foils in the form cylinders are introduced
inside the dielectric. This reduces the axial stress near the earth plate of the bushing. As
shown in the figure, 20% of the equi-potential line is raised much above the earth plate.
This reduces the axial stress considerably .By proper shaping of the dielectric the redial
stress can also be reduced i.e. by the use of condenser bushing both the diameter and
axial length can be reduced, As a matter of fact all the bushing for voltage ratings above
33kV employing condenser type construction.

27
 100%

90%
80%
60%
40%
20%

28