Course Title: - Regulation & Control (Meng 5272)

Pre-requisites:- Basic Electricity & Electronics,

Applied Mathematics III
Targeted Group: BSc. Mechanical Engineering

Prepared By:
Tamerat Demeke (Thermal Engineer)

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 Chapter one: Equation & Models of Linear Systems
• Introduction: A control system is a system, w/c provides the desired
response by controlling the output/performance.
This figure shows the simple block
diagram of a control system. The
o/p controlling by varying the i/p.
– Example: Elevator, traffic light, washing machine
• Advantages of control system
– Power amplification: large system controlled by small button.
– Remote control: for robot controlling in dangerous areas
– Convenience of input power: control system change the form of i/p.
– Compensation of disturbance: the control system detect the disturbance
and correct to the commanded position.
• Classification of control system
1. Continuous time and discrete time control system
• This classification is based on the type of the signal used
• In continuous time cs: signals are continuous in time.
• But, In discrete time cs: there exists one or more discrete time signals.
2. Control system can be classified as SISO and MIMO control system,
based on the number of inputs and outputs present
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3. Open loop and closed loop cs: based on the feedback path
– in open loop control system
• o/p is not feedback to the input.
• Its economical and inaccurate
• The control action is Independent on the desired o/p
• Easy to design
– In closed loop cs
• o/p is feedback to the i/p
• Its costlier and accurate
• The control action is dependent
on the desired o/p
• Difficult to design
• Feedback:
– Is just a signal from o/p sensor to controller in order to improve the
performance/accuracy of the control system, reduce external
disturbance/noise
• There are two types of feedback; Positive feedback: adds reference input &
feedback o/p and Negative feedback: reduces the error b/n reference input &
system output.
• Components of control system
– Plant/system to be controlled (elevator, traffic light, etc.)
– Controller (human/device)
– Sensors (any measuring device) and Actuators (pump, valves, motors etc.) 3
Mathematical modeling of physical systems:
• Control system can represented with a set of mathematical equation
known as mathematical model, mostly used mathematical models are:
– Differential equation model
– Transfer function model and
– State space model
• Differential equation model is a time domain math model of control
system. The basic step is
– Apply the basic laws to the given control system
– Get the differential equation in terms of input and output
• Differential equation modeling of mechanical systems examples.
Mass
– Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy
– If force is applied on it having a mass M,
then opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is
proportional to the acceleration.

–
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Spring
• Spring stores potential energy. If force applied on it K, then its opposed
by an opposing force due to elasticity. w/c is proportional o the
displacement of the spring.

Dashpot
• If a force is applied on dashpot B, then its opposed by an opposing force
due to friction of dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the
velocity of the body.

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• Consider electrical circuit consists of resister, inductor and capacitor. All
elements are connected in serious. The input voltage applied to this
circuit is V and the current flowing through the circuit is i Amps.

• Consider the following translational mechanical system and develop

mathematical equation using force balance technique.

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Transfer function model:
• A transfer function is an s-domain mathematical r/n b/n the input and
output of control system. And defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of output and Laplace transform of input.
• Laplace transform review: Multiply f(t) with &
– The definition of Laplace transform is given by integrate w.r.t t over the limit 0
to ∞, then the function turned
ℓ = = into a function in terms of s-
domain.
Time function f(t) is transformed to a Laplace domain function F(s)
f(t) is the inverse of Laplace transform F(s) => ℓ =

• Example:
– Find the Laplace transform of
•
•

Therefore;
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Block diagrams:
• Block diagram consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. It
used to represent the control system in pictorial form. The basic
elements of block diagrams are block, summing point and take-off point.
• The block diagram here consists of
– Transfer function G(s & H(s)
• A TF component represented by block
– One summing point
• Has two or more i/p with single o/p
– One take-off point
• A point from which the same input signal
passed out through more than one branch.
– Arrow indicates the direction of the flow of signals
• Each component has its own algebra. Such as;
• Block
– Block has single input and single output

•
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• Sometimes the take-off point used to connect the out put to the
summing point.
•

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• The next figure shows what the summing produces the output y for inputs

• Basic connections for blocks

– Serious connection (cascade connection)

– Parallel connection

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 – Feedback connection

Block diagram algebra for summing point

– There are two possibilities of shifting summing point w.r.t blocks.
• Shifting summing point after the block
• Shifting summing point before the block
• Lets see the arrangements for both cases;

• Shifting the summing point

after the block yields the same
output with the previous one.
•
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• Consider the block diagram

• Shifting the summing point before the block yields the same output
with the previous one.

•
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Block diagram algebra for take-off points
• There are two possibilities of shifting take-off points w.r.t blocks.
• Shifting take-off point after the block
• Shifting take-off point before the block
• Lets see the arrangements for both cases;
– Consider the block diagram;

• Shifting the take-off point after the block, yields the same output with
the previous one.

•
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• Consider the block diagram

• Shifting the take-off point before the block yields the same output with
the previous one.

•
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•

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Signal flow graphs:
• Signal flow graphs is a graphical representation of algebraic equations.
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.

• The nodes are Y1, Y2,Y3 & Y4

• Y1 and Y4 are input & output nodes
• Y2 and Y3 are mixed nodes
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Construction of signal flow graph
• Consider the following algebraic equations and construct a signal flow
graph

• There will be six nodes y1-y6, and eight branches and gains. To get overall
signal flow graph draw for each equation then combine all.

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•

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Conversion of block diagrams into signal flow graphs

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Example
• Consider the following block diagram and convert into its equivalent
signal flow graphs.

• Represent input signal R(s) and output signal Y(s) of the block diagram as
input node R(s) and output node Y(s) of signal flow graph.
• Labelle summing points, take-off points and signals b/n blocks as nodes
– Four nodes for four summing points,
– Four nodes for four take-off points
– One node for the variable between blocks
•
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• Complete labeling is shown as follows

• The equivalent signal flow graph will be;

• With the help of

Mason’s gain formula
we can calculate the
transfer function of
the signal flow graph
with no need of
simplify the graph.
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• Mason’s gain formula is;

• Consider this signal flow

graph in order to
understand the basic
terminology.
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The calculation of transfer function using a mason’s gain formula become;
• We know

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Substitution the values in the above equation,

• For this signal flow graph no higher number (more than two) non-
touching loops are present. That’s why the last term becomes zero.
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Assignment Q-1
1. Define those terms
– Accuracy, sensitivity, disturbance/noise, stability, bandwidth, oscillation.
2. Develop the differential equation mathematical model for rotational
mechanical systems like for;
– Moment of inertia, torsional spring, dashpot
3. Consider an electrical circuit consists current source, resistor, inductor
and capacitor. All elements connected in parallel. Model the
mathematical equation for the circuit using nodal equation. And write
its overall block diagram of the circuit in s-domain.

4. Find the Laplace transform of

– ℓ ( ) = − ℓ sin( ) =
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5. Simplify (reduce) the following block diagram and obtain closed loop
transfer function relating C(s) / R(s).

6. Convert the following block diagram into Signal flow graph and obtain
the transfer function using Mason’s Gain formula.

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 Chapter Two: Time Response Analysis of Control System
• The 1st step in analyzing control system is deriving mathematical model
of a system and analysis of system performance. There are several
methods used for analysis of system performance .
• Response of control system to test input signals analyzed both in time
response and frequency response.
– Time domain response examines the amplitude VS time characteristics of
measuring signals..
– Frequency domain response analysis measured signals replaced with group
of sinusoid (wavelength.) amplitude, frequency, phase are examined.
• If the output of control system for an input w.r.t to time, is called the
time response of the control system. Time response consists of
– Transient response
– Steady state response
• The graph indicate both transient and steady
state responses. mathematically, we can write
the time response as;
= +
• After applying i/p to a control system,
o/p takes time till it reach to steady state
called transient state.
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• The transient response will be zero for large value of ‘t’. Ideally,
value of ‘t’ is infinity & practically, it is constant.
Mathematically, lim =0
→
Lets see an example: Find the transient & steady state terms of the
response of the control system = + .
– The second term will be zero as ‘t’ denotes infinity, so this is transient
term. And the first term remains same even ‘t’ approaches to infinity.
Standard test signals:
• Standard test signals are used to know the performance of control
system using time response of the output.
Impulse, step, ramp & parabolic signals are test signals.
Unit impulse signal [ ]: Defined as
0 ≠0
– δ =
∞ =0
• So, the unit impulse signal exists at ‘t’ is zero.
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Unit step signal [ ]: Defined as
= 1; ≥ 0 and
– = 0; <0
• Exists for all + values of ‘t’ including 0. Unless
its value is 0 for all − values.
Unit Ramp signal [ ]: Defined as
– = ; ≥ 0 and
– = 0; <0
– We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step
signal, u(t) as = ( )
• Exists for all + value of ‘t’ including zero, & its value
increases linearly w.r.t to ‘t’ including zero.
Unit Parabolic signal [ ]: Defined as
– = ; ≥ 0 and
– = 0; <0
– We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of unit
step signal, u(t) as = ( ).
• Exists for all + values of ‘t’ including zero. The value
increases non-linearly. 35
Time response analysis of 1st & 2nd order systems
• Consider the following block diagram with transfer function,
connected with unity negative feedback.
– We know the TF of closed loop cs

– Substitute the TF yields;

The power of energy storage element (s) is one in the denominator term.
Hence, based on this, the system said to be first order system.
• The denominator of transfer function is called the characterization function.
• The roots of the denominator of the above transfer function are called the poles
of the transfer unction.
• Meanwhile, the roots of the numerator of the transfer function are called the
zeros of the transfer function.
• We can represent the poles and zeros of transfer function in s-plane (complex
plane to the system dynamics.) 36
Unit-Impulse response of 1st order system:
• Consider unit impulse signal as an input to the 1st order system.
So, r = ( ), Apply Laplace transform on both sides. R = 1.
– Consider the equation

• Substitute R(s) in the above equation

• Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard form of Laplace

• Apply inverse Laplace transform on both

sides. … … . for ≥ 0
• The unit impulse response, c is an
exponential decaying signal for +ve values
of ‘t’ & its zero for negative value of ‘t’.
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Unit-Step response of 1st order system
• Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
So, r = ( ), Apply Laplace transform on both sides. R =

• Consider the equation, c = ( )

• Substitute R = in the unit-step response yields;

1 1 1
c = =
+1 ( + 1)
• Do partial fraction expansion on the above equation C(s);
= + ⇒ = ⇒ 1= +1 +
( ) ( ) ( )

• After simplifying and solving A=1 & B=-T, substitution gives

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The value of c(t) is zero at t=0 and for all –ve value of t. it’s gradually increasing
from zero to one in steady state
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Unit-Ramp response of 1st order system:
• Consider the unit Ramp signal as an input,
So, r = ( ), Apply Laplace transform on both sides. R =

• Consider the equation, c = ( )

• Substitute R = in the above equation

1 1 1
c = =
+1 ( + 1)
• Do partial fraction expansion of the above equation C(s);
1
c = = + +
( + 1) +1

1 +1 + +1 +
=
( + 1) ( + 1)
• After simplifying and solving A= 1, B= -T and C= T2
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Substitution gives;

• ≥0

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Parabolic response of 1st order system
• Consider the unit Ramp signal as an input to first order system.
So, r = ( ), Apply Laplace transform on both sides. R =

• Consider the equation, c = ( )

• Substitute R = in the above equation

1 1 1
c = =
+1 ( + 1)
• Do partial fraction of C(s);
1
c = = + + +
( + 1) +1
After simplifying, you will get the values of A=1, B=-T, C=T2 and D=-T3.
substitution

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Response of 2nd order system
• Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system. An
open loop transfer function is connected with a unity negative feedback.
• We know the TF of the closed
loop control system having unity
negative feedback as

• Substitute, In the above equation.

• The power of energy storage element (s) is two in the denominator term.
Hence, based on this, the system said to be second order system

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• Different cases of damping are
– No damping case = 0
– Critically damped case = 1
– Under damped case 0 < < 1
– Over damped case > 1
• Using this condition unit impulse, unit step, unit ramp and unit
parabolic response can be expresses with same procedure 45
Unit-impulse response of 2nd order system
• Consider unit impulse signal as an input to the 2nd order system.
So, r = δ( ), Laplace transform of unit step signal is. ( ) = 1
– The TF of second order closed loop control system is

Follow same procedure with 1st order case

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Unit-step response of 2nd order system
• Consider unit step signal as an input to the 2nd order system.
So, r = u( ), Laplace transform of unit step signal is. ( ) =
– The TF of second order closed loop control system is
Follow same procedure

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Transient response Specification
• The step response of the second order system for the
underdamped case is shown in the following figure.

• The response up to the settling time is known as transient response &

the response after the settling time is known as steady state Response.
• Delay time ( ): it’s the time required for the response to reach
half of its final value from the zero instant. 48
• Rise time (tr): it is the time required for the response to rise from 0%
to 100% of its final value. Same time this is applicable for the
underdamped conditions.

• Peak time (tp): it’s the time required for the response to reach the
peak value for the first time.

• Peak overshot (Mp): it’s also called maximum overshot, defined as the
deviation of the response at peak time from the final value of
response.
• Settling time (ts): it’s time required for the response to reach the
steady state & stay within the specified tolerance band around the final
value. The tolerance bands are 2% & 5%.
– The settling time for 5% tolerance band is

– The settling time for 2% tolerance band is

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Steady state errors ( ).
• The deviation of the output of control system from desired
response during steady state.

• The transfer function of unity negative feedback control system as

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Where , and are position error constant, velocity error
constant and acceleration error constant respectively.
Example: find the steady state error for an input signal r(t) =
of unity negative feedback control system with
– The given input signal is a combination of three signals step, ramp and
parabolic. We can not define steady state error for impulse signal
because it exist only at origin.
• The following table shows the error constants and steady state
error values for these three signals. 51
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Example: Find the time domain specification of a control system having
the closed loop transfer function when the unit step signal is
applied as an input to this control system.
• The standard form of the transfer function of 2nd order closed loop
control system as

– By equating the two transfer functions we will get natural

frequency as =2 / and damping ratio = 0.5.
• The formula to calculate damping frequency as

• To calculate use the relation or cos =

• Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time

domain specification. 53
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Assignment Q-2
1. A unity feedback control system is characterized by an open loop transfer
function = a) Determine the gain k so that the system will have a
( )
of 0.5, b) Determine the settling time, peak overshoot and time to peak
overshoot for a unit step signal.

2. Calculate time domain specification for = , = 1,

( )

3. Consider a unity feed back control system with a closed loop transfer function
( )
of = . Determine open loop transfer function and show that
( )

the steady state error with unit ramp input is given by =

4. Find the steady state error for = and 1 + 2t + 0.5t

( . )
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