Chapter (4)

Control System

Control System

4.1 Introduction and Background

A control system is a collection of components working together under the

direction of some machine intelligence. In most cases, electronic circuits provide
the intelligence, and electromechanical components such as sensors and motors
provide the interface to the physical world
In a modern control system, electronic intelligence controls some physical
process. Control systems are the “automatic” in such things as automatic pilot
and automatic washer. Because the machine itself is making the routine
decisions, the human operator is freed to do other things. In many cases, machine
intelligence is better than direct human control because it can react faster or
slower (keep track of long-term slow changes), respond more precisely, and
maintain an accurate log of the system’s performance.

Control systems can be classified in several ways. A regulator system

automatically maintains a parameter at (or near) a specified value. An example of
this is a home heating system maintaining a set temperature despite changing
outside conditions. A follow-up system causes an output to follow a set path that
has been specified in advance. An example is an industrial robot moving parts
from place to place. An event control system controls a sequential series of
events. An example is a washing machine cycling through a series of
programmed steps.

Electrical control systems are a product of the twentieth century.

electromechanical relays were developed and used fore control of motors and
devices. Relays and switches were also used as simple logic gates to implement
some intelligence.

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Meanwhile, other developments in electronics were having an impact on

control system design. Solid-state devices started to replace the power relays in
motor control circuits. Transistors and integrated circuit operational amplifiers
(IC op-amps) became available for analog controllers.

The subject of control systems is really many subjects: electronics (both

analog and digital), power-control devices, sensors, motors, mechanics, and
control system theory, which ties together all these concepts.
Every control system has (at least) a controller and an actuator (also called a
final control element). Shown in the block diagram in Figure (5.1), the controller
is the intelligence of the system and is usually electronic. The input to the
controller is called the set point, which is a signal representing the desired system
output. The actuator is an electromechanical device that takes the signal from the
controller and converts it into some kind of physical action.

re Figu
(4-1)
control system component

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In a Control systems can be broadly divided into two

categories

4.2 Open-Loop Control Systems

In an open-loop control system, the controller independently calculates
exact voltage or current needed by the actuator to do the job and sends it. With
this approach, however, the controller never actually knows if the actuator did
what it was supposed to because there is no feedback. This system absolutely
depends on the controller knowing the operating characteristics of the actuator.
Open-loop control systems are appropriate in applications where the
actions of the actuator on the process are very repeatable and reliable.

Figaure (5-2) open loop control system

4.3 Closed-Loop Control Systems

In a closed-loop control system, the output of the process (controlled

variable) is constantly monitored by a sensor, as shown in figure(4-3) The
sensor samples the system output and converts this measurement into an electric
signal that it passes back to the controller. Because the controller knows what
the system is actually doing, it can make any adjustments necessary to keep the
output where it belongs. The signal from the controller to the actuator is the
forward path, and the signal from the sensor to the controller is the feedback
(which “closes” the loop).
In Figure the feedback signal is subtracted from the set point at the
comparator (just ahead of the controller).

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By subtracting the actual position (as reported by the sensor) from the
desired position (as defined by the set point), we get the system error. The error
signal represents the difference between “where you are” and “where you want
to be.” The controller is always working to minimize this error signal. A zero
error means that the output is exactly what the set point says it should be. Using
a control strategy, which can be simple or complex, the controller minimizes the
error. A simple control strategy would enable the controller to turn the actuator
on or off

Figure(4-3) Feedback control system

The self-correcting feature of closed-loop control makes it preferable over

open-loop control in many applications, despite the additional hardware
required. This is because closed-loop systems provide reliable, repeatable
performance even when the system components themselves (in the forward
path) are not absolutely repeatable or precisely known.

4.1.4 ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

In an analog control system, the controller consists of traditional analog
devices and circuits,
In a digital control system, the controller uses a digital circuit. In most cases,
this circuit is actually a computer, usually microprocessor- or microcontroller-
based.

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4.2 Types of Controller

4.2.1 An on-off controller

An on-off controller is the simplest form control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle state.
An on-off controller will switch the output only when the output crosses the set-
point.
For process control, the output is on when the output is below the set-
point, and off above set-point. On-off control is usually used where a precise
control is not necessary, in systems which cannot handle having the energy
turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the system is so great

4.2.2 Proportional Controller

A proportional controller has an output proportional to its input

Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-
off control. A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to
the system as the output approaches set-point. This has the effect of slowing
down system so that it will not overshoot the set-point, but will approach the set-
point and maintain a stable output.
But Limited accuracy for systems higher than first order with proportional only
control the controller will not bring the process measurement to the set-point
with out a manual adjustment

4.2.3 I Controller

The controller output is proportional to the integral of errors, I Control

eliminates the steady-state error, but it slows the system down

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4.2.4 Proportional Integral Controller

The PI controller circuit is a simple integrator. Integration gain and

proportional gain can be adjusted separately. So-called time constant is related
to the ratio between proportional and integration gain.

The integral controller also reduces the rise time and increases the
overshoot as the proportional controller does (double effect).
The integral controller eliminated the steady-state error.

Figure(4-4) PI controller

An integral controller has an output out proportional to the integral of its

input e:
out = gain x (error + integral (error)dt)

The amount of reset used is measured in terms of "reset time" in minutes

or its inverse, "reset rate" in repeats per minute.

The following test can be performed on a controller which is not

connected to the process:
1- An adjustable signal is connected to the input.
2- The output is indicated or recorded.
3- With the controller manual the set-point and the input are set to the
same value.

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4- The controller is switched to automatic. Because the error is zero,

the output does not change.
5- The input to the controller is changed by a small amount. The output will
move suddenly due to the gain. The output will continue to change at a constant
rate. The time is measured from the time of the initial change until the time that
the instant change is repeated by the constant movement. The repeat time, or
reset time, is the time it takes for the reset effect to repeat (or output the same
amount as) the gain effect. Its inverse is reset rate, measured in repeats per
minute

4.2.5 D Controller

The control output is proportional to the rate of change of the error. D

control is never used alone, because of its zero output when the error remains
constant. The steady-state gain of a D control is 0.

4.2.6 PD Controller

A PD controller is the PID with the integral gain set to zero PD

controllers can be used to reduce the overshoot for a system that exhibits a
significant amount of oscillation with P control This type of controller has
limited uses.

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4.2.6PID Controller

Figure(4-5) PID Block Diagram

PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes:

P- Proportional, I - integrative and D-derivative. While proportional and
integrative modes are also used as single control modes, a derivative mode is
rarely used on it’s own in control systems.
Combinations such as PI and PD control are very often in practical
systems.
It can be also shown that PID controller is a natural generalization of a
simplest possible controller - On-off controller.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative) emostcommoncontrol methodology in process
control.
It is a continuous feedback loop that keeps the process flowing normally
by taking corrective action whenever there is any deviation from the desired
value ("set-point") of the process variable (rate of flow, temperature, voltage,
etc.).
An "error" occurs when an operator manually changes the set-point or
when an event (valve opened, closed, etc.) or a disturbance changes the load,
thus causing a change in the process variable.
The PID controller receives signals from sensors and computes corrective
action to the actuators from a computation based on the error (proportional), the
sum of all previous errors (integral) and the rate of change of the error
(derivative).

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The linear proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller has been used

to control about 90% industrial processes worldwide

4.3 How To Choose Controller

4.3.1 On - Off controller

Is the simplest controller and it has some important advantages. It is

economical, simple to design and it does not require any parameter tuning. If
Oscillations will hamper the operation of the system and if controller parameter
tuning is to be avoided, on-off controller is a good solution. In addition, if
actuators work in only two modes (on and off), then it is almost always only
controller that can be used with such actuators. That is a reason why on-off
controllers are often used in home appliances (refrigerators, washers etc.) and in
process industry when control quality requirements are not high (temperature
control in buildings etc.). Additional advantage of on-off controllers is that they
in general do not require any maintenance.

4.3.2 P controller

When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state

error. Stable system does not have a problem when large gain is used. Such
systems are systems with one energy storage (1st order capacitive systems). If
constant steady state error can be accepted with such processes, than P controller
can be used. Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor will give
measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not too great
anyway.

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4.3.4 PI controller

PI controllers are the most often type used today in industry. A control
without D mode is used when:
a) Fast response of the system is not required
b) Large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the
process
c) There is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or
inductive)
d) There are large transport delays in the system If there are large
transport delays present in the controlled process, error prediction is
required. However, D mode cannot be used for prediction because every
information is delayed till the moment when a change in controlled
variable is recorded.

4.3.5 PID controller

Derivative mode improves stability of the system and enables increase in

gain K and decrease in integral time constant Ti, which increases speed of the
controller response. PID controller is used when dealing with higher order
capacitive processes (processes with more than one energy storage) when their
dynamic is not similar to the dynamics of an integrator (like in many thermal
processes). PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the control of
mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when stability and
precise reference following are required. Conventional autopilots are for the
most part PID type controllers.

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