How Public Private

Partnerships are failing

October 2018 • A report coordinated by Eurodad

INDONESIA
COLOMBIA
LESOTHO
SWEDEN

FRANCE
LIBERIA

SPAIN
INDIA

PERU
Acknowledgements

This report was produced by civil society

organisations (CSOs) in countries around the world.
Each case study was written by — and is the
responsibility of — its authors. The authors believe
that all of the details included in this report are
factually accurate as of 25 September 2018.
Special thanks go to several people, who provided
invaluable support and advice at different stages
of the production of this report: David Boys, Adrian
Chikowore, Penny Davies, Bodo Ellmers, Henrik
Ennart, Aida Gamboa, Jesse Griffiths, Jörg Haas,
Tim Jones, Fredrik Mellgren, Patricia Miranda,
Ashina Mtsumi, Lidy Nacpil, Stefano Prato, Xavier
Sol, Sandra Vermuyten, Luiz Vieira and Lidija Zivcic.

The overall report was coordinated by Cécilia

Gondard; it was edited by María José Romero and
Julia Ravenscroft (Eurodad).
Design and artwork: James Adams
Copy editing: Vicky Anning and Julia Ravenscroft

In cooperation with the Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung e.V.

Contents

Executive Introduction
summary

4 6

1 2 3 4 5
Liberia Education Tata Mundra The Offshore Gas Nya Karolinska Queen Mamohato
Advancement Ultra Mega Power Storage Castor Solna (NKS) Memorial Hospital
Programme Project Project Hospital
(LEAP)

8 11 14 17 20

6 7 8 9 10
The New Paris International Navigability of the Jakarta’s Water Khandwa
Courthouse Airport of Magdalena River Supply Water Supply
Chinchero – Cuzco Augmentation
Project

23 25 28 30 33

Conclusions and References

recommendations

How Public Private

Partnerships are failing 36 38

3
 History RePPPeated

Executive summary

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are increasingly being promoted as the solution to

the shortfall in financing needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Economic infrastructure, such as railways, roads, airports and ports, but also key
services such as health, education, water and electricity are being delivered through
PPPs in both the global north and south.

Although the involvement of the private sector Although we do not intend to generalise our
in public service provision is not new, there is conclusions in the vast and complex universe of
currently keen political interest in PPPs as an PPPs, these 10 cases illustrate the most common
important way to leverage private finance. Donor problems encountered by PPPs. Therefore, they
governments and financial institutions, such as the challenge the capacity of PPPs to deliver results in
World Bank Group (WBG) and other multilateral the public interest.
development banks (MDBs), have set up multiple
initiatives to promote changes in national
We found that:
regulatory frameworks to allow for PPPs, as well
as to provide advice and finance for PPP projects. All 10 projects came with a high cost for the
public purse, an excessive level of risk for the
Since 2004 there has been a rapid growth in
public sector and, therefore, a heavy burden
the amount of money invested in PPPs in the
for citizens. For example, the Queen Mamohato
developing world. Although the trend has been
Hospital in Lesotho has had significant adverse
volatile since 2012, efforts by MDBs to leverage
and unpredictable financial consequences on
private finance in both emerging and low-income
public funds. Latest figures suggest that in 2016
economies have continued — for example, through
the private partner Tsepong’s ‘invoiced’ fees
the “Cascade” approach developed by the WBG,
amount to two times the “affordability threshold”
whereby the use of private finance is prioritised
set by the Government and the WB at the outset
over public or concessional finance. This indicates
of the PPP. Contributing factors to cost escalation
a more determined push to reduce the risk so
include flawed indexation of the annual fee paid by
private investors come in.
the government to Tsepong (unitary fee) and poor
Many projects have been procured as PPPs simply forecasting. In Sweden, the total construction cost
to circumvent budget constraints and to postpone of Nya Karolinska Solna (NKS) hospital has rocketed
the recording of fiscal costs. Some accounting — from €1.4 billion to €2.4 billion — and has been
practices allow governments to keep the cost of beset by technical failures. It is now known as the
the project and its contingent liabilities “off balance “most expensive hospital in the world”.
sheet”. This ends up exposing public finances to
Every single PPP studied was riskier for the state
excessive fiscal risks. Current austerity measures
than for the private companies involved, as the
and orthodox policy prescriptions that encourage a
public sector was required to step in and assume
low fiscal deficit also create a perverse incentive in
the costs when things went wrong. A significant
favour of PPPs.
example is the case of Jakarta Water in Indonesia,
This report gives an in-depth, evidence-based where two PPP contracts resulted in significant
analysis of the impact of 10 PPP projects that losses for the public water utility, PAM Jaya. In 2011, it
have taken place across four continents, in both reported a financial loss of US$18 million. Estimates
developed and developing countries. These case suggest that losses will eventually total US$2.4 billion
studies build on research conducted by civil society if the cooperation agreement continues as planned
experts in recent years and have been written by until its expiry date in 2022.
the people who often work with and around the
Five of the 10 PPPs reviewed impacted negatively
communities affected by these projects.
on the poor, and contributed to an increase in the
The countries included are: Colombia, France, divide between rich and poor. For instance, in the
India, Indonesia, Lesotho, Liberia, Peru, Spain and case of the Queen Mamohato Hospital in Lesotho,
Sweden. The sectors they cover are: education, the increasing and inflexible cost of the PPP hospital
energy, healthcare, transport, and water and compromised necessary investment in primary and
sanitation. secondary healthcare in rural areas where mortality

4
 History RePPPeated

rates are rising and where three-quarters of the in Paris proved so complex, costly and controversial
population live. In Jakarta, the provision of water that the new French Justice Minister has decided that
through private operators (Jakarta Water) resulted her Ministry will never engage in a PPP again.
in a radical increase in monthly bills, which are
Three of the PPP contracts had to be cancelled
unaffordable for many poor families. Residents often
due to an evident failure in the process, including
rely on groundwater from community wedge wells,
proper due diligence to identify the possible impacts
or have to buy water in jerry cans, which can cost as
of the project. For example, the Castor Project —
much as half a person’s daily income.
feted as Spain’s biggest offshore gas storage plant
Three of the PPPs resulted in serious social and — was halted after gas injections caused more
environmental impacts. Poor planning and due than 1,000 earthquakes. Despite never being used,
diligence accounts for some of these. For example, the Castor project has so far cost the public €3.28
on the Mundra coast in Gujarat, India, where a billion, which is currently set to be paid through
thermal power station project has taken place, increased gas bills.
there were serious social and environmental
violations from the outset. Following flawed impact
This joint CSO report makes the following
assessments, there has been a deterioration in
recommendations to the WBG, the International
water quality and fish populations; community
Monetary Fund (IMF) and other public development
health impacts are evident due to air emissions;
banks, together with the governments of wealthy
access to fishing and drying sites has been blocked;
countries that play a leading role in these institutions:
forced displacement of fishermen has taken place.
This has also impacted on the life of women. Girls Halt the aggressive promotion and incentivising
in particular have also been pulled out of school to of PPPs for social and economic infrastructure
perform physical and domestic labour to survive. In financing, and publicly recognise the financial and
Colombia, the PPP project designed to improve the other significant risks that PPPs entail. 
navigability of the Magdalena River suffered from
Support countries in finding the best financing
poor planning. Although the project never went into
method for public services in social and economic
the construction phase — it collapsed due to the
infrastructure, which are responsible, transparent,
failure of the company to get the financing needed
environmentally and fiscally sustainable, and in line
to implement it — the preliminary works carried out
with their human rights obligations. Prioritise tax
have already negatively affected the environment in
revenues, whilst augmenting them with long-term
and around the river.
external, and domestic, concessional and non-
Nine out of 10 of the projects lacked transparency concessional finance, where appropriate.
and/or failed to consult with affected communities,
Ensure good and democratic governance is in
and undermined democratic accountability. The
place before pursuing large-scale infrastructure
failure to publish contract details does not chime
or service developments. This should be done
well with the risks that the public sector is forced
through informed consultation and broad civil
to take on. In the small Indian town of Khadwa, for
society participation and monitoring, including
example, where a PPP was launched to provide
by local communities, trade unions, and other
municipal water, it took four years to finally inform
stakeholders. Uphold the right to free, prior and
the population about what was happening. More
informed consent, and ensure the right to redress
than 10,000 households filed objections against
for any affected communities. The rights of affected
the project within a period of 30 days. This was in
communities should be taken into account.
a town where regular domestic water connections
totalled 15,000. In Liberia, where the government Ensure that rigorous transparency standards
outsourced its public pre-primary and primary apply, particularly with regard to accounting for
schools, initially to Bridge International Academies public funds — the contract value of the PPP and
Ltd (BIA), the process was not competitive, local its long-term fiscal implications must be included
communities were not properly consulted, and there in national accounts. Contracts and performance
was not full transparency. reports of social and economic infrastructure
projects should be proactively disclosed. The public
All cases showed PPPs were complex to negotiate
interest ranks higher than commercial interests.
and implement, and that they required specific state
capacities to negotiate in the public interest, including Finally, we urge all those concerned with justice,
during the renegotiation process. In Peru, the equality, sustainability and human rights to resist the
renegotiation process to build a new airport through encroachment of PPPs and to push instead for high-
a PPP in Chinchero resulted in a change to the entire quality, publicly-funded, democratically-controlled,
funding structure of the project. After a strong report accountable public services. The wellbeing of our
from the Comptroller General referring to economic communities and societies depends on it.
damages for the state, and in the midst of a national
scandal over the project, the Peruvian government
finally had to cancel the contract on the grounds of
national interest. The construction of a courthouse

5
 History RePPPeated

Introduction

Public-Private Partnerships — or PPPs — are Reliable data on the total volume of PPPs around the
increasingly being promoted as a way to finance world is hard to find. Different definitions of PPPs
development projects. They are very high on result in confusing reporting practices. According to
the agenda of many governments, development Eurodad’s recent calculations,1 on the basis of the
institutions and private sector companies. PPPs available data, since 2004 there has been a rapid
featured prominently in the Addis Ababa Action growth in the amount of money invested in PPPs in
Agenda, which came out of the 2015 United Nations the developing world. As Figure 1 shows, the wave
(UN) Conference on Financing for Development, of money invested through PPPs started in 2004 and
and they are specifically promoted as a “means peaked in 2012. Over an eight-year period, annual
of implementation” of the 2030 Agenda for investments through PPPs increased by a factor of
Sustainable Development. This means that PPPs seven: from US$19 billion in 2004 to US$144 billion
are seen as a relevant instrument for delivering in 2012. Since then, the trend has been volatile. 2017
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The saw another increase, which represents a 40 per cent
SDGs refer to areas such as health, education and additional investment from 2016 levels. The number of
water supply — affecting the basic human rights PPP projects has also increased over this period, but
of citizens — and resilient infrastructure, which more noticeable has been the increase in the average
is key to promoting environmental stability and size of projects, which climbed from US$88 billion to
encouraging inclusive growth. US$315 billion in 2017. This is a sign of the growing
trend that promotes large-scale infrastructure projects.
There is no universally agreed definition of PPPs.
For the purpose of this report, we define PPPs as Current efforts by multilateral development banks
long-term contractual arrangements where the (MDBs) to leverage private finance in both emerging
private sector provides infrastructure assets and and low-income economies — for example, by the
services that have traditionally been provided by systematic use of the “Cascade” approach developed
governments, such as hospitals, schools, prisons, by the World Bank Group (WBG), whereby the
roads, airports, railways and water and sanitation use of private finance is prioritised over public or
plants, where there is some form of risk sharing concessional finance — indicate a more determined
between the public and private sector. push to reduce the risk for private investors to come in.

150 500
Figure 1
Total investment in
PPPs in infrastructure,
and number of
120 400
projects. Developing
world, 2004-2017
(billion US$*)
90 300

60 200

30 100

Source: Eurodad’s own

calculations. World Bank’s
Private Participation in 0 0
Infrastructure Database 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
(*amounts adjusted by US
Consumer Price Index as
of January 2018) Amount invested in PPPs Number of projects

6
 History RePPPeated

Interestingly, the development of PPPs in Europe This report presents 10 cases ordered alphabetically
over the past decade has followed a different trend by sector. They appear in the report as follows:
than that in developing countries. Both the number
and the total value of PPP contracts has decreased Liberia Education Advancement
1.
by almost half between 2007 and 2016. In 2016, the Programme (Liberia)
aggregate value of PPP transactions totalled €12
billion, a 22 per cent decrease from 2015 (€15.6 Tata Mundra Ultra Mega Power Project
billion).2 The drop in PPP projects can be partly 2.
(India)
explained by the 2008 global financial crisis, which
quickly evolved into a “Euro crisis”. The crisis
The Offshore Gas Storage Castor
generally slowed new infrastructure investment 3.
Project (Spain)
in Europe, but also reduced the availability of
private capital for PPPs. The crisis also reduced
Nya Karolinska Solna (NKS) Hospital
governments’ political appetite for engaging in new 4.
(Sweden)
PPPs, particularly in some hard-hit countries such
as Portugal and Greece.
Queen Mamohato Memorial Hospital
Civil society organisations (CSOs) have been 5.
(Lesotho)
active in the debate on PPPs. This joint CSO report
compiles the findings of research conducted
in recent years and follows the PPP Manifesto 6. The New Paris Courthouse (France)
launched in October 2017,3 which was widely
supported by more than 150 organisations
International Airport of Chinchero —
and trade unions around the world. It aims to 7.
Cuzco (Peru)
contribute to the civil society debate about this
critical subject and to input into ongoing policy
processes at different levels. Navigability of the Magdalena River
8.
(Colombia)
This report gives an in-depth, evidence-based
analysis of the impact of 10 PPP projects that
have taken place across four continents and in 9. Jakarta’s Water Supply (Indonesia)
both developed and developing countries. We
looked at the impact of PPPs on public budgets,
Khandwa Water Supply Augmentation
and on people’s needs, and more generally on 10.
Project (India)
whether PPPs have delivered results in the public
interest. We also examined the PPP process,
and the impact on democracy, equality and
fundamental rights including human social and
environmental rights. Although we do not intend
to generalise our conclusions, we draw lessons
from these case studies, and we deliver key policy
recommendations to maximise the use of public
money to deliver quality public services in a
sustainable, transparent and responsible way.

7
 History RePPPeated

1 By Ashina Mtsumi, Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

Liberia Education Advancement

Programme (LEAP)

In January 2016 the Liberian Ministry of Education announced its

Country intention to outsource its public pre-primary and primary schools
Liberia
to BIA for a one-year pilot programme.4 This plan provoked
Region significant public outcry and criticisms from different stakeholders.
Africa As a result, the Government of Liberia reviewed the plan,
Sector introducing an additional seven private providers selected through
Education a competitive selection process. However, despite these changes,
external assessments of its impact have not been good.
Year
2016
Contract period
3-year pilot
programme

The Liberia Education Advancement The pilot was to run for three years and it was to
Programme (LEAP) be externally evaluated13 through a randomised
controlled trial (RCT)14 by independent evaluators
The outsourcing of the Liberian public pre-primary
measuring the performance of schools run by
and primary schools to BIA for a one-year pilot
the private partners against control schools
programme through a PPP contract5 was the
under government management. The Coalition
first step in what was known as the Partnership
for Transparency and Accountability in Education
Schools for Liberia (PSL), recently renamed Liberia
(COTAE) raised questions in relation to the lack
Education Advancement Programme (LEAP).
of information about how the “independent
BIA is a for-profit, American-based company6 evaluators” of the programme were selected. This
operating a commercial, private chain of nursery was particularly problematic because the findings
and primary schools.7 It has received funding of their report were to determine the expansion of
from several large corporations, investors and the pilot project.
development partners including the WBG’s
The funding formula for PSL in year one provides
International Finance Corporation (IFC), the UK’s
a subsidy of US$50 per child to operators,
Commonwealth Development Corporation, with
philanthropically funded, in addition to the state’s
funds from the Department for International
investment of US$50 per child. This is the same
Development (DFID), and the Overseas Private
financial obligation the government has to every
Investment Corporation (OPIC).8
other public school, which aligns with the projected
This plan provoked significant public outcry and increase in state per-child expenditure to US$101
criticism from civil society, teachers’ unions9 and by 2020.
even the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to
The cost of the PSL pilot in year one was US$3.9
education, Kishore Singh, who termed the move a
million, of which US$2.5 million required external
violation of Liberia’s “legal and moral obligations”.10
funding. The balance comes from government
Following this pushback, the government reviewed funding. This is inclusive of operator subsidies,
the plan, introducing an additional seven private the evaluation and capacity building, but exclusive
providers selected through a competitive selection of operator research and development costs and
process and a reduction in the number of schools costs related to lack of economies of scale.15
for the pilot. Launched in September 2016, the
Initially, a decision to expand the PSL was
first phase of the PSL pilot consisted of 93 schools
dependent on the findings of the RCT conducted
with an estimated 20,000-40,000 children, which
during year one. However, in February 2017 the
were operated by eight private actors. BIA received
Minister of Education announced 100 new PSL
the largest number of schools (25)11 without a
schools for year two beginning in September
competitive selection process.12
2017.16 This has concerned PSL advisers, who

8
 History RePPPeated

warned against scaling up before the release of

evidence from the evaluation in August 2017.17
The Minister also proceeded to allocate BIA the
highest number of new schools (43) in the second
The PSL has been
year of the PSL programme, giving it a total of 68
schools, while the next biggest operator (BRAC)
criticised for failing
has 33 schools in total.18
to include the most
Several project documents are publicly available.19
However, according to the National Teachers’ vulnerable and
Association of Liberia (NTAL), in addition to lack of
independent evidence supporting the government’s disadvantaged
actions, the PSL is also plagued with a lack of
transparency. To date, for example, none of the communities.
eight Memorandums of Understanding between
the service providers and the Ministry of Education
(MoE) have been made public.20

Excessive costs and poor value for money

The project ended up being too expensive for
the Government to maintain. Research by the
University of Columbia shows that, as teachers in
PSL schools receive higher than average salaries,
the Government had to spend an estimated US$20
extra per student, adding another US$600,000
per year.21 Running the RCT itself comes to about
US$900,000 over its three-year life, which does not programme for the extended learning hours
include costs of the analysis. Then there are the proposed by BIA was irregular, as some schools fed
expenditures added by the contractors: BIA alone students only twice weekly.28 This extension was
spent over US$6 million in the first year. The other implemented without adequate planning, which has
contractors likely put in another US$3 million. had a negative impact on pupil retention.29
Thus, in total, the PSL is likely to have cost more
than US$25 million for the three-year period.22 Lack of transparency and accountability
The preliminary results from the first-year The monitoring report by COTAE mentions that
evaluation highlight that: “the program is yet “all providers under the pilot, including BIA,
to demonstrate it can work in average Liberian were not recruited through transparent and
schools, with sustainable budgets and staffing competitive procurement processes”.30 Contrary to
levels and without negative side-effects on other the Government’s assertions, the Liberian Public
schools”.23 Further, the evaluators observe that the Procurement and Concession department has
costs of the PSL were higher than advertised, and no records of any transparent and competitive
are anticipated to rise even higher in year two.24 process carried out by MoE in recruiting BIA and
That evaluation demonstrated that, on average, those operating the pilot project.
PSL schools improved teaching and learning, but in
The COTAE report cites very limited community
its first year it was not a cost-effective programme
participation in, and access to, information regarding
for raising learning outcomes.25
the programme. In the majority of the counties
COTAE’s research also highlights funding involved, most citizens — and even some local MoE
challenges that corroborate critics’ assertions officials — were uninformed about the pilot and
about the dangers of relying on donors to introduce unable to clearly articulate what it hoped to achieve.31
programmes with serious financial implications and
The opacity was further demonstrated in the
questions about sustainability. For instance, salaries
MoE’s refusal to allow parallel independent
for teachers in the BIA schools were delayed, while
research of the PSL pilot programme. The then
at the same time resources for charging electronic
Minister of Education, George Werner, initially
devices used in these schools were not provided.26
blocked an independent research team from
As a result, school authorities and teachers were
the University of Wisconsin — commissioned by
sometimes compelled to manage this.27 Already
Education International and ActionAid32 — citing
challenged by lack of pay, these teachers were
concerns about a lack of objectivity due to both
incurring extra expenses to ensure that BIA’s
organisations’ work on PPPs. However, the Ministry
schools remained open and functional.
welcomed assessments released by PSL providers
Similar challenges are noted in relation to the themselves.33 This triggered a group of over 30
crucial school feeding programme. COTAE academics to publish an open letter to Minister
reported that the meals provided under the feeding Werner expressing deep concern.34

9
 History RePPPeated

Limiting access to education and

LESSONS LEARNED
impact on learning outcomes
The PSL has also been criticised for failing to
• The Government of Liberia must ensure that
include the most vulnerable and disadvantaged
there is a real opportunity for the public to
communities. According to Education International
provide input into the PPP processes and
and ActionAid, “PSL schools are generally located
that feedback is properly considered. It is
in higher-quality buildings and easier to reach
crucial that each step is transparent and
communities than their government school
participatory, following due process.
counterparts. For example, BIA requested their
school buildings meet certain standards, and
• Some actors, particularly powerful, that they be located near main roads, with good
large-scale commercial actors, are a internet and mobile phone access.”35
threat when it comes to designing PPPs —
Other key factors also had an impact on access.36
especially where governments are weak
The independent evaluators found that the
— because of a potential imbalance of
contracts authorised BIA to push excess pupils and
power. This case shows large commercial
underperforming teachers onto other government
actors are not necessarily more effective
schools. For instance, 74 per cent of teachers at
than smaller local actors. Large sums
BIA schools were fired, which was a violation of
were invested in Bridge International
the programme’s objective to train and manage
Academies Ltd (BIA), which returned
existing government teachers. Similarly, limitations
only marginal gains, and evaluators
on class size were authorised by contracts, but
determined it was not cost effective.
were generally not enforced in the public schools
or by contractors other than BIA. Consequently, the
number of students enrolled in BIA schools reduced
drastically, while enrolment in neighbouring schools
increased sharply, further burdening an already
stretched infrastructure. BIA’s operations therefore
directly undermined neighbouring schools. In
addition, not all students excluded from the BIA
schools were able to get placements in other
schools as neighbouring schools were already full
and those excluded were unable to travel the long
distances to access other schools.
Finally, teacher quality has a significant impact on
learning outcomes. The RCT evaluation revealed
Girls in particular have that PSL contractors successfully lobbied the
MoE to assign new graduates from teacher
also been pulled out training institutes to PSL schools.37 In addition,
working conditions for teachers in BIA schools
of school to perform are poor. The issues include delayed payment of
salaries, teacher transfers to far-away places
physical and domestic without resettlement packages and inadequate
compensation;38 teachers are often subjected
labour to survive. to prolonged hours of teaching without meals.39
Unfortunately, given the very high unemployment
rate in Liberia, teachers have had to accept the
meagre packages offered.

10
 History RePPPeated

2 By Anuradha Munshi, Centre for Financial Accountability, and Elizabeth Summers, Bank Information Center

Tata Mundra Ultra Mega Power Project

The Tata Mundra Ultra Mega Power Project is part of an initiative that saw the building of
Country several coal-based thermal power stations. Located on the Mundra coast in Gujarat, India,
India spanning 72 kilometres covering 10 coastal settlements, it is strategically located within the
Region Mundra Port and Special Economic Zone. This coast is also home to fishing communities
Asia who have lived there for centuries and who reside on the coast for almost nine months out
of every year. Today, the project has been operational for more than five years. Damage
Sector
to the marine environment has been immense and has resulted in: a decline in fish catch;
Energy
hot water discharges into the sea from the plant’s outfall channel; and the destruction of
Year mangroves, which has impacted the marine environment. The project has displaced people,
2006 taken away their livelihoods and failed to carry out any genuine consultation. Making
Contract period matters worse, the plant is operating at a financial loss following rises in the price of
25 years imported coal. Now the private company is looking to sell the plant and, thanks to the PPP
set-up, the government will be forced to take most of the liability.

The development of the PPP The total cost of the project was estimated at
US$4.14 billion. A consortium of banks, including
The Government of India launched the “Power
multilateral development banks, and Export-
for All by 2012” initiative in 2005. To stimulate
Import banks invested. The project is financed
the required capacity addition, GoI launched an
through equity of INR (Indian National Rupee)
initiative for facilitating the development of coal-
42.50 billion (US$600million approx.); external
based Ultra Mega Power Plants (UMPPs), each of
commercial borrowings of up to US$1.8 billion;
a minimum 4,000 MW capacity. UMPPs were to
and rupee loans of up to INR 55.50 billion (US$800
be implemented through PPPs on a build-own-
million approx.).43 External borrowing included the
operate (BOO) basis. In this set-up the public
World Bank’s International Finance Corporation
sector partner agrees to ‘purchase’ the goods
(IFC), and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), both
and services produced by the project on mutually
with US$450 million each; the Export‐Import Bank
agreed terms and conditions. The first UMPP of
of Korea, Korea Export Insurance Corporation;
India, Mundra UMPP, was awarded to Tata Power
and BNP Paribas. National financial institutions
through a competitive tariff-based bidding process.
involved are the State Bank of India; the India
In 2006, Coastal Gujarat Power Ltd. (CGPL) was Infrastructure Finance Company Ltd.; Housing and
incorporated as a special purpose vehicle to Urban Development Corporation Ltd.; Oriental Bank
implement the Mundra UMPP. Tata Power Company of Commerce; Vijaya Bank; State Bank of Bikaner
Ltd. was declared as the successful bidder with a & Jaipur; State Bank of Hyderabad; State Bank of
levelised tariff of INR 2.26/kWh in December 2006 Travancore; and State Bank of Indore.
— i.e. the price was set at the average point that
Since the project included funding from the ADB
the generating asset must receive in a market to
and the IFC, a disclosure policy applied for several
break even over its lifetime.
documents, including social and environmental
In April 2007, Tata Power acquired 100 per cent and marine environment impact assessment
shareholding of CGPL,40 and CGPL entered into reports; resettlement plans; monitoring reports;
a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with the influx management plan; and final compensation
procurers - who were public sector distribution management framework.
companies in several states — for the supply of
3,800 MW power from Mundra UMPP for a period The cost to the public purse
of 25 years.41
This project would not have been constructed
The plant was fully operational in 2013 with the first if heavy subsidies had not been provided by the
800 MW generating unit operational in March 2012. government. From land acquisition to getting
The next four units were all operational by 2013.42 environmental clearances to sale of power, the
government was responsible for supporting
activities even before awarding the project as a PPP.

11
 History RePPPeated

The Tata Mundra Ultra Mega Power Project has blighted the lives of local fishing communities. Photo: Joe Athialy

The financial viability of the project was being (US$948 million) against a paid-up equity of INR
questioned from the outset due to the unstable 6,083 crore (US$894 million). Its outstanding long-
price of imported coal. The project was set to term loan is INR 10,159 crore (US$1.49 billion).
run on coal from Indonesia. However, in 2010, the
Tata Power has proposed that the State Electricity
Indonesian Government decreed that coal exports
Boards take over (buy out) 51 per cent of the equity
could be done only at prices linked to international
of CGPL for one rupee, and grant relief to the
rates. In spite of this Tata went ahead, with the
project by purchasing power at a rate to address
confidence that they would be able to rework the
the under-recovery of fuel costs.
tariff under the PPA with the public distribution
companies. Tata Power Company Limited and If this comes off then this will be a “win-win”
Adani Power then approached the Central situation for Tata Power with all liabilities being
Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC),44 which passed to the government, which will use public
ruled in 2013 that both companies could claim finances to run this project. The power generators
a higher tariff to compensate for an increase in (companies like Tata Power) that are suffering
coal prices.45 The Appellate Tribunal for Electricity from huge financial losses have shown their
(APTEL) upheld CERC’s decision in 2016. inability to honour the power purchase agreement
obligations with full capacity. All five states that
Several state-owned power distribution companies
are the procurers of the electricity are facing
then challenged the decision at the Supreme Court
shortages of power available at levelised tariffs,
of India. The argument was that power producers
and are required to purchase the power at a higher
cannot be allowed to charge higher compensatory
cost. As a result, consumers in these states are
tariffs for changes on import prices of coal, a risk
having to pay much higher rates for electricity,
inherent to the business. The two-judge bench set
according to a Gujarat government order.48 For
aside the initial rulings. The Supreme Court ruled
the government, on the other hand, the take-over
that power companies could not raise tariffs if fuel
would be a way of rescuing the project, which is
becomes costlier due to changes in laws overseas.46
politically convenient. Since the project is in the
With the Supreme Court effectively rejecting the Prime Minister’s home state, a failed project is not
compensatory tariff, Tata Power now had losses something they want in the home constituency.
staring it in the face. Coastal Gujarat Power Ltd. was
Recently, the Gujarat state government has
looking at a loss of INR 47,500 crore (US$6.98 billion)
formed a high-powered committee49 that will offer
over the 25-year power purchase agreement period
solutions for imported coal-fired power plants that
of the project as of now.47 The project’s accumulated
are underutilised due to viability issues.
losses as of 31 March 2017 were INR 6,457 crore

12
 History RePPPeated

Serious environmental impacts

LESSONS LEARNED
The project has been marred by serious social
and environmental violations from the outset.
• The financial viability of a project needs One major concern was a flawed social impact
to be factored in before it is sanctioned. assessment, which claimed that the project area
This should include not only the building had no habitation and no settlement. As a result, it
and operational costs of the project, but did not recognise the affected fishing communities
also displacement and loss of livelihood as project-affected people. Meaningful public
and environmental damage. Government consultations never happened. The marine impact
subsidies also need to be factored in. This assessment was also flawed and did not look at
was not properly done in this case. potential harm to marine life, impacting the fish
catch in the area.
• This model of PPP — where the role of As a result, there has been a deterioration in water
the Government is reduced to taking on quality and fish populations; access to fishing and
all liability in case of failure of the project drying sites has been blocked; forced displacement
— must be re-evaluated. In this case, the of fishermen has taken place; community health
private sector company is ready to sell the impacts are evident due to air emissions; and
loss-making project to the Government to the destruction of natural habitats, particularly
bail the company out. mangroves, has been devastating. As of 2018,
some of the most valuable varieties of catch like
prawns have been reduced considerably, due to
dredging activities.
Also, living costs have increased for the community
paying for drinking water (drinking water sources
have been destroyed during construction of the
plant). They are also paying extra for travel to reach
fishing grounds, as only longer routes are now
accessible. This has also had an impact on the life
of women, who worked sorting, drying and often
taking the products to market. Girls in particular
have also been pulled out of school to perform
physical and domestic labour to survive.

There has been These environmental and social impacts were

recognised by audit reports of the Compliance

a deterioration in Advisor Ombudsman (CAO)50 — the independent

recourse mechanism for the WB’s IFC — and

water quality and the ADB’s Compliance Review Panel51 (CRP),

following complaints from the communities. Both

fish populations; reports noted the failure to conduct adequate

and comprehensive consultations with fishing

access to fishing communities during the project design phase. CAO

noted this: “…resulted in missed opportunities to

and drying sites has assess, avoid and reduce potential adverse impacts
of the project in accordance with the objectives of

been blocked; forced Performance Standard 1 of the IFC.”52

Furthermore, the CRP’s monitoring report said: “CRP
displacement of finds that since the first monitoring report, limited
progress has been made in disclosing information
fishermen has taken and conducting consultations”. 53 This shows that,
even after years of operation, basic prerequisites
place; community like fair public consultations were still not met.

health impacts are CRP also found non-compliance with the ADB’s
operational policies and procedures for thermal

evident due to air and chemical pollution of wastewater discharged

through its outfall channel, which has led to

emissions. harmful impacts on people fishing on foot.

The financial unviability of the project has also
curtailed the company’s efforts to remediate the
social and environmental harms of the project.54

13
 History RePPPeated

3 By Marta Conde, Josep Nualart, Monica Guiteras and Alfons Pérez, Observatori del Deute en la Globalitzaci (ODG)

The Offshore Gas Storage Castor Project

The so-called Castor Project was to be Spain’s biggest

Country offshore gas storage plant. However, the plant caused
Spain more than 1,000 earthquakes in an area that did not suffer
Region from seismic activity in the past. Despite never being
Europe used, the Castor Project has so far cost the public €3.28
Sector billion, which is currently set to be paid through increased
Energy gas bills. This includes €1.35 billion that was paid in unjust
compensation to the private companies involved when the
Year facility was taken into public ownership.
2008
Contract period
30 years

The development of the Castor Project Transparency and democratic participation

The Castor Project is a geological gas storage There is no specific PPP regulation in Spain.
facility in a former oilfield 22 km offshore in the Unlike in many other countries, there is currently
provinces of Castelló and Tarragona in Spain. It no specific authority in charge of PPP projects. In
consists of three elements: October 2015, the national government created the
National Evaluation Office to improve the quality of
1) a maritime platform comprising 13 wells
the investments, but this was still not operative as
2) a ground operation plant with compression of September 2018.58
equipment
The contract for the Castor Project is publicly
3) a pipeline 30.3 km long and 30 inches in available, but several other relevant documents
diameter, with a submarine trajectory of 21.6 are missing such as the documents that
km and a land route of 8.7 km to transport the include references to insurance companies and
natural gas between the process platform (at guarantors. There was a consultation process in
sea) and the operations plant (on land) and vice place. However, the Aarhus Convention on public
versa. The project would store up to 1,900 million participation in public concession processes
cubic metres of natural gas, sufficient to supply was violated: only 30 days were available for
the equivalent of 50 days’ consumption in Spain.55 citizens to participate, and these coincided with
the months of August and September, when
The research phase of the project began in the
most citizens in the region are on vacation.
1990s at the request of Spain Canada Resources
The document also consisted of 600 pages of
Inc. branch in Spain, with the corresponding permit
technical language and was in English instead
obtained in 1996. This permit was later ceded to
of Spanish, limiting the possibility for citizens to
the company ESCAL UGS SL (ESCAL) in 2004. By
review the document.
December 2007, ESCAL was majority owned by
the civil engineering company ACS Group. The Financing of the project
Royal Decree 855/2008, on 16 May 2008, gave the
Private banks financed the initial project and the
concessional PPP contract to ESCAL for 30 years.
European Investment Bank (EIB) refinanced it in
The need for extra gas storage was justified by 2011, and again in 2013, playing a very important
energy security concerns and a forecast made role in its implementation. It was included as a
by the General Secretariat of Energy Planning of pilot project of the Europe 2020 Project Bond
increasing gas consumption for the years 2005- Initiative launched in 2012 by the European
2011.56 These forecasts have been wildly excessive, Commission and the EIB.59 Project bonds are
as acknowledged by the 2012 Spanish National one of the financial instruments that have been
Energy Commission report, which criticises the used to mobilise private capital for infrastructure
gas planning of previous years.57 investment.

14
 History RePPPeated

result of the application of the Royal Decree - Law

13/2014, the State declared the “hibernation” of
the project, i.e. there was no possible gas injection
The plant caused more or extraction from the storage. It also declared
the transfer of the administration of the project to
than 1000 earthquakes ENAGÁS TRANSPORTE, S.A.U, a private company
with 5 per cent of public ownership, and payment
in an area that did not of financial compensation to ESCAL.
Indicative of the will to “shield” the payment to ACS
suffer from seismic through ESCAL was the approval of a Ministerial
Order (Order IET/2805/2012) by the former Popular
activity in the past. Party Minister of Industry, Energy and Tourism José
Manuel Soria, who allowed an extension of the period
during which the private partner could request the
dissolution of the concession contract from 5 to 25
years.63 ESCAL resigned from the project in July
2014 — an action that could not have occurred before
the Ministerial order because it would have been
submitted outside the allowed period.
Minister Soria also signed a Royal Decree Law,
which included compensation for the investment
of ESCAL to the value of €1.46 billion. Discounting
earlier payments, this means that the state should
pay ESCAL €1.35 billion. However, payment to the
company is still being contested. In December
2017, the Constitutional Court declared the
In April 2011, the EIB — which had Spain’s former proceeding that resulted in the order to pay
Minister of Development belonging to the Socialist compensation null and unconstitutional, but it does
Party, Magdalena Álvarez, as Vice President from not ask the company to return money paid so far.64
2010-2014 — approved a €100 million loan to The Spanish CSO Debt Observatory in Globalisation
ESCAL. Later, in 2013 the EIB provided €500 million (ODG) presented a criminal complaint in 2018
for the project, which was used to support the €1.4 against several ministers and the heads of the
billion bond issue for the project.60 companies behind the project.65 The complaint was
rejected by the Supreme Court and ODG will now
The participation of the EIB was crucial because
take the complaint to the Constitutional Court.
it generated payment security for investors and
made the bonds attractive to the market due to
The high fiscal costs of the project
their good rating and the fact that the EIB bought
part of them. The ACS Group also requested the The cost of the project increased threefold
support of the EIB because the repayment terms between January 2007 and March 2010: from €400
(25 years) were more appealing than those offered million to close to €1.27 billion. According to a
by the consortium of 17 banks that financed this 2014 report prepared by the MIET,66 construction
project in the first place (over seven years). of the gas storage was riddled with inexplicable
irregularities that were not detected during the
Moreover, for the issuance of the bonds, the
execution phase. This resulted in increased costs
directors of ESCAL and ACS created a company
and the allocation of most of the work to ACS or to
called Watercraft Capital SA61 with its registered
companies linked to its group.
office in Luxembourg, which could be questionable
from a fiscal point of view. Furthermore, the concessional contract placed an
excessive level of risk on the state, and therefore
The operation of the project on Spanish citizens. A controversial ‘article 14’
established the possibility of compensation in case
In 2013, cushion gas injections were initiated,
of expiration or extinction of the project — which is
which should have enabled the validation and
a usual practice. What was unusual in this article
commissioning of the installation. These injections
was that it said compensation would be given even
caused more than 1,000 earthquakes on the coast
in case of wilful misconduct or negligence on the
of the Valencian Community and Catalunya —
part of the company (albeit compensation at a
seismic events that caused great alarm. This led to
lower level). Article 14 states: “In case of expiration
suspension of the gas injections.
or extinction of the concession, the facilities will
On 18 July 2014, ESCAL submitted a letter to revert to the state (…) the concessionaire will be
the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism compensated for the net book value of the facilities
(MIET) communicating its decision to renounce affected to the underground storage, provided that
the contract and request compensation.62 As a these continue operating. The foregoing shall not

15
 History RePPPeated

apply in case of intent or negligence attributable

LESSONS LEARNED
to the concessionary company, in which case the
compensation shall be limited to the residual value
• Complex projects should be supervised by of the facilities…”.67
the state and wider civil society. One of the
Since the project stopped functioning, its liquidation
stated reasons behind contracting PPPs
process has been very controversial. The citizens are
is the efficiency and experience of private
facing the possibility of having to take on the payment
companies, especially in large construction
of €3.28 billion through gas bills, as has been the case
projects. This has not been the case in
until the time of this study. This quantity amounts to
Castor, with poor forecasting and costs
the cost of building the Castor Project, compensation
increasing threefold. Moreover, there has
and maintenance costs, as well as interest.
been a lack of capacity on the part of the
private sector partner in building and ENAGAS, which is in charge of managing the
operating complex energy infrastructures, infrastructure while it is not operational, could not
including a failure to conduct crucial take on the compensation payment of €1.35 billion
environmental and social impact studies. and instead asked for a loan from three banks that
would be repaid over 30 years with an interest of
4.3 per cent (amounting to more than €1 billion).
• Lack of transparency has been the
These payments have also been transferred to
main challenge emerging from this PPP
consumers in their gas bills. After the decision
contract. During the tendering process,
of the Constitutional Court about the inadequate
contracting and construction phase,
method of compensation, banks have no right to be
information reached citizens very late in
repaid. As of August 2018, they are at a crossroads
the process and participation processes
with the Spanish Government. Litigation is one
were riddled with irregularities.
route being explored.

The social impact of the project

The earthquakes heavily jeopardised the public
health and wellbeing of citizens in Spain. These can
The cost of the project be attributed to ESCAL since they occurred during
the infrastructure start-up operations. Poor planning
increased threefold and lack of due diligence accounted for the failure
to identify these risks. No environmental impact
between January 2007 assessment with adequate attention to seismic risks
was carried out by the Ministry of Environment.
and March 2010: from In addition, there are previous studies, such as
the one carried out by the Observatori de l’Ebre,
€400 million to close which concluded that the exploitation of this
infrastructure could reverberate in earthquakes,
to €1.27 billion. due to the characteristics of geological storage.68
Numerous lines of evidence indicate the existence
of pre-existing faults. The company ESCAL had
reports from the Geological and Mining Institute
of Spain that detected the presence of faults but
assumed that they could not be reactivated.69
A 2015 a report from the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, commissioned by the MIET, also
concluded that “the fault lines were put under stress
as a result of gas injections”. However, the report
also points out that “it would not have been possible
to reach these conclusions with the information
available and through studies carried out with
standard methodology prior to injecting gas”.70
On the other hand, in response to the citizens’
complaints, the EIB acknowledged that “the
Bank could have taken additional steps in its
due diligence to examine risks associated to the
seismicity and geology”.71

16
 History RePPPeated

4 By María José Romero, Eurodad72

Nya Karolinska Solna (NKS) Hospital

In 2010, Swedish authorities gave single bidder the Swedish

Country Hospital Partners (SHP) a PPP contract to build and manage the
Sweden Nya Karolinska Solna (NKS) Hospital. It was intended to be “one
Region of the world’s most advanced hospitals”, but is now known as
Europe the “most expensive hospital in the world”. NKS is still not fully
Sector operational due to technical failures. Furthermore, the cost of
Health the project has rocketed — a fact that was only fully exposed
in 2015 by journalists at the Svenska Dagbladet newspaper.
Year Meanwhile the private consortium has made a significant profit.
2010
Contract period
30 years

NKS: a flagship project in Swedish healthcare? Although the County Council based their strategy on
In 2001, the Stockholm County Council appointed a experiences with Private Finance Initiatives (PFIs)
commission to investigate whether the Karolinska for hospitals in the UK, the project sought to improve
Hospital should be renovated or replaced entirely. this model by stimulating good design. This was done
The commission found that the costs of renovating mainly through a preliminary design competition
the existing hospital would be comparable to the aimed at generating new and imaginative ideas.
cost of substituting it.
Despite high initial interest, the tender was awarded
In June 2008, the Stockholm County Assembly took without any competition. Forty-seven requests for
the formal decision to build a new university hospital prequalification documents were received, but the
through a PPP to replace the existing hospital and process resulted in only one company submitting a
research facilities. This is a highly specialised bid: Swedish Hospital Partners (SHP).
700-bed hospital, located in the Municipality of
The main reason for the low level of participation
Solna, Stockholm, next to the medical university
was the risk transfer implicit in the PFI model. 73
Karolinska Institute. The objective was to modernise
No Swedish companies were sufficiently confident
and fundamentally transform the existing university
of managing the financial risk involved and other
hospital service, thereby contributing to the
international companies withdrew interest given
reconfiguration of healthcare services across the
the extremely large scale of the project, and the
Stockholm area.
consequent substantial financial risk. Despite
The assembly agreed that investment expenditure initial hopes, the bidding process made clear that
should not exceed €1.45 billion for the new hospital NKS would not result in a new PFI model. Instead it
and research buildings, and that the new facility should adopted the “standard” UK National Health Service
open in December 2015. This would be the largest PPP PFI model,74 including the St Barts and Royal
project in the world to date. The project development London Hospital, which is also managed by SHP.75
phase was launched in October 2008 with the County
Another critical point included in the evaluation
Council inviting interested parties to submit tenders for
commissioned by the EC is that “no contract details
a contract to design, build, finance and operate NKS.
are available or published; the reason given is
According to an evaluation commissioned by the that this remains commercially sensitive”. 76 In
European Commission (EC), the decision to go for a addition, the notes of the Council meeting at which
PPP was guided by the belief that this procurement the contract decision was agreed have not been
model would bring “three potential benefits”: published nor are they available on request.
“certainty of costs, certainty to deliver, and better
Interestingly, news articles reported that the
value”. This decision followed recommendations
national government tried to stop the County
from professional services firms PwC (2007) and
Council from moving forward with this PPP, on the
Ernest & Young (2008).
basis of the high cost of private financing of PPPs.77

17
 History RePPPeated

Work on Nya Karolinska Solna was delayed. Photo: Tomas Oneborg, Svenska Dagbladet

Who is SHP? The high cost of the project

In May 2010, SHP was commissioned to finance, The total cost of construction was projected to be
construct and operate the new hospital under a Kr14.5 billion (€1.4 billion)82 and the total life cycle
PPP contract for 30 years. SHP received financing cost approximately Kr52.5 billion (€5 billion). It
from the European Investment Bank (EIB) (€698 was agreed that the County Council would make
million),78 the Nordic Investment Bank (€147 advance payments during construction, thereby
million)79 and commercial banks. reducing the use of debt. As Sweden’s health
budget is largely state-funded, the investment
The company is owned by the British investment
of the private company would be repaid by the
fund Innisfree and Skanska Infrastructure
Stockholm County with taxpayers’ money.
Development. Skanska Healthcare (SHC) is the
building contractor constructing the project and Research conducted by the journalists Fredrik
is a joint venture owned by Skanska Sweden (70 Mellgren and Henrik Ennart at the Svenska
per cent) and Skanska UK (30 per cent). Coor Dagbladet, who subsequently wrote the book entitled
Service Management is responsible for the Sick house: About New Karolinska — The scams,
development, coordination and delivery of facilities scandals and medical crisis in Stockholm,83have
and workplace services during the contract uncovered the real costs of the hospital.84 Their
period. Finally, Karolinska University Hospital is research showed that the actual bill for the hospital
responsible for formulating the requirements is over Kr25 billion (€2.4 billion), and that the total
regarding medical equipment and information and expenses of NKS until 2040 will be Kr61.4 billion
communications technology.80 (€5.89 billion).85 The main reason for the increase
in the construction costs is that it did not include
John Dingle, from Skanska Financial Services,
all the outsourced costs for vital services such as
explained in 2010 why the PPP model was used:
IT cables, lab and medical-technical equipment.86
“The most important reason is to transfer risk
In addition to the construction costs, the sum of the
from the authority and taxpayers to the private
total expenses include the cost of interest rates,
sector. A PPP is the best way to ensure that the
property maintenance and SHP’s expected profits,
project is completed on time and on budget,
which are more than Kr5 billion (€481 million) from
and it ensures that the operations and lifecycle
the NKS agreement.87
maintenance of the asset are delivered with
predictable costs.”81

18
 History RePPPeated

The government could have borrowed the money at LuxLeaks also revealed a dark side
a cheaper rate, but was willing to pay a premium for
A few months after SHP was awarded the PPP
expected benefits in terms of “delivery at cost and
contract, PwC was commissioned by Innisfree to
in time” and improvements in long-term efficiency
create a new tax structure in Luxembourg. The
through incentives for the PPP to invest in quality.88
confidential arrangement between the company
However, delays have also been frequent, and and the Luxembourg Government was revealed
expensive for the County Council, as it has to arrange by the International Consortium of Investigative
care in another way. When the decision to build the Journalists (ICIJ), in the 2014 LuxLeaks database.94
hospital was taken in 2008, the goal was that the
The analysis of these documents — published
whole hospital would be ready by 2015. When the
by national broadcaster SVT on the programme
tender competition began, it was thought that the
Uppdrag granskning (English translation Mission:
whole hospital would be operational by 2016; in the
Investigation) — is that SHP is due to pay interest
agreement signed with SHP that date was postponed
to letterbox companies in Luxembourg until 2040,
until October 2017. During the building, further
i.e. Innisfree lent money to SHP with a 9 per cent
delays have occurred. The hospital was expected to
interest rate on the loan. When the money is
be completed in March 2018 but it will not be in full
moved to Luxembourg, this reduces the taxable
operation before the beginning of 2019.
profits in Sweden. The documents also revealed
In addition, there have been allegations that the an advanced tax structure where the tax result
executive board of the hospital has too close ties in Luxembourg is near zero. As a result, a total
to the US management consultancy firm Boston of around Kr1.3 billion (€125.73 million) will be
Consulting Group.89 The newspaper Dagens Nyheter channelled to Luxembourg essentially tax free.95
has also echoed the findings published by Svenska
Dagbladet,90 by reporting on how Boston Consulting The public fallout
Group has billed the hospital Kr257 million (€24.7
Following numerous technical failures in the new
million) over six years — more than Kr700,000
hospital, other hospitals have also been bearing the
(€67,000) a month for each of nine consultants.91
brunt in terms of patient numbers as NKS struggles
In April 2018 this controversy resulted in the
to get off the ground.96 The hospital management
resignation of the board members of the hospital.92
has had weak support among the staff. The
On 24 September 2018 the hospital’s Director Chairman of the Stockholm Medical Association,
Melvin Samsom also handed in his resignation. Johan Styrud, warned that the new hospital will
This followed extensive criticism and newspaper worsen the crisis of Stockholm healthcare.97
exposés of how NKS paid extortionate consultancy
The political debate about the cost overruns
fees to Nordic Interim AB at a total value of Kr133
and operational problems intensified in 2018. In
million (€12.86 million) between 2015 and 2018,
February the government initiated a “state enquiry”
a procurement deal that is now the subject of an
to look into the decision and implementation
enquiry by the Swedish Competition Authority.
processes in relation to procurement, investments
However, Samsom stated that his resignation was
and organisational changes after the NKS scandal.98
not connected to these exposés but that “it was a
The enquiry will investigate several points including:
good time to leave”.93 
the risks that public funds, including targeted
government funds, are not used in an efficient and
LESSONS LEARNED effective way.99 Preliminary findings are due to be
presented in November 2018.

• It should not be assumed that PPPs deliver In March 2018, ahead of Sweden’s national
on time, on budget and that services elections, Sweden’s Finance Minister Magdalena
are of a high quality. Today, the “world’s Andersson called for a government investigation
most expensive hospital” is still not fully into the costs and operational problems at NKS.
operational, and this has had a negative “We’ve got the world’s most expensive hospital and
impact on the whole health system, and on it in no way seems to be the world’s best hospital,”
citizens in Sweden. Andersson complained.100 Commenting on the
value of PPPs, she also added: “Scary Swedish
experience shows that one has to be careful not to
• It is vital that there is transparency and deal with them so badly.” 101
democratic accountability around the PPP
process. This was not the case for the Nya
Karolinska Solna (NKS) hospital, which was
heavily driven by the advice of consultancy
firms. The failure to publish contract details
does not chime well with the risks that the
public sector has been forced to take on.

19
 History RePPPeated

5 By Anna Marriott, Oxfam, Great Britain

Queen Mamohato Memorial Hospital

In 2006, the government of Lesotho launched a PPP to build a national hospital

Country to replace the aging and outdated main public hospital, Queen Elizabeth II, and to
Lesotho upgrade the network of urban filter clinics. All of the facilities were designed, built,
Region financed, and operated under this PPP and included delivery of all clinical services.
Africa The WB’s IFC, as advisor to the project, promised the PPP hospital would bring
Sector vast improvements for the same annual cost as the old failing hospital. This PPP
Health was the first for a hospital in Africa and was promoted as a flagship model to be
replicated across the continent. The WB reports some significant improvements
Year in service delivery and clinical performance, and these must be welcomed. Of
2008
great concern however, is the current and future financial impact of the PPP on the
Contract period Government of Lesotho and the wider impacts for the health sector.
18 years

The structure of the PPP project,and its financiers of South Africa (DBSA). This high debt-to-equity
ratio is normal for a health PPP in a high-income
This PPP contract was signed in 2008 and the new
country but high for a PPP that incorporates
hospital opened in October 2011 in the capital,
clinical provision in a country with limited PPP
Maseru. Under the agreement, a private sector
experience or capacity.107 The ratio may have been
consortium called Tsepong was responsible for
chosen to bring down the overall cost of capital
designing, building and operating the 425-bed
for the project,108 and the unitary fee. However,
hospital and a network of refurbished urban clinics
a high proportion of debt brings significant risk
for 18 years. Tsepong is owned by five companies, 102
that the private operator will be unable to make
with Netcare (the largest private hospital network
debt repayments if cash flow falls below expected
in South Africa and the United Kingdom at the time)
levels. Furthermore, whilst the debt is registered
owning by far the largest portion (40 per cent).103
as a private sector contribution, the debt to DBSA is
The IFC acted as transaction advisor for the PPP underwritten by the government. Late government
on behalf of the government for which it earned a payments are a feature of this PPP and have caused
fee. The World Bank provided a grant of US$6.25 Tsepong to default on the loan at least once. The
million via the Global Partnership on Output-Based government has incurred even greater costs in
Aid during the initial stages of the project. 104 the form of penalty payments.109 Not only does
this threaten the continuing viability of the PPP,
The PPP is an availability-based model, using
but it could negatively impact on the government’s
performance-based contracts. Tsepong provides
international credit rating and ability to raise
an agreed service to the required performance
affordable capital in the future.
standards in return for an annual service payment
or unitary fee. A distinctive feature of this contract,
The PPP hospital: cost escalation and risk
however, is that the fee can change if Tsepong
provides services above the agreed maximum A report launched in 2014 by Oxfam and the
threshold of patients. Lesotho Consumer Protection Association (LCPA)110
estimated the real cost of the PPP hospital to
The total capital expenditure of the PPP at financial
the Government of Lesotho. Oxfam and the LCPA
close of the contract was estimated at M1,164,541
estimated that in 2013/14 the annual cost of the
(US$134.98 million in 2017 figures).105 This was
new hospital was as much as 51 per cent of the
financed through a mixture of public (34.3 per cent)
total health budget and approximately 3 to 4.6
and private (65.7 per cent) funds.106 The government
times what the old public hospital would have cost
spent an additional US$10 million (in 2017 figures)
that year. The IFC’s own commissioned study had
on infrastructure improvements to service the
reported the year before that the PPP was costing
new hospital site. Private capital was made up
the government 41 per cent of its health budget
of 14 per cent equity and 86 per cent debt, with
and 2 to 3 times the cost of the old hospital.111
a loan provided by the public Development Bank

20
 History RePPPeated

A recent news article suggests the Government of

Lesotho puts the unpaid bill it owes to Tsepong for
excess patients at M400 million (US$28 million).
The Deputy Prime Minister Monyane Moleleki
recently said that “the Queen Mamohato Memorial
Hospital is bleeding government coffers through
huge costs for the treatment of patients”.117

Factors contributing to cost escalation include:

• The output specification, financial structure
and price of the contract changed dramatically
during the preferred bidder stage but without
any competitive tender. The main outcomes of
the changes were to: (i) more than double the
total capital cost of the project; (ii) increase the
proportion of private finance in the project from
one fifth to approximately two thirds of capital
expenditure; and (in consequence) (iii) increase
the initial unitary fee by 42 per cent over the
stated affordability threshold. Changes of this
scale would have been unlawful in most mature
PPP markets, such as the United Kingdom, and
serve to undermine World Bank claims of an
open and competitive bidding process.
• Flawed indexation of the annual fee paid by
the Government to Tsepong (unitary fee): The
entire unitary fee is subject to inflation-related
adjustments despite 30 per cent of Tsepong’s
costs being fixed. The result of this ‘over-
indexation’ is to make the unitary charge lower in
the early years of the contract, but increases the
total payment to be made over the course of the
contract, with higher annual fees as the contract
Waiting room at the Queen Mamohato Memorial Hospital, Maseru 2014. Photo: Sophie Freeman/Oxfam matures. This continuing increase must be borne
in mind when making affordability judgements
about the PPP in relation to one year’s budget
Due to the complexity of the contract and a high alone, and raises significant concerns for the
number of disputed fees which are still part of an remaining years of the contract.
arbitration process, the actual cost of the PPP to the
• Payment of VAT: The unitary fee recorded in
government remains contested and uncertain. Most
the financial model is net of VAT. But, as is the
recently, a 2017 Lesotho public health expenditure
case for many other items of expenditure, the
review by UNICEF and the WB reinforces concerns
Ministry of Health (MoH) must pay a rate for the
about the financial sustainability of the PPP. 112 The
contract that includes VAT. There is no logic to
review data shows that actual expenditure on the
net of VAT as the MoH has no process to recoup
PPP — what government paid rather than what
the tax.
they were invoiced — amounted to 35 per cent of
recurrent health expenditure over the four years • Poor forecasting: The unitary fee covers the
leading up to 2017, or 30.6 per cent net of Value care and treatment for a maximum of 20,000
Added Tax (VAT). 113 It is important to note that total inpatients and 310,000 outpatients. Any patients
health expenditure has increased dramatically since serviced in excess of these numbers leads to
the PPP baseline year, indicating a concerning rise higher payments.118 The volume of patients has
in the actual cost of the PPP to the government.114 significantly exceeded these parameters in every
The review’s figures suggest that in 2016 Tsepong’s year of the contract’s operation. Charges for
‘invoiced’ fees amount to two times the “affordability excess patients now make up a huge 19 per cent
threshold” set by the Government and the WB at of Tsepong’s fees charged.119
the outset of the PPP.115 The review claims the PPP
• Costly patient referrals to South Africa
expenditure is in line with expectations but goes on
increased by 61 per cent between 2007
to acknowledge that significant additional fees could
and 2012 despite the expectation that the
impact the sustainability of the contract. The figures
PPP would reduce these numbers. In 2013,
also reveal a concerning trend of government
Netcare claimed that referral numbers were
paying a lower proportion of the invoiced fee each
stabilising and had reduced by 12 per cent.120
year since 2012/13. 116

21
 History RePPPeated

Key informants confirmed that the government significant and very welcome, although reliable
is struggling to meet the charges for referral comparisons are notably difficult to achieve and
costs and is behind on its payments.121 The lack further independent data on the system-wide
of transparent and accurate information on impact of the PPP hospital are long overdue.
referral numbers or practices is problematic
What is highly questionable is whether such
and should be fully investigated.122
improvements can be attributed to the performance
As transaction advisor to the Government, the IFC management of Tsepong, and its related payment
must take responsibility for many of the serious incentive at the heart of the PPP model. All
flaws in the structure of the PPP contract. For the accounts suggest the capacity of the government to
sake of learning, an evaluation of the IFC’s advisory oversee the PPP is thin at best. One key informant
role should be conducted to understand: (1) why from Tsepong said, “the Ministry of Health is not
the hospital PPP was not re-opened to competition managing the contract at all and Netcare could be
following such significant changes to the scope, doing anything and they would not know”.125 Today
scale and cost of the contract in the preferred the MoH have just two members of staff managing
bidder stage, and (2) why the Government all outsourced services together accounting for 52
decided to proceed with the PPP despite a revised per cent of the total health budget.126 It seems more
financial model that guaranteed from the outset likely that improved performance can be attributed
that cost would dramatically exceed the agreed to other factors, including the condition that the PPP
“affordability threshold”. hospital obtain and maintain accreditation with the
Council for Health Service Accreditation of Southern
Performance outcomes and government Africa (COHSASA);127 the ambition of Netcare to
oversight of the PPP replicate the Lesotho model across Africa;128 and
perhaps also the principles and professionalism
The construction of the hospital was finished ahead
of the hospital management team. Clearly such
of time and on budget. This element of the PPP can
context-specific factors weaken the replicability
be considered a success. There was evidence early
argument in other low-capacity contexts.
in the hospital’s operations that it was delivering
services of higher quality with improved health
Wider impact and costs of the PPP hospital
outcomes than the previous hospital.123 According
to an IFC-commissioned study, the new hospital Lesotho has some of the world’s highest recorded
has reported a 41 per cent overall reduction in disease burdens, as well as high maternal and
the hospital death rate, a 65 per cent reduction in infant mortality rates, and serious inequity remains
deaths from paediatric pneumonia, and a 22 per in the distribution and reach of services across
cent decline in the rate of stillbirths compared with the country. Spending per capita in the capital
the old public hospital.124 These improvements are city Maseru is double the amount of the second-
place district. 129 Whilst the PPP cannot be blamed
for some of the long-term structural constraints
LESSONS LEARNED
to progress, including poor management and
budgeting, and the unequal distribution of human
• Lesotho’s experience supports international evidence that health- resources, the cost and the inflexibility of the
related PPPs can be extremely risky and costly, and strongly hospital PPP significantly curtails the ability of the
suggests that they should be avoided. This is particularly the case in Government to invest where need is greatest.
low-income, low-capacity contexts where they can constitute a threat
There is little dispute that a priority for the
to the entire health system.
MoH should have been, and still should be, to
significantly scale up comprehensive quality
• There are multiple and wide-ranging reasons for the high and escalating primary health-care outside of the capital. In
cost of the Lesotho PPP hospital. Many reasons seem inherent to health this context, it seems wise to respond to the
PPPs and raise serious questions about why the model was proposed recommendation of the recent Public Health
in the context of Lesotho. Other cost increases appear to be the result Expenditure Review to revisit the key rationale of
of poor quality advice and ill-informed or irresponsible decision making the PPP contract and the role that the PPP hospital
about the contract and its financial model. should play within the broader health system.
Looking forward, it is essential for the government
and the WBG to reflect on the decision to pursue
• The scale of changes (including significant cost escalation) made
a PPP with an initial fee that was already well
to this PPP in the absence of competition during the preferred
above the agreed “affordability threshold”, and an
bidder stage of the contract would be considered unlawful in many
inflexible contract that would lock the government
other markets and certainly fail the WB’s own recommended best
into an increasingly unaffordable fee for 18 years.
practice.130 Transparency at all stages of the PPP process would
enable greater public scrutiny to hold all stakeholders to account and
ensure they act lawfully, in accordance with best practice and in the
public interest at all times.

22
 History RePPPeated

6 By Cécilia Gondard, Eurodad

The New Paris Courthouse

In 2009, the French Ministry of Justice forged plans for a new courthouse in Paris,
Country as the former building was old, small and did not meet security standards. In
France
2012, they agreed a partnership with a special purpose vehicle called Arélia. The
Region resulting PPP contract has proved highly controversial and has been criticised
Europe by both the French Senate and the Court of Auditors for being too expensive, too
Sector complex and lacking transparency. The courthouse, which is tied into the PPP until
Justice 2044, is earmarked to cost a massive €2.3 billion. However, experts fear the cost
(real state) will rise over time. Despite being one of the most legally experienced government
departments in the world, this PPP proved tremendously complex, costly and
Year
damaging to the reputation of the French Ministry of Justice. As a result of the
2011
scandal, the Ministry has decided to stop using PPPs in future.131
Contract period
33 years

The construction of the Paris courthouse The PPP option proved expensive and risky
through a PPP
In the 2014 report of the French Senate PPPs, a
The French Ministry of Justice had used PPPs ticking bomb,136 the Paris courthouse case was used
several times between 2006 and 2014 for the as an example to underline shortcomings of the PPP
construction of prisons and a new courthouse in model. The main criticism concerned the total cost,
Caen. PPPs seemed attractive as they were exempt which amounted to €2.3 billion until 2044 for an
from the common law of public procurement and investment of €725.5 million; the rest corresponded
meant that the investment and funding costs could to €642.8 million of borrowing, and €960 million of
be spread over the length of the contract. operating costs.
In 2010, the administration council of the Paris The PPP option was more costly for the public purse
courthouse decided to construct a new building via than a traditional public procurement model because
a PPP. The project consisted of the construction, borrowing and maintenance costs were higher. In
financing, management, maintenance and transfer the case of the borrowing costs, the interest rates
back to the state of a 90,000 sqm new building, to which the Ministry is subject in this context are
as well as the provision of public services: much higher than if it had used a public contract.
waste management, cleaning and management For example, the fixed rate of the PPP cost of the
of the building. In 2012, the Ministry of Justice Paris courthouse was 6.4 per cent, while in 2012
commissioned the special purpose vehicle Arélia (the date of the signing of the contract with Arélia),
to carry out the project. Arélia is made up of two the weighted average rate of government financing
companies of the group Bouygues Construction in the medium-long term was 1.86 per cent (up to 3
(Bouygues Bâtiment Ile-de-France132 and per cent at 30 years-term) .137 Moreover maintenance
EXPRIMM),133 and two private investors (Lloyds and costs were also higher under PPPs than public sector
DIF — a fund management company that invests works, with outsourced maintenance.138
in infrastructure assets in the telecom, rail and
The construction costs of the PPP were also deemed
energy sectors in Europe, North America and
to be “higher than those for public sector design-build
Australia).134 The agreement was to Build Operate
contracts, partly because of additional costs incurred
and Transfer (BOT) the new Paris courthouse.
by delays due to the complexity of the contracts
The Ministry could not support its decision to go for and the renegotiation process.” 139 Other costs were
a PPP, instead of traditional public procurement, incurred following the competition stage.140 For
on the basis of an “economic efficiency” criteria.135 instance, those companies that participated in the
The decision was, therefore, justified by the tender process but lost their bid had a compensation
“exceptional complexity” of the project. In other fee. Project proposal fees awarded to the bid losers
words, the Ministry argued that the project was too went up from €1.2 million (without taxes) to €2 million
complex to go through public procurement. (without taxes) at the closure of the bidding process.

23
 History RePPPeated

The complexity and inflexibility of the PPP contract

also caused great concern. The Paris terrorism
attacks in November 2015 led to new security
requirements and reforms to the justice system
during the construction phase. Combined with new
environmental standards, the building required a
lot of adaptation, estimated at a total cost of €66.8
million to the public purse. As a result, additional
construction was postponed until 2018 onwards.
In the end, not only did the PPP option cost more
than the public procurement option, but the costs
proved to be higher than expected in 2010. Some
costs were underestimated in the first place, such
as security costs (€3.6 million/year), the moving
of 20 tribunals and restructuring the current
justice palace (€30 million). Contract renegotiating
incurred additional costs (including €23.5 million for
cancelled penalties and €5 million additional costs).

Criticism of the project

The transparency of information surrounding the
project was contested,144 as well as the decision
to go for the PPP model in the first place.145 The
2017 report The real estate policy of the Ministry
of Justice: put an end to the flight forward146 was a
damning condemnation of the courthouse PPP by
the Court of Auditors. It looked both at prisons and
the courthouse project and concluded that “the
use of a PPP, prompted by short-term budgetary
considerations, has led to average annual rental
charges of €86 million that will weigh heavy on the
Ministry of Justice’s budget” until 2044. As a result,
the new Justice Minister Nicole Belloubet decided
Construction of the Paris courthouse was delayed. Photo: Jean-Luc Gondard that the Ministry of Justice would not engage in
PPPs in the future.147

Furthermore, the PPP contract placed an excessive

level of risk on the public sector, paving the way LESSONS LEARNED
for possible additional costs. All of the costs linked
to project-related risks beyond the threshold of
• This case shows that PPPs can be
€2 million would be borne by the public partner,141
expensive and risky for the public purse,
from general strikes and national disasters to legal
and taxpayers. This comes as a result of
procedures of appeal against the PPP contract.142
additional costs and uncertainty about the
One of these risks materialised in July 2013
future. The French Finance Ministry has
when construction of the PPP was interrupted for
used this case to question the “complexity”
eight months, as a result of the fact that the PPP
of the project as relevant criteria to select
was challenged in the Court by the association
the PPP model over the public option.148
“La Justice dans la Cité”. This interrupted the
construction until the court gave its judgement,
and led to a renegotiation of the costs associated • The use of PPPs by the Ministry of
with the construction interruption. Justice has proved very controversial.
Successive governments, senators
Until the judgement was given and the construction
from different political parties and the
restarted, variable interest rates could not
Independent Audit Court have stressed
be turned into fixed rates. The reason for the
“the unsuitability of PPPs”. The Court in
renegotiation was also that bank loans were
its 2017 report states that it “believes that
blocked during this phase and so the Ministry had
PPPs should not be used for prison and
to agree not only to cancel a €23.5 million penalty,
court real estate in future”.149
but also to finance €5 million additional costs,
while the shareholders of the PPP supported a
slight decrease of their rates of return (11.25 per
cent to 9.36 per cent).143

24
 History RePPPeated

7 By LATINDADD, Latin American Network for Economic and Social Justice, researched by Ciro Salazar

International Airport of Chinchero – Cuzco

Plans to build a huge new airport mainly to service tourists visiting Machu
Country Picchu in Peru led to a high potential financial cost for the state, and a social
Peru cost for the city of Cuzco. Mistakes included a failure to properly assess the
Region risks of such a large-scale project in a protected region and a poor city; a failure
Latin America to properly consult with communities; and to publish adequate documentation
Sector to support the decision to go for a PPP. A (probably illegal) addendum was
Transport added to the project plan when the private provider failed to get adequate funds,
which put all of the risk on the state. As a result of the public debate, and strong
Year audit reports, the state cancelled the contract. Chinchero is a potential “white
2014
elephant” with a high risk of functioning at half of its capacity. The potential
Contract period insolvency of the private consortium due to the failure in the planning process
40 years would force the state to maintain an infrastructure that is underused.

Devising the PPP expansion to 5.7 million passengers per year.153 It

would replace the current Cuzco Velazco Astete
The International Airport of Chinchero — Cuzco is
Airport upon its completion.
a project promoted by the Peruvian Government,
under the Law Nº27528 approved in 2001, which Importantly, the decision to implement this project
“declared the project of public necessity and through a PPP was not based on an analysis
utility and with the highest priority for the State”. of the costs and benefits in comparison with
In February 2010, the Ministry of Transport and the potential costs of implementing the project
Communications (MTC) ordered Proinversión — through traditional public procurement. In Peru,
the state agency responsible for PPP-related the methodology of the public-private comparator
processes — to release the call for tender to (a quantitative analysis) is not applied to estimate
award a PPP contract co-financed by the state the “value for money” (VfM) of a given project.154
(also known as a concession contract). The project Instead, the decision is made on the basis of a
involves the design, financing, construction, qualitative analysis, which gives an excessive
operation and maintenance of a new airport 29km margin of discretion.155
North from Cuzco, in an area that is at an altitude
of 3,700 metres above sea level.150 The fiscal costs of the project
In April 2014, Proinversión awarded the project Initial plans said the financing of the project would
to the Kuntur Wasi consortium. This consortium come from both Kuntur Wasi (71.4 per cent), and
includes Argentina’s Corporación America from the state (28.6 per cent). Kuntur Wasi would
Airports S.A. — a company running several cover the building and the operating phase, while
airports in different Latin American countries, the state would be in charge of the preparatory
with headquarters located in Luxembourg.151 It work (i.e. earth moving work). The financing
also features Peru’s Andino Investment Holding provided by Kuntur Wasi (US$264.75 million)156
S.A. — which incorporates 13 companies that are would be reimbursed by the state from the sixth
active in sectors like infrastructure, logistics and year of the project onwards, with interest — once
maritime services, and whose managers are linked the airport was built and operational. The contract
to some of the most important companies in the did not establish the interest rate that Kuntur Wasi
country working on mining, insurance, logistics would charge, but it gave to the state the power to
and banking.152 refuse a financing plan.
The investment to start operations would be The project faced delays due to funding issues.
US$538 million, and the total investment, including Kuntur Wasi’s plan implied borrowing at an interest
future extensions, would be US$658 million. rate of 22 per cent.157 Given the co-financing
The airport would have capacity for 4.5 million requirement, this plan implied a payment by the
passengers per year, with the possibility of further state that amounted to US$587 million in interest.

25
 History RePPPeated

Writing on farm wall protesting against plans to build an international airport near the village of Chinchero (Cusco, Peru). Photo: James Brunker/Alamy Stock Photo

On that basis, the proposal was rejected for being Economy, Claudia Cooper, was previously an
extremely high, and against the public interest. As advisor to the private consortium, and one of the
the state can borrow at an interest rate of 7 per executives of the consortium was the sister of the
cent, it was considered that the interest rate that Prime Minister.161
Kuntur Wasi should request could not be higher
Several experts, former ministers and the president
than 9-10 per cent.158
of OSITRAN — who resigned her position as a result
At that point, the state had the power to declare of this case — questioned the addendum, with some
the expiration of the contract — it was explicitly experts saying that the project turned into a ‘public
established in the contract that this would imply work’ project from a financial point of view.162
unjustifiable delays in the implementation of the
After a strong report from the Comptroller General
project. However, it did not do so.
referring to economic damages for the state, and in
Kuntur Wasi asked for a renegotiation of the the midst of a national scandal over the project, the
contract, which was signed in February 2017. It Peruvian government finally cancelled the contract
was agreed that 80.7 per cent of the funding would with Kuntur Wasi on the grounds of national interest.
come from the state, while 19.3 per cent would The then Minister of Transport and Communications
come from the private partner. This changed Martin Vizcarra resigned his position.163
the funding structure of the project, as the state
became the main financing partner. In addition, the Transparency and public consultation
renegotiated contract obliged the state to make an
Both the contract and pre-investment studies are
initial contribution of US$40 million before the start
available on the Proinversión website, but there is
of the construction phase, something not even seen
no VfM analysis publicly available. This has been a
in public works projects.159 Although this addendum
critical question in relation to the evidence-based
violated several articles of the PPP law — for
analysis that supports the decision to go for a PPP.
instance, one that requires that an addendum does
not change the competition criteria of the contract160 There was no prior consultation with communities in
— it was approved by the Ministry of Economy the area of direct impact of the project, even though
and Finance (MEF) and the Supervisory Board the regulating norm of the Consultation Law (Nº29785)
for Investment in Public Transport Infrastructure was approved in 2012.164 The peasant communities of
(OSITRAN). It was also publicly backed by Ollanta Chinchero are included in the database of indigenous
Humala, the Peruvian President at the time. peoples of the Ministry of Culture, meaning they do
have this right. 165 The only consultation was during the
In addition, there have been allegations of possible
preparation of a feasibility study, but it only involved
conflict of interest. The then Vice Minister of
community leaders.166

26
 History RePPPeated

LESSONS LEARNED

The project threatens • There were serious indications that this

project would be a heavy burden on the
to disrupt ancestral state and taxpayers when the contract
was signed. This situation was aggravated
customs and lengthen by the approval of an addendum
establishing that the state assumed most
the supply routes used risks of the project.

by this population. • The project suffered from a lack of

transparency and public participation.
Because no institution in the country
works on the basis of an Infrastructure
Development Plan, criteria such as
sustainability and vulnerability to climate
change are not included when projects
are devised. This generates conditions for
decisions based on political criteria, as well
as favouritism and vested interests.

The social impact of the project at 2,500 people per day (a capacity supported by
UNESCO). However, it has been largely exceeded;
Cuzco is one of the poorest cities in the country,
in 2017 an average daily flow of 3,800 people was
with more than 25 per cent of the inhabitants
reached.171 The feasibility study for the airport
classed as living in poverty. The layout of the
states that the real daily load capacity is 5,400
airport involved the disappearance of 15 roads that
people and a saturation scenario, or maximum
are currently used by the local population, as well
capacity, is 7,180 visits.172
as irrigation channels,167 which will result in longer
trips for residents who want to stock up on certain As the reception capacity of the airport would
products in Chinchero or sell their products. greatly exceed the reception capacity of tourists to
the Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, there is a high risk
Three different local communities would be
that it will work at half of its capacity, which could
affected by the expropriation of land. Economic
lead to insolvency of the private consortium, and
compensation was planned for them, but the
therefore the state would have to intervene. Even
distribution of money would be uneven as a result of
more worryingly, as the report of the Office of the
the different amount of land expropriated to each of
Comptroller of the Republic states, Proinversión
them. According to the feasibility study: “this uneven
has not adequately supported the viability of
distribution is likely to have consequences in terms
Chinchero as the location of the airport.173
of the economic activity of the communities in the
short and medium term.” However: “there is still no
The way forward
evidence of this change in the economic activity of
the people receiving the money”.168 As a result of the cancellation of the contract, the
private consortium has introduced an arbitration
In addition, Chinchero is recognised in the circuit
claim against the Peruvian state before the WB’s
of the Sacred Valley of the Incas for its textile art,
International Centre of Settlement of Investment
and women are the main artisans dedicated to this
Disputes (ICSID).174 As of late July it was not clear
work. However, the need to include a gender focus
how much Kuntur Wasi is claiming in the case
in the project or in the environmental impact study
(some initial indications point to more than US$270
was never identified. Thus, the project threatens to
million in compensation for the cancellation of the
disrupt ancestral customs and lengthen the supply
contract).175 Since the government’s decision was
routes used by this population.
based on an addendum that is illegal, it is possible
that the state could win the claim. However, this
Would this airport be a “white elephant”?
process implies a cost that will have to be borne by
One of the reasons a new airport169 was planned all Peruvian citizens yet again.
was to better serve the development of the
Finally, the state has confirmed its intention to
economy linked to the Archeologic Centre of
continue with the project but under a different PPP
Machu Picchu, the main tourist destination in the
model. This will be a “self-financed concession”,176
country, which was declared a World Heritage site
following questions about the value of the co-
by UNESCO in 1983.170 The maximum load of views
financed PPP model.177
to the citadel for sustainable use was estimated

27
 History RePPPeated

8 By David Cruz, Asociación Ambiente y Sociedad

Navigability of the Magdalena River

The Magdalena River is Colombia’s main river. Many coastal communities

Country and their economies depend on this river for fishing. In addition, it has
Colombia
sociocultural relevance for the country. The country’s former President
Region Juan Manuel Santos wanted to improve the river’s navigability to boost
Latin America exports for a large part the country. It was part of his bid to ease travel and
Sector reduce freight costs. However, the PPP project launched in 2014 to fulfil this
Transport ambition became mired in delays. As a result of a corruption scandal that
involved the major shareholder of the private consortium, financial closure
Year
never materialised, which led to the collapse of the project. The preliminary
2014
works carried out have already negatively affected the environment in and
Contract period around the river. Communities were never properly consulted to mitigate
13 years and against these impacts. The current government is revising the project to
six months launch another PPP to implement the project.

The PPP contract — main features project. In addition, during this phase Navelena
was also in charge of dredging works between
In September 2014, government agency the
Barrancabermeja and Bocas de Ceniza.
Regional Autonomous Corporation of Rio Grande de
la Magdalena (Cormagdalena) signed a PPP contact
Contractual issues
with Navelena S.A.S to improve the navigability of
the Magdalena River. This was a consortium made Several conflicts were identified, particularly in the
up of the Brazilian conglomerate Odebrecht (with distribution and financing of “risks”. According to
86.67 per cent of the shares) and the Colombian the “risk matrix”, Cormagdalena took on the demand
company Valores y Contratos S.A. (with 13.33 per risk, environmental regulation or special regulation
cent of the shares). variation risk, and risks related to tariff collection,
among others. In addition, a “force majeure” clause
It was the first PPP contract awarded in Colombia
was established in case of delay or failure to obtain
following the 2012 PPP Law Nº1508, which set out
environmental licenses for reasons not attributable
the regulatory framework for new PPPs in the
to the company. Reasons included if the company
country. It was a Design, Build, Finance, Operate,
had to consult with a community to obtain a licence,
Maintain and Transfer PPP contract, focusing on
which then had to be compensated by the state. This
a stretch of 908 km between Puerto Salgar and
is of great concern, as it represents an incentive not
Bocas de Ceniza. This was a huge dredging project
to follow a constitutional obligation of consulting
involving nine states and 57 cities.
with local communities.
The estimated value of the contract was COL1.3
The contract also established compensation
trillion (approximately US$390 million). The
measures for communities, regions, localities
financing for the project would come from the
and the natural environment affected by negative
General Budget of the Nation, royalties from
impacts generated by the project, which could not
the territorial entities and other public funds.
be avoided, corrected, mitigated or replaced by
When all payments throughout the project were
the private partner. To cover these compensations
considered, the cost would rise to COL2.5 trillion
the private partner initially put aside COL20.9
(approximately US$750 million) — representing a
billion (approximately US$7 million). However,
90 per cent increase from the contract value.
if the compensation was to be higher than that,
Navelena would receive remuneration depending Cormagdalena would have to assume all of the
on compliance levels, not during the pre- exceeding amount. As the contract was signed
construction phase (18 months long), when the without a thorough environmental impact
consortium would have to provide the final design assessment, this placed a heavy potential burden
of the project and get financial closure — i.e. on the State.
ensure the finance needed to implement the

28
 History RePPPeated

A dredging ship on the Magdalena River. These activities have had an impact on the environment. Photo: Asociación Ambiente y Sociedad

Transparency and public participation In addition, in the pre-construction phase

the company undertook activities associated
The contract and other related documents, including
with dredging between Barrancabermeja and
studies, are publicly available on the standard
Barranquilla. These activities had environmental
website “Colombia efficient purchase”178 [“Colombia
impacts caused by inappropriate placement of the
Compra Eficiente”]. However, Cormagdalena did not
sediments taken from the river, which risk drying up
share the project with local communities, CSOs or
the swamps, and negatively impacting biodiversity.
academia during the planning phase and as a result,
The drainage also negatively affected fishing
the project was subject to a range of complaints.179
communities, and the area of the land where peasant
The contract established that, during the execution farmers develop agricultural activities was reduced.
phase, Navelena had to set out and develop a
Some sources state that the construction of the
strategy for social dialogue and participation with
project would alter the river flow, which could impact
communities in the area of influence.180 During the
on thousands of fishermen and families, and risk
short time that project implementation actually
the food sovereignty of the coastal communities.
took place, Navelena organised some meetings with
The project seemed incompatible with fishing, given
coastal communities, but they were only informative.
that the main beneficiaries of the project would
be companies linked to coal and hydrocarbon. In
The impact of the project on local communities
addition, ecosystems such as swamps could be
Although the project never went into the negatively impacted as a result of changes in the
construction phase, there were actual or potential river flow, the speed and the volume of water.182
environmental and social impacts identified.
These impacts have to be added to the current
In December 2016 the Comptroller General’s
problems that the Magdalena River and its habitants
Office reported that, since Navelena changed the
face, such as the high level of pollution, the systematic
materials required for public works for cheaper
exploitation of its resources, deforestation, extensive
and lower quality materials, that would put the
farming and climate change.183
stability and durability of works at risk.181

29
 History RePPPeated

In the pre-construction phase the

company undertook activities associated
with dredging between Barrancabermeja
and Barranquilla. These activities had
environmental impacts.

The Odebrecht corruption scandal

LESSONS LEARNED
In 2015, when Navelena was working to get
financial closure for this project, former Odebrecht
CEO Marcello Odebrecht was convicted on • This PPP lacked transparency and suffered
corruption charges. By May of that year, Odebrecht from poor planning. The authorities were
was seeking to cede its stake in the project and, as not able to foresee the ecological, political,
a result, Cormagdalena gave multiple opportunities social or economic complexity of the
for either a change in the composition of the Magdalena River project, and did not take
consortium, or to confirm financial closure. into account the cumulative impacts of
individual works carried out.187
After a failed attempt to access a loan from
Sumitomo Mitsui Banking (Japan’s second largest
bank),184 financial closure never materialised, • This project still represents a threat to
and Cormagdalena declared the contract void fishing communities and their livelihoods.
on 24 March 2017. Colombian business regulator Therefore, it is necessary to monitor
Supersociedades started Navelena’s judicial its evolution and any conflict with
liquidation process in early 2018. communities.188

What about the future?

The current government is working to launch
another PPP to continue with the initial plans
for the river, which might imply revising how the
project was structured.185
The Colombian CSO Ambiente y Sociedad186 urges
the inclusion of social and environmental impact
assessments linked to project viability. In addition,
the contracts must include more stringent
and specific clauses on the identification and
management of risks.
It is important to evaluate the real cost of PPPs with
a system of accountability, access to information
and clear indicators to evaluate the impacts of PPPs
in all areas (financial, social and environmental).

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 History RePPPeated

9 By Vera Weghmann and Emanuele Lobina, Public Services International Research Unit

Jakarta’s Water Supply

The population of Jakarta might have had high hopes when private
Country companies Thames Water and Suez signed a PPP contract in 1997 to
Indonesia deliver the city’s water supply. Yet promises that 70 per cent of Jakarta’s
Region population would have piped water by 2002 were never realised.
Asia Instead, today most of the city’s population still has no access to clean,
Sector piped water and the public water utility PAM Jaya has suffered huge
Water financial losses. Meanwhile, the private sector companies that took
part in the PPP in 1997 have reaped financial rewards. As of 2018, both
Year original companies have sold either all or part of their stakes in the
1998
project — a project that has had far-reaching, negative consequences
Contract period for the citizens and government of Jakarta
25 years

The private sector: offering new hope for In 2007, the PPPs received the backing of
Jakarta’s water supply? international financial institutions. The World
Bank’s Global Partnership on Output-Based Aid
In 1991, the World Bank kicked off its plan
approved a US$5 million grant, to “(expand) access
to improve water services in Indonesia’s
to water services to low income households”,
capital, Jakarta, with a US$92 million loan for
and “(pilot) an innovative approach to ‘illegal’
infrastructure improvements.189 Consultants were
community service access”.194 The Asian
appointed to advise Jakarta’s water provider, PAM
Development Bank also approved a U$S50 million
Jaya, in a process that paved the way for private
private sector loan to partially fund its capital
sector involvement. The plan was presented as
expenditure programme for 2008-2012.195
a solution to the failure of Jakarta’s pubic water
delivery and unequal access.
Promises of a bright future
Following negotiations, in 1997 the supply
According to the World Bank,196 in 1996 PAM Jaya
of drinking water was handed to two private
recorded just 45.3 per cent tap water coverage,
operators, with whom PAM Jaya signed PPP
and 57 per cent of non-revenue water (water
contracts to provide water to both east and west
lost to leaks or stolen). For this reason, the
Jakarta (hereafter “Jakarta Water”). They were
PPPs had two main goals: (a) to expand service,
leading multinationals: France’s Suez and Britain’s
with an emphasis on poorer residents and
Thames Water,190 and the contracts became
neighbourhoods; and (b) to improve the quality of
effective from February 1998 for a 25-year period.
service in poor neighbourhoods and the overall
To enter the market, both companies brokered quality of the water.
deals with the political elite. Suez formed PT PAM
Ambitious targets were set: Jakarta Water
Lyonnaise Jaya (Palyja). Meanwhile Thames Water
committed to achieving universal coverage by 2023
created the company that would become Aerta Air
and to supplying clean water by 2007. The contract
Jakarta (Aetra). Both benefitted from favourable
required IDR 732 billion (US$318 million at the
contracts that were not put out for public tender.191
1997 exchange rate) over the first five years of the
Despite an attempt to take water back into the public project: to expand the existing pipeline; to add 1.5
sector, and a series of strikes, a new agreement million customers; to increase the water supply;
was signed in 2001. In 2006, Suez sold 49 per cent and to reduce non-revenue water. With these
of its shares to the Indonesian company PT Astratel additional customers, over 70 per cent of Jakarta’s
Nusantara and Citigroup Financial Products Inc.192 population would have access to piped water by
In the same year, Thames Water sold all shares to a 2002, and water losses were to be reduced to less
Singaporean-based company. 193 than 35 per cent by 2003.197

31
 History RePPPeated

Filling up at a pump station before delivering water to residents in Jakarta’s slums. Photo: Garry Andrew Lotulung/Pacifiv Press via Alamy

The PPP contracts established that the assets, the private partner against any risk from foreign
including network, treatment plants and exchange or interest rate movements, as they were
equipment, were transferred to the private compensated by the government.202
companies with the agreement that they would
Therefore, most economic benefits were to be
be returned by 2023, at the end of the concession.
reaped by the companies, and the risks were to be
The two private companies took charge of
borne by the government. The risks materialised
the raw water supply, cleaning the raw water,
during the Asian financial crisis, when PAM Jaya
pipe network and customer service. PAM JAYA
accumulated additional debt. Given that people
remained responsible for setting the tariff applied
were already facing rising costs, the Government
to consumers. For these services, it pays a “water
instructed PAM Jaya to hold tariffs steady for the
charge” to the two companies while customers pay
first three years of the contract.203 Meanwhile,
“water tariffs” to PAM Jaya.198
inflation spiralled to 120 per cent. PAM Jaya was
The partnerships lacked transparency and squeezed on both sides — unable to increase
accountability from the start. The contracts did tariffs, while having to make grossly increased
not grant PAM Jaya access to the consortium’s payments to the private operators, which meant
financial records, undermining its ability to that taxpayers subsidised tariffs. Finally, PAM Jaya
oversee implementation of the PPPs.199 They were broke with Government policy and increased tariffs
also hidden from public sight until 2013 when the three times in under three years.204 From 1998,
Jakarta Government considered terminating the water tariffs increased 10 times, amounting to a
contracts with the private providers.200 300 per cent increase.205
The contracts resulted in significant losses for PAM
Broken promises: the financial cost
Jaya, paid for by taxpayers. In 2011, the financial
The contracts were designed to be lucrative for loss of PAM Jaya was IDR 154.3 billion (US$18
the private partners. Jakarta Water received a fee million), in addition to a significant decrease in the
based on volume of water supplied, and calculated value of assets.206 The President of PAM Jaya is
on a rate of return of 22 per cent.201 This provided quoted as saying the PPP contracts “would sink the
a guaranteed profit, and protected them against public water utility into huge financial losses (up to
the uncertainties of raising water tariffs. The IDR 18.2 trillion [US$2.4 billion]) if the cooperation
contract also included a “management know-how” agreement continued as planned until its expiry
fee to the parent companies, and a safeguard for date in 2022”.207

32
 History RePPPeated

The consequences for the people of Jakarta This is despite success stories showing public
water supplies can work. Surabaya, the second
According to the Amrta Institute for Water
largest city in Indonesia, has a public water supply
Literacy, PAM Jaya says the service coverage
covering 95.5 per cent of the population in 2016 —
ratio in 2013 was targeted for 66.37 per cent, but
twice as much as Jakarta Water221 — and water is
Jakarta Water reached only 59.01 per cent. The
much cheaper. The Amrta Institute has calculated
leakage level is 44 per cent, while the Interior
that the average price of water in Jakarta is triple
Ministry’s regulation specifies that it should not be
that of Surabaya.222 Surabaya accumulated a net
higher than 20 per cent. 208
profit of over US$14 million (IDP 280 billion) in
To make matters worse, the poorest continue to 2017.223 Lobina and Hall (2013) have also shown
miss out. Only 25 per cent of new connections that public operations enjoy an advantage over the
between 1998 and 2004 were to low-income private sector.224
households. In 2003, over 85 per cent of
networked connections were for middle and rich
households.209 Although PAM Jaya implemented a LESSONS LEARNED
subsidy to lower the monthly bill of poor families,
this was still not always affordable. Residents
• The PPPs for the provision of water in
often rely on groundwater from community wedge
Jakarta represent a threat to public
wells, or buy water in jerry cans, which can cost as
finances, equality and democracy. On
much as half a person’s daily income.210
9 October 2017,225 a Supreme Court ruling
People covered by the piped water network are not ordered the end of the project, and the
free of challenges. Cuts are frequent and in 2013 return of the water services to the public
nearly 40,000 complaints were registered about water utility, PAM Jaya, as the private
water deficiencies.211 Also, the water often smells, companies “failed to protect” residents’
causes skin irritations and is sometimes muddy.212 human right to water.226
Consequently, hotels and wealthier residents have
taken to digging their own private deep wells to get • Experience in Indonesia’s second biggest
pure ground water.213 This is serious, as it means city, Surabya, shows that public water
Jakarta is sinking faster than any other big city on services can be significantly cheaper and
the planet. 214 Forty per cent of the city is already accessible to all.
below sea level. In one decade, North Jakarta,
which is home to millions of residents, could be
under water.215 The excessive use of groundwater
used by the poorer residents is also a major public
health issue, because it is dirty and highly polluted
due to the lack of an adequate sewerage system.216
Most economic benefits
The future of Jakarta’s water — Is there an
alternative to PPPs? were to be reaped by the
For decades, trade unions and civil society
groups have demanded that water management
companies, and risks
should be returned to public ownership.217 After
years of litigation, the Indonesian Supreme Court
borne by the government.
ordered the termination of water privatisation and
restoration of public management to ensure the
human right to water.218 However, it has not issued
a clear order to cancel the agreement.219
Meanwhile, the private company Moya Indonesia,
which now owns Aetra, recently acquired two water
PPPs in the surrounding areas of Jakarta — Bekasi
and Tangerang — for 25 years. Moya Indonesia aims
to renegotiate Aetra’s Jakarta contract into a Build,
Operate and Transfer contract, which presumably
will also be for a long duration.220

33
 History RePPPeated

10 By Gaurav Dwivedi, Centre for Financial Accountability

Khandwa Water Supply Augmentation Project

A PPP agreement to construct, operate, maintain and supply municipal

Country water in the small Indian town of Khadwa has proved very controversial.
India First, the local community was never consulted on the project, and a public
Region outcry ensued when information was finally shared. Second, there have
Asia been serious delays in the construction and operation of water provision.
Sector And third, the public purse has been — and could in future be — hit hard.
Water A strongly worded report by an independent committee raised serious
concerns and recommended that the town’s water supply services should
Year be handed over to public ownership. But this has yet to happen.
2009
Contract period
25 years

The PPP contract also raised money in the form of equity from two
investment funds: Axis Private Equity Ltd. and New
India saw one of its first water and wastewater
Enterprise Associates.230
PPP contracts signed in 2009. The PPP was to
construct, operate and maintain the municipal The estimated internal rate of return for the
water supply in Khadwa, a small town in the state project is 12 per cent. According to the contract,
of Madhya Pradesh. The contract was signed the company would recoup its own costs and the
between Khandwa Municipal Corporation (KMC) estimate return through residents’ payments.
and Vishwa Infrastructure and Services Pvt. Ltd
(Vishwa), a Hyderabad-based water service private Losses to the public purse — present and future
company. It is a “build-own-operate-transfer” PPP
The project has been costly to the public sector,
under a central government scheme called Urban
and therefore to citizens, mainly as a result of
Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small
the high government subsidy provided to the
and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT). The project was
PPP project. In addition, KMC also provided the
set to run for 25 years: two years for construction,
private company with support in administrative
which would commence in 2010, and 23 years for
clearances, technical and human resources.
operation and maintenance. The project would
supply 29 million litres per day to Khandwa’s Citizens have also been negatively impacted as
population (over 200,000 people) for domestic a result of costly meters that people will have to
consumption, increasing to 43 million litres per day pay for, as well as through water tariffs, and their
by the end of the contract period in 2034.227 regular revision. The contract stipulated that the
water tariff — set at US$0.22 per kiloliter (Rs 11.95/
The total agreed capital costs of the project
kl) — would increase by 10 per cent every third
were US$20.96 million, and the estimated annual
year but it can also be increased by the company
operation and maintenance cost was US$1.4
when there is a shortfall in revenue.231 The water
million. KMC — through UIDSSMT — provided
tariff revision would be done by a Price Review
US$15.54 million as a capital subsidy, while Vishwa
Committee that would include the accountant,
provided the remaining US$3.68 million. As a
auditor and engineer of the municipal corporation
result, the lion’s share of the project was financed
and representatives of the private company.
by public money. The investment made by Vishwa
Crucially, there are no people’s representatives
was in the form of equity (25 per cent) and debt (75
included in the committee, which resulted in
per cent),228 including a loan from the World Bank’s
unilateral control of Vishwa in the tariff revision
private sector lending arm, the International
process. As a result, if the private water supply
Finance Corporation (US$5 million also covered
rates are implemented, it is estimated that the
a water and wastewater project managed by the
households would have to pay around US$75 per
same company in the Kolhapur Town).229 Vishwa
year instead of US$12.232 At the time of signing

34
 History RePPPeated

CSOs campaigning about the water supply in Khandwa. Photo: Patrika Newspaper

the contract, unemployment in the town was high; contract. Water supply has partially commenced
35 per cent of the population was poor and the in only two wards of the municipal corporation
average per capita income was close to US$380 area — where the private operator is supplying
per year, according to an economic survey of the bulk water and the distribution is by the municipal
state in 2009-2010. corporation. However, it is difficult to estimate the
losses due to the delay in project execution.
There is also no obligation on Vishwa to maintain
service quality and performance. What is worse, as a According to a 2014 report by the World Bank,
result of the PPP contract, residents face significant which reviewed five water PPPs in India: “The
restrictions or prohibition on complaining against the KMC is partially financing the construction costs
company in case of poor service delivery.233 and must compensate the operator for persistent
customer defaults (50 percent under recoveries
The agreement also includes a clause on “no
that remain pending for a year). They also assume
parallel competing facility”. This means that
responsibility for change in scope, including
neither the state government, the municipal
expansion of facilities.”235
corporation nor anyone else, including the local
residents, would be allowed to use any other It further states that: “The risks to achieve financial
source for fulfilling their water needs. Not only this, sustainability are (i) the acceptability of consumer
the capacity of the already existing facilities could tariff, which will be tested only when the project
not be increased for public welfare or otherwise. commences operations, (ii) the ability of the city to
Importantly, around 65 per cent of households do implement tariff revisions as per the price escalation
not have a regular piped water connection and formulae agreed in the contract, and (iii) the ability
depend on public stand pots, tanker supplies and of the city to finance changes in scope and future
other sources of water.234 capital expenditure needs. This last risk is significant
because the city was unable to fund the increased
It is also possible that the project will result in
scope of the distribution network rehabilitation that
hidden costs. Local sources state that, although
led to a stalemate, which is not fully resolved. The
the project construction period was two years,
financial strength of the city is also weak and careful
even after almost a decade the project is not fully
planning will be required to meet future needs”.236
operational as per the terms and conditions of the

35
 History RePPPeated

A public outcry calling for the water supply to

LESSONS LEARNED
return to municipal authorities
In December 2012, KMC published the notification
• Development projects must be planned
called “Water Metering and Regularisation Rules,
through a democratic process and in
2012”, regarding the Vishwa water supply in town,
consultation with local populations.
and invited objections and comments from citizens.
The process should guide public policy
This was four years after the contract was awarded.
decisions, particularly when it comes to the
After a media campaign, and a door-to-door action
provision of public services such as water.
by citizens, more than 10,000 households filed their
objections against the project within a period of 30
• The implementation of PPPs supported by days. This was in a town where the total number
central government programmes depends of regular domestic water connections at that time
a lot on local municipal government was around 15,000.238
capacities and expertise regarding
Due to the significant number of objections, the
monitoring and regulation of such
Government of Madhya Pradesh (GoMP) formed a
projects. Without these, the authorities are
seven-member independent committee to look into
hampered in regulating and monitoring the
the objections and resolve them. The committee
private company and ensuring the timely
submitted its report to GoMP on 1 June 2013. The
execution and delivery of services.
report notes that changes in terms and conditions
and specifications of the project have been made
to benefit a specific private company. It also states
Lack of transparency, and of due process that there were serious irregularities committed by
the KMC in the selection of the private consultant
The contract documents and agreements were
for the project, and even in the tendering process,
not made publicly available when the project was
including issuing tenders only locally and not
planned, even though public disclosure and sharing
at the national level, and allowing changes to
of information are part of UIDSSMT guidelines.
specifications after tenders had been called.
Finally, under the Right to Information Act 2005,
they were made available. The other documents The report further notes that, despite objections
relating to assessments, analysis and performance and repeated reminders by official bodies such as
evaluation are still not in the public domain. the State Level Empowered Committee, the KMC
municipal commissioner did not heed its advice
Public consultations did not take place before the
and acted in the interests of the private company.
project began, as proposed under the guidelines.
It also points to the inefficiencies of the private
Even the leader of the opposition in the local
company and raises questions about how such
council stated during an interview that he was not
an inefficient company, which has not been able
aware of the full details and impacts of the PPP.
to complete a two-year construction phase after
The final project bid was approved by the Mayor-
four years, can be trusted to deliver an essential
in-Council (MIC), but this did not follow any debate
service like water for the next two decades.
in the KMC General Assembly. Therefore neither
local representatives nor the general public were It recommends that the PPP contract should be
involved in this phase. This leaves much to be cancelled and the water supply services of the
desired in terms of the concept of free, prior and town should be handed over to a public water
informed consent of the local people before a board. It also recommends that there should only
public welfare project is approved. be a municipal water supply, and that the number
of public standpipes should be increased in order
Several other significant decisions related to the
to support the right to water of the urban poor.239
preparation and approval of the water project were
taken by the MIC, bypassing the general body of Despite the strongly worded observations from
elected councillors in the municipal corporation. the government-appointed committee, the project
These included selecting the consultancy firm for remains operational.
preparing the ‘Detailed Project Report’ and other
project documents; approving the various targets
under the urban reforms programme; decisions
related to tender notification and changes in it;
and payments to the private company and the
consultant, among others.237

36
 History RePPPeated

Conclusions and recommendations

Around the world, PPPs are being put We found that:

forward as a way of plugging funding gaps All 10 projects came with a high cost for the
to help countries achieve the SDGs by public purse, an excessive level of risk for the
2030. PPPs are currently a much-favoured public sector and, therefore, a heavy burden
for citizens. For example, the Queen Mamohato
solution among many governments as a
Hospital in Lesotho has had significant adverse
way of leveraging private finance to fund and unpredictable financial consequences on
development projects such as building public funds. Latest figures suggest that in 2016
hospitals and other large scale projects, Tsepong’s ‘invoiced’ fees amount to two times the
or providing vital services such as energy “affordability threshold” set by the Government
and the WB at the outset of the PPP. Contributing
and water supply to vulnerable citizens
factors to cost escalation include flawed indexation
around the globe. of the annual fee paid by the government to
Tsepong (unitary fee) and poor forecasting.
As this report has shown, MDBs such as the WBG In Sweden, the total construction cost of Nya
have played a guiding role in providing advice and Karolinska Solna (NKS) hospital has rocketed —
finance for PPP projects in different sectors. from €1.4 billion to €2.4 billion — and has been
beset by technical failures. It is now kno’wn as the
This report offers an in-depth analysis of the
“most expensive hospital in the world”.
impact of 10 PPP projects based on evidence drawn
from projects across four different continents, in Every single PPP studied was riskier for the state
both the global north and global south. than for the private companies involved, as the
public sector was required to step in and assume
We analysed the impact of PPPs on the public
the costs when things went wrong. A significant
purse and on citizens of the countries in question
example is the case of Jakarta Water in Indonesia,
and, more generally, we reviewed whether PPPs
where two PPP contracts resulted in significant
have delivered results in the public interest. We
losses for the public water utility, PAM Jaya. In
also looked at the PPP process and the impact
2011, it reported a financial loss of US$18 million.
on democracy, equality and fundamental rights,
Estimates suggest that losses will eventually
including human, social and environmental rights.
total US$2.4 billion if the cooperation agreement
In the 10 case studies that we investigated, we continues as planned until its expiry date in 2022.
found that PPPs have failed on many different
Five of the 10 PPPs reviewed impacted negatively
levels — failures that have had a serious impact for
on the poor, and contributed to an increase in
citizens of the countries in question.
the divide between rich and poor. For instance,
Although we do not want to generalise our in the case of the Queen Mamohato Hospital in
conclusions, our findings do illustrate some of Lesotho, the increasing and inflexible cost of the
the most common problems PPPs are facing on PPP hospital comprised necessary investment
a global level. In our opinion, this evidence raises in primary and secondary healthcare in rural
serious red flags about the capacity of PPPs to areas where mortality rates are rising and
deliver results in the public interest. where three-quarters of the population live. In
Jakarta, Indonesia, the provision of water through
private operators (Jakarta Water) resulted in a
radical increase in its monthly bills, which are
unaffordable for many poor families. Residents
often rely on groundwater from community wedge
wells, or have to buy water in jerry cans, which can
cost as much as half a person’s daily income.
Three of the PPPs resulted in serious social and
environmental impacts. Poor planning and due
diligence accounts for some of these. For example,
on the Mundra coast in Gujarat, India, where a
thermal power station project has taken place,

37
 History RePPPeated

there were serious social and environmental This joint CSO report makes the following
violations from the outset. Following flawed impact recommendations to the WBG, the IMF and other
assessments, there has been a deterioration in public development banks, together with the
water quality and fish populations; community governments of wealthy countries that play a
health impacts are evident due to air emissions; leading role in these institutions:
access to fishing and drying sites has been blocked;
Halt the aggressive promotion and incentivising
forced displacement of fishermen has taken place.
of PPPs for social and economic infrastructure
This has also impacted on the life of women. Girls
financing, and publicly recognise the financial and
in particular have also been pulled out of school to
other significant risks that PPPs entail. 
perform physical and domestic labour to survive. In
Colombia, the PPP project designed to improve the Support countries in finding the best financing
navigability of the Magdalena River suffered from method for public services in social and economic
poor planning. Although the project never went into infrastructure, which are responsible, transparent,
the construction phase — it collapsed due to the environmentally and fiscally sustainable, and in
failure of the company to get the financing needed line with their human rights obligations. Prioritise
to implement it — the preliminary works carried out tax revenues, whilst augmenting them with long-
have already negatively affected the environment in term external, and domestic, concessional and
and around the river. non-concessional finance, where appropriate.
Nine out of 10 of the projects lacked transparency Ensure good and democratic governance is in
and/or failed to consult with affected communities, place before pursuing large-scale infrastructure
and undermined democratic accountability. The or service developments. This should be done
failure to publish contract details does not chime through informed consultation and broad civil
well with the risks that the public sector is forced society participation and monitoring, including
to take on. In the small Indian town of Khadwa, for by local communities, trade unions, and other
example, where a PPP was launched to provide stakeholders. Uphold the right to free, prior and
municipal water, it took four years to finally inform informed consent, and ensure the right to redress
the population about what was happening. More for any affected communities. The rights of
than 10,000 households filed objections against affected communities should be taken into account.
the project within a period of 30 days. This was in
Ensure that rigorous transparency standards
a town where regular domestic water connections
apply, particularly with regard to accounting for
totalled 15,000. In Liberia, where the government
public funds — the contract value of the PPP and
outsourced its public pre-primary and primary
its long-term fiscal implications must be included
schools, initially to Bridge International Academies
in national accounts. Contracts and performance
Ltd (BIA), the process was not competitive, local
reports of social and economic infrastructure
communities were not properly consulted, and there
projects should be proactively disclosed. The public
was not full transparency.
interest ranks higher than commercial interests.
All cases showed PPPs were complex to negotiate
Finally, we urge all those concerned with justice,
and implement, and that they required specific
equality, sustainability and human rights to resist the
state capacities to negotiate in the public interest,
encroachment of PPPs and to push instead for high-
including during the renegotiation process. In Peru,
quality, publicly-funded, democratically-controlled,
the renegotiation process to build a new airport
accountable public services. The wellbeing of our
through a PPP in Chinchero resulted in a change
communities and societies depends on it. 
to the entire funding structure of the project. After
a strong report from the Comptroller General
referring to economic damages for the state, and
in the midst of a national scandal over the project,
the Peruvian government finally had to cancel
the contract on the grounds of national interest.
The construction of a courthouse in Paris proved
so complex, costly and controversial that the
new French Justice Minister has decided that her
Ministry will never engage in a PPP again.
Three of the PPP contracts had to be cancelled due
to an evident failure in the process, including proper
due diligence to identify the possible impacts of the
project. For example, the Castor Project — feted as
Spain’s biggest offshore gas storage plant — was
halted after gas injections caused more than 1,000
earthquakes. Despite never being used, the Castor
Project has so far cost the public €3.28 billion, which
is currently set to be paid through increased gas bills.

38
 History RePPPeated

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1 The World Bank’s ‘Private Participation in Infrastructure Data- Development, available on https://www.cgdev.org/publica-
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It includes projects that are corporate-financed merchant 24 Ibid.
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4 Tina Rosenberg, ‘Liberia, Desperate to Educate, Turns to Char- 26 See http://globalinitiative-escr.org/wp-content/up-
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Liberia Ministry of Education, available on http://globalinitia- 28 Ibid.
tive-escr.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Open-Letter-re- 29 Ibid, and Tyler Hook, ‘Partnership Schools for Liberia: a critical
PSL-2017-04-14.pdf and ‘National Teachers’ Association of review’. Education International and ActionAid (July 2017),
Liberia (NTAL) and partners reject the Partnership Schools available on https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/LIBE-
for Liberia (PSL) program’: https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/ RIA18julyv7.pdf, p27.
WebDepot/LiberiaStatementNTALCSOsFinal.pdf. 30 Coalition for Transparency and Accountability in Education
5 Ibid. (COTAE), ‘Public Private Partnership in Education Monitoring
6 Bridge is the subsidiary of NewGlobe Schools Inc. registered Report’, (March 2017) available on http://bit.ly/2njVQWL, p7.
in Delaware, USA; see http://bit.ly/2m8UFIg. 31 Coalition for Transparency and Accountability in Education
7 More about Bridge available on: http://bit.ly/commerceduc. (COTAE), ‘Public Private Partnership in Education Monitoring
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9 ‘National Teachers’ Association of Liberia (NTAL) and partners 32 Education International, ‘Liberia: Uproar amongst academics
reject the Partnership Schools for Liberia (PSL) program’: as Ministry of education blocks independent research on pri-
https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/LiberiaState- vatisation’, available on https://www.ei-ie.org/en/detail/15174/
mentNTALCSOsFinal.pdf. liberia-uproar-amongst-academics-as-ministry-of-educa-
10 ‘UN rights expert urges Liberia not to hand public education tion-blocks-independent-research-on-privatisation.
over to a private company’, available on http://bit.ly/2vOxf1U. 33 ‘The Ministry of Education underscores the urgency and
11 Details on the distribution of schools available on http://glo- importance to transform the Education System of Liberia fol-
balinitiative-escr.org/advocacy/privatization-in-education-re- lowing the recent WASSCE results’: http://moe.gov.lr/news/.
search-initiative/education-privatisation-in-liberia/#1. 34 ‘An Open Letter To George Werner, Minister Of Education, Libe-
12 Graham Brown-Martin, ‘Liberia: Education Reimagined’, ria’, June 2017. Available at https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/
https://medium.com/learning-re-imagined/liberia-educa- WebDepot/AN_OPEN_LETTER_TO_GEORGE_WERNER.pdf.
tion-reimagined-7dfd08baf3bc. 35 Tyler Hook, ‘Partnership Schools for Liberia: a critical review’.
13 Susannah Hares and Justin Sandefur, ‘“Trying Small”: Libe- Education International and ActionAid (July 2017), available
ria’s Bold Education Experiment’, (August 2016) available on on https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/
https://www.cgdev.org/blog/trying-small-liberias-bold-edu- LIBERIA18julyv7.pdf, pp27-28.
cation-experiment. 36 Mauricio Romero, Justin Sandefur and Wayne Aaron
14 PSL Evaluation Frequently Asked Questions available on Sandholtz, ‘Can Outsourcing Improve Liberia’s Schools? Pre-
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1vVjmyuseF-3h3Exg- liminary Results from Year One of a Three-Year Randomized
ZQ4Vp7IbASUQcXnfavzKZomvvbY/edit. Evaluation of Partnership Schools for Liberia’. CGD Working
15 Government of Liberia, ‘Partnership Schools for Liberia’, Paper 462. September 2017, Washington, DC: Center for Global
(February 2017), available on http://bit.ly/2nLneOn. Development, available on https://www.cgdev.org/publica-
16 ‘Ashes to classes: Liberia’s bold experiment in school reform’, tion/partnership-schools-for-liberia, p11.
available on https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-af- 37 Ibid, p 10.
rica/2017/02/23/liberias-bold-experiment-in-school-reform. 38 Coalition for Transparency and Accountability in Education
17 Letter to Hon. Minister George K. Werner, Liberia Minis- (COTAE), ‘Public Private Partnership in Education Monitoring
try of Education, available on http://globalinitiative-escr. Report’, (March 2017) available on http://bit.ly/2njVQWL, p14.
org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Open-Letter-re- 39 Ibid, p15.
PSL-2017-04-14.pdf. 40 See http://sterlingandwilson.com/offerings/electrical/fea-
18 ‘Bridge awarded 43 more schools in Liberia’, available on: tured-projects/cgpl-mundra/.
http://www.bridgeinternationalacademies.com/news-opin- 41 See https://www.tatapower.com/businesses/cgpl-mundra/
ions/bridge-awarded-43-more-schools-in-liberia/. overview.aspx and http://cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/
19 All annexes and available on http://moe.gov.lr/partner- umpp/progress_report_umpp.pdf
ship-schools-for-liberia/. 42 See http://cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/umpp/prog-
20 ‘National Teachers’ Association of Liberia (NTAL) and ress_report_umpp.pdf.
partners reject the Partnership Schools for Liberia (PSL) 43 See https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/
program’: https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/ power/tpc-announces-financial-closure-of-mundra-project/
LiberiaStatementNTALCSOsFinal.pdf articleshow/2980723.cms.
21 See http://ncspe.tc.columbia.edu/working-papers/WP235.pdf. 44 Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), a
22 See http://ncspe.tc.columbia.edu/working-papers/WP235.pdf. key regulator of the power sector in India, is a statutory
23 Mauricio Romero, Justin Sandefur and Wayne Aaron body functioning with quasi-judicial status under section 76 of
Sandholtz, ‘Can Outsourcing Improve Liberia’s Schools? Pre- the Electricity Act 2003. CERC was initially constituted on 24
liminary Results from Year One of a Three-Year Randomized July 1998 under the Ministry of Power’s Electricity Regula-
Evaluation of Partnership Schools for Liberia’, CGD Working tory Commissions Act, 1998 for rationalisation of electricity
Paper 462. September 2017, Washington, DC: Center for Global tariffs, transparent policies regarding subsidies, promotion of

39
 History RePPPeated

efficient and environmentally benign policies, and for matters Complaints mechanism.
connected to Electricity Tariff regulation. CERC was instituted 72 With valuable contributions from Fredrik Mellgren, Henrik
primarily to regulate the tariff of Power Generating companies Ennart and Penny Davies.
owned or controlled by the government of India, and any other 73 See https://ec.europa.eu/health/expert_panel/sites/expert-
generating company that has a composite scheme for power panel/files/ppp_finalreport_annexes_en.pdf.
generation and interstate transmission of energy, including 74 See https://ec.europa.eu/health/expert_panel/sites/expert-
tariffs of generating companies. panel/files/ppp_finalreport_annexes_en.pdf.
45 See http://cercind.gov.in/03022007/No_18-2007.pdf. 75 See https://www.svd.se/stora-likheter-med-nya-karolinska;
46 See https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/ and https://www.svd.se/djup-kris-for-nya-karolinskas-stors-
power/tata-adani-cant-charge-compensatory-tariff-su- ta-forebild.
preme-court/articleshow/58135620.cms. 76 See https://ec.europa.eu/health/expert_panel/sites/expert-
47 See https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/ panel/files/ppp_finalreport_annexes_en.pdf.
tata-power-offers-to-sell-51-of-mundra-plant-for-1/arti- 77 See https://www.svd.se/regeringen-forsokte-stop-
cle9732822.ece. pa-nya-karolinska.
48 See https://www.livemint.com/Industry/WxS658YTKjcCM- 78 See http://www.eib.org/en/projects/loan/loan/20090436.
lDlA14U7I/Gujarat-govt-forms-committee-to-help-troubled- 79 See https://www.nib.int/who_we_are/news_and_media/arti-
power-plants.html. cles/217/new_karolinska_to_become_one_of_the_world_s_
49 See https://www.business-standard.com/article/econo- most_advanced_hospitals.
my-policy/high-powered-committee-on-stressed-power- 80 See http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1020777/
plants-to-meet-procuring-states-118072001089_1.html and FULLTEXT02.
https://thewire.in/energy/gujarat-govt-panel-tata-adani-es- 81 See https://www.nib.int/who_we_are/news_and_media/arti-
sar-power-plants-npas. cles/217/new_karolinska_to_become_one_of_the_world_s_
50 See http://www.cao-ombudsman.org/cases/document-links/ most_advanced_hospitals.
documents/CAOAuditReportC-I-R6-Y12-F160.pdf. 82 All values converted from Swedish Krona in September 2018.
51 See https://lnadbg4.adb.org/dir0035p.nsf/attachments/Mun- 83 See http://ordfrontforlag.se/ordfront_bok/
dra-CRPFinalReport-7Apr2015.pdf/$FILE/Mundra-CRPFinal- sjukt-hus-om-nya-karolinska-svindlerierna-skandaler-
Report-7Apr2015.pdf. na-och-sjukvardskrisen-i-stockholm/.
52 See http://www.cao-ombudsman.org/cases/document-links/ 84 See https://www.svd.se/nya-karolinska-har-ar-svds-avslo-
documents/CAOAuditReportC-I-R6-Y12-F160.pdf. janden-wc45#sida-2.
53 See https://lnadbg4.adb.org/dir0035p.nsf/attachments/Mun- 85 See https://www.svd.se/nya-karolinska-har-ar-svds-avs-
dra-CRPFinalReport-7Apr2015.pdf/$FILE/Mundra-CRPFinal- lojanden-wc45#sida-2 and https://www.svd.se/hem-
Report-7Apr2015.pdf. lig-kalkyl-slutnotan-for-nya-karolinska-okar.
54 ADB, ‘Mundra Ultra Mega Power Project: Quarterly Environ- 86 See https://www.svd.se/nya-karolinska-tio-miljarder-kro-
mental and Social Monitoring Report,’ July-September 2017. nor-dyrare-att-bygga.
See: https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/ind-41946- 87 See https://www.svd.se/hemlig-kalkyl-slutnotan-for-nya-kar-
014-esmr-5. olinska-okar/om/nya-karolinska.
55 See http://thecorner.eu/spain-economy/the-castor-project- 88 See https://ec.europa.eu/health/expert_panel/sites/expert-
spaniards-are-paying-for-the-failure-of-this-gas-storage-in- panel/files/003_assessmentstudyppp_en.pdf.
stallation/69669/. 89 See https://mundus-international.com/karolinska-hospi-
56 ‘Informe sobre el sector energético español Parte II. Medidas tal-board-resigns/.
para garantizar la sostenibilidad económico-financiera 90 See https://www.svd.se/svd-avslojar-konsulter-fick-makten-
del sistema gasista’: https://sie.fer.es/recursos/richImg/ over-nks.
doc/17187/20120309_PII_DEFICIT_GAS.pdf. 91 See https://www.thelocal.se/20180207/finance-minis-
57 ‘Planificación de los sectores de electricidad y gas 2002-2001’, ter-calls-for-new-karolinska-hospital-inquiry.
(pp254): http://www.mincotur.gob.es/energia/planificacion/ 92 See https://www.svd.se/s-lovar-stopplag-mot-ops-avtal-i-
Planificacionelectricidadygas/desarrollo2002-2011/Docu- sjukvarden/om/nya-karolinska, and https://mundus-interna-
ments/PLANeNERGETICA.pdf. tional.com/karolinska-hospital-board-resigns/.
58 The Public-Private Partnerships Law Review - Edition 4: 93 See https://www.svd.se/melvin-samsom-avgar-som-sjukhu-
https://thelawreviews.co.uk/edition/the-public-private-part- sdirektor-pa-karolinska.
nerships-law-review-edition-4/1168081/spain. 94 See https://www.icij.org/investigations/luxembourg-leaks/
59 See http://www.eib.org/en/products/blending/project-bonds/ controversial-swedish-hospital-partnership-has-luxem-
index.htm. bourg-links/.
60 See http://www.eib.org/en/infocentre/press/releases/ 95 See https://www.svt.se/ug/new-karolinska-ad-
all/2013/2013-117-eib-welcomes-first-successful-use-of-pro- vanced-tax-scheme-in-luxembourg.
ject-bond-credit-enhancement-and-provides-eur-500m-for- 96 See https://www.svd.se/vi-kommer-att-ha-standig-kris; and
castor-energy-storage-project-in-spain. https://www.svd.se/toppchef-hoppar-av-nks-inte-patientsa-
61 See https://www.vozpopuli.com/upload/Manuel_Lopez/ kert; https://www.svd.se/lakare-nks-ar-ett-fuskbygge-med-
LX000000002098878251.pdf. bedrovlig-standard.
62 Article 14 of Royal Decree 855/2008 of 16 May 2008. See: 97 See https://www.svd.se/vi-kommer-att-ha-standig-kris.
https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2008/06/05/pdfs/A26051- 98 See https://www.regeringen.se/pressmeddelanden/2018/02/
26052.pdf. statlig-granskning-med-anledning-av-fallet-nya-karolins-
63 See https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2012/12/29/pdfs/ ka-solna/.
BOE-A-2012-15707.pdf. 99 See https://www.regeringen.se/rattsliga-dokument/
64 See https://www.eldiario.es/economia/TC-inconstitucio- kommittedirektiv/2018/02/offentlig-privat-samver-
nal-indemnizacion-almacen-Castor_0_721278546.html; kan-styrning-och-kontroll/ and https://www.regeringen.se/
https://www.tribunalconstitucional.es/NotasDePrensaDocu- pressmeddelanden/2018/02/fakta-pa-bordet-i-fallet-nya-
mentos/NP_2017_110/2014-7848STC.pdf. karolinska--sa-det-aldrig-sker-igen/. See also the Committee
65 See https://casocastor.net/castor-case/ and http://www.eib. Directive: https://www.regeringen.se/rattsliga-dokument/
org/en/about/accountability/complaints/cases/castor-under- kommittedirektiv/2018/02/offentlig-privat-samverkan-styrn-
ground-gas-storage.htm. ing-och-kontroll/.
66 AASS Castor, Secretaria de Estado de Energia. 17 February 100 See https://www.thelocal.se/20180207/finance-minis-
2012. Ministerio de Industria, Energia y Turismo. ter-calls-for-new-karolinska-hospital-inquiry.
67 See https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2008/06/05/pdfs/A26051- 101 See https://www.svd.se/lakare-nks-ar-ett-fuskbygge-med-
26052.pdf. bedrovlig-standard.
68 Arantza Ugalde, ‘Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental’ (SGEA/ 102 Tsepong is a special purpose vehicle owned by five com-
SHG;Ref.: GAD13/05), 2005. panies: Netcare Limited (40%); Excel Health (20%); Af-
69 See https://elpais.com/sociedad/2013/10/07/actuali- ri’nnai (20%); Women Investment Company (10%); and D10
dad/1381181311_736995.html. Investments (10%). The majority of Tsepong (60%) belongs to
70 See http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/gobierno/news/ companies outside Lesotho.
Paginas/2017/20170504-castor.aspx. 103 ‘Public-Private Partnerships, Financial Extraction and the
71 EIB Conclusions Report. Castor Underground Gas Storage. Growing Wealth Gap: Exploring the connections Presentation

40
 History RePPPeated

at Manchester Business School’, Centre for Research on 122 The World Bank also refers to this as an issue that must be
Socio-Cultural Change (CRESC) www.cresc.ac.uk, 31 July resolved. See: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/leso-
2014. Nicholas Hildyard. The Corner House. http://www. tho/brief/lesotho-health-network-ppp.
thecornerhouse.org.uk/sites/thecornerhouse.org.uk/files/ 123 World Bank, ‘Implementation completion and results report
PPPs%20-%20Financial%20Extraction%20-%20Wealth%20 on a grant in the amount of $6.25 million to the Kingdom of
Gap%20minus%20photos.pdf – and https://www.pwc.com/gx/ Lesotho for a new hospital PPP project’, (p104403) (Washing-
en/healthcare/mhealth/assets/pwc-health-system-innova- ton DC: World Bank Group, 2013).
tion-in-lesotho-complete-report-pdf.pdf. 124 T. Vian, N. McIntosh, A. Grabowski, B. Brooks, B. Jack and
104 A Partnership to Transform Health Care in Lesotho, IFC. E. Limakatso, ‘Endline study for Queen Mamohato Hospital
https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ Public Private Partnership (PPP)’ Final Report , September
ifc_external_corporate_site/news+and+events/news/lesotho- 2013, Centre for Global Health and Development, Boston
hospital. University, Department of Family Medicine, Boston University
105 M. Hellowell, ‘Delivering healthcare infrastructure and ser- and Lesotho Boston Health Alliance, Maseru http://devpolicy.
vices through public private partnerships – the Lesotho case’, org/pdf/Endline-Study-PPP-Lesotho-Final-Report-2013.pdf,
in NAP Gil, A Stafford & I Musonda (eds), Achieving Collective last accessed 1 April 2014.
Ends with Limited Resources: Africa’s Struggle to Bridge the 125 Oxfam, ‘A dangerous diversion: Will the IFC‘s flagship health
Infrastructure Gap. (Cambridge University Press, 2018). PPP bankrupt Lesotho’s Ministry of Health?’ Oxfam, 2014,
106 The Kingdom of Lesotho, New Referral Hospital Public Private https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-dan-
Partnership, Request for Best and Final Offers, 30 October gerous-diversion-lesotho-health-ppp-070414-en.pdf.
2007; and Tsepong (Pty) Ltd, Kingdom of Lesotho, ‘New Refer- 126 UNICEF and World Bank (2017).
ral Hospital Financial Model’, Financial Close Version 6.01. 127 This means that the hospital is at least 80 per cent compli-
107 Hellowell, M., 2018 op cit. ant with international standards. COHSASA, however, is not
108 Equity carries a higher expected rate of return than debt. A responsible for the ongoing month-by-month monitoring of
higher debt-to-equity ratio therefore reduces the opera- hospital performance.
tor’s weighted average cost of capital, thereby reducing the 128 The Lesotho PPP is clearly of high strategic importance to
required unitary fee. Netcare, a multinational corporation. At a presentation to
109 According to one key informant, by 2014 the Government investors in March 2012, Richard Friedland, CEO of Netcare,
had been charged late payment penalties amounting to an said of the PPP: ‘We see this [the Lesotho PPP] as the future of
estimated US$755,000. Oxfam 2014 op cit. healthcare delivery, not just on the rest of the African continent
110 Oxfam, ‘A dangerous diversion. Will the IFC‘s flagship health but in our own country [South Africa] as well.’ in Hellowell, M.,
PPP bankrupt Lesotho‘s Ministry of Health?’ (Oxfam, 2014), 2018. Another critical factor is that the government has the
https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-dan- right to terminate the PPP contract if the hospital does not ob-
gerous-diversion-lesotho-health-ppp-070414-en.pdf. tain and maintain accreditation with COHSASA, the Council for
111 T. Vian, N. McIntosh, A. Grabowski, B. Brooks, B. Jack and Health Service Accreditation of Southern Africa. This means
E. Limakatso, ‘Endline study for Queen Mamohato Hospital that the hospital is at least 80 per cent compliant with interna-
Public Private Partnership (PPP)’, Final Report, September tional standards. COHSASA, however, is not responsible for the
2013, Centre for Global Health and Development, Boston ongoing month-by-month monitoring of hospital performance.
University, Department of Family Medicine, Boston University 129 UNICEF and World Bank (2017).
and Lesotho Boston Health Alliance, Maseru, http://devpolicy. 130 See for example p191: http://api.ning.com/files/Iu-
org/pdf/Endline-Study-PPPLesotho-Final-Report-2013.pdf, matxx-0jz3owSB05xZDkmWIE7GTVYA3cXwt4K4s3Uy0NtP-
last accessed 1 April 2014. PRgPWYO1lLrWaTUqybQeTXIeuSYUxbPFWlysuyNI5rL6b2Ms/
112 UNICEF and World Bank, ‘Lesotho Public Health Sector Expen- PPPReferenceGuidev02Web.pdf
diture Review’, (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2017), https:// 131 ‘Les juteux «PPP» pour les prisons et les tribunaux, c’est fini’,
openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29344. Paris Match, 9 March 2018, https://www.parismatch.com/
113 The IFC have consistently cited the PPP cost to the govern- Actu/Societe/Les-juteux-PPP-pour-les-prisons-et-les-tribu-
ment net of VAT, but as is the case for many other items of naux-c-est-fini-1476353.
expenditure, the Ministry of Health must pay a rate for the 132 State Council, ‘Contrat de partenariat pour la construction du
contract that includes VAT. The IFC’s argument has been nouveau palais de justice de Paris’, 15 October 2014, http://
that VAT is ultimately returned to government. This doesn’t www.conseil-etat.fr/Actualites/Communiques/Contrat-de-
necessarily mean it gets returned to the Ministry of Health. partenariat-pour-la-construction-du-nouveau-palais-de-jus-
In addition, tax is paid on many aspects of MoH expenditure tice-de-Paris.
including income tax and corporation tax. 133 ‘Bouygues Construction signe le contrat du futur palais de
114 According to UNICEF and World Bank (2017), government justice de Paris’, 15 October 2012, Bouygues Group official
health expenditure in 2015/16 was M1.7bn. This is 2.7 times website, https://blog.bouygues-construction.com/fr/nos-in-
the 2006/7 health budget of M344m after adjusting for novations/bouygues-construction-signs-a-contract-to-build-
inflation. Source for 2006 budget: Bicknell, A et al (2010) the-new-paris-law-court-complexbouygues-construction-
Comprehensive, Quantitative, Utilization and Cost Baseline for signe-le-contrat-du-futur-palais-de-justice-de-paris/.
the Lesotho Health Sector, Boston University and the Lesotho 134 DIF Official website: https://www.dif.eu/homepage.
Boston Health Alliance. Source for inflation rates: https://data. 135 Law n° 2008-735 of 28 July 2008 on Public Private partner-
worldbank.org/indicator/FP.CPI.TOTL.ZG?locations=LS ships (LOI n° 2008-735 du 28 juillet 2008 relative aux contrats
115 Calculations used data provided in UNICEF and World Bank de partenariat), https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichLoiPub-
(2017). The upper amount considered affordable (M180.4 liee.do?idDocument=JORFDOLE000018113280&type=general.
million per annum excluding VAT) was set out in a ‘Request for 136 Senators Sueur and Portelli, Information Report N° 733 on
Best and Final Offers’ document in October 2007. Adjusting for public private partnerships , 2013-2014 Extraordinary Senate
inflation and including VAT this ‘affordable’ figure was M321.7 session, http://www.senat.fr/rap/r13-733/r13-7331.pdf.
million in 2015/16. In 2015/16 it is reported Tsepong invoiced 137 Audit Court, Report on the real estate policy of the Ministry
the Government of Lesotho an annual fee of M642 million. of Justice, December 2017, https://www.ccomptes.fr/
116 In the last year for which figures are available (2015/16), the sites/default/files/2017-12/20171213-rapport-immobilier-
Government paid just 80.5% of the invoiced fee from Tsepong. ministere-justice_0.pdf, p. 107 and 69
UNICEF and World Bank (2017). 138 Audit Court, ‘Ministry of Justice: Calling time on PPPs’, 13
117 See http://www.lestimes.com/tsepong-depletes-govt-cof- December 2017, https://www.ccomptes.fr/sites/default/
fers-moleleki/ files/2017-12/20171213-press-release-The-Ministry-of-
118 These charges are in nominal terms, with the base date Justices-real-estate-policy.pdf, p1.
defined as April 2007. The charges are adjusted annually 139 Audit Court, Report on the real estate policy of the Ministry
according to the inflation index. of Justice, December 2017, https://www.ccomptes.fr/
119 UNICEF and World Bank (2017). sites/default/files/2017-12/20171213-rapport-immobilier-
120 Oxfam, ‘A dangerous diversion. Will the IFC‘s flagship health ministere-justice_0.pdf, p94.
PPP bankrupt Lesotho‘s Ministry of Health?’ (Oxfam, 2014), 140 Audit Court, Report on the real estate policy of the Ministry
https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-dan- of Justice, December 2017, https://www.ccomptes.fr/
gerous-diversion-lesotho-health-ppp-070414-en.pdf. sites/default/files/2017-12/20171213-rapport-immobilier-
121 Ibid. ministere-justice_0.pdf, p92.

41
 History RePPPeated

141 Audit Court, Report on the real estate policy of the Ministry 163 See https://elcomercio.pe/politica/martin-vizcarra-renun-
of Justice, December 2017, https://www.ccomptes.fr/sites/ cia-mtc-dejar-efecto-contrato-chinchero-425052.
default/files/2017-12/20171213-rapport-immobilier-minis- 164 Consultation Law (No. 29785) “Ley del derecho a la consulta
tere-justice_0.pdf, p94. previa” (adopted 7 September 2011). Regulating Norm (Decre-
142 EPPJP, Contrat de partenariat, 15 February 2012, http:// to Supremo 001‐2012‐MC) “Reglamento de la Ley No. 29785”
thierryleveque.blog.lemonde.fr/files/2015/04/Contrat-de-par- (adopted 3 April 2012).
tenariat-EPPJP-1.pdf. 165 See http://bdpi.cultura.gob.pe/node/103#main-content.
143 Franck Johannès, ‘Nouveau palais de justice de Paris: 166 Estudio de Factibilidad, Anexo N°19, Sección 2. http://www.
le contrat sera renégocié’, Le Monde, 15 January 2013, proyectosapp.pe/modulos/JER/PlantillaStandard.aspx-
https://abonnes.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2013/01/15/ ?ARE=0&PFL=2&JER=7201.
nouveau-palais-de-justice-de-paris-le-contrat-sera-renego- 167 A paved road, 6 unclaimed roads, and 8 unmarked roads.
cie_1817074_3224.html. 168 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/RepositorioAPS/0/2/JER/
144 Michel Deléa, ‘Recours au Conseil d’Etat contre le PPP du futur SA_CHINCHERO_ESTUDIOS_PRE_NIVEL_FACTIVILIDAD/
Palais de justice de Paris’, Mediapart, 28 May 2014, https:// Vol%200_%20Aspectos%20generales%20e%20identifi-
www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/280514/recours-au- caci%C3%B3n.pdf.
conseil-detat-contre-le-ppp-du-futur-palais-de-justice-de- 169 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/RepositorioAPS/0/2/JER/
paris. SA_CHINCHERO_ESTUDIOS_PRE_NIVEL_FACTIVILIDAD/
145 Administrative Appeal, Court of Paris, Audience of 14 March Vol%201_%20An%C3%A1lisis%20de%20mercado.pdf.
2018, http://paris.cour-administrative-appel.fr/content/ 170 See https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/274/.
download/9954/29992/version/1/file/13pa02766-13pa02769- 171 See https://www.dosmanosperu.com/blog/nuevo-reglamen-
13pa02770.pdf. to-machu-picchu-peru/.
146 Audit Court, Report on the Real Estate Policy of the Ministry 172 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/RepositorioAPS/0/2/JER/
of Justice, December 2017. https://www.ccomptes.fr/ SA_CHINCHERO_ESTUDIOS_PRE_NIVEL_FACTIVILIDAD/
sites/default/files/2017-12/20171213-rapport-immobilier- Vol%201_%20An%C3%A1lisis%20de%20mercado.pdf.
ministere-justice_0.pdf, p92 173 Informe de Auditoría N° 722-2017-CG/MPROY-AC.
147 https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2018/03/12/ 174 See https://icsid.worldbank.org/en/Pages/cases/casedetail.
trop-couteux-les-partenariats-public-prive-n-ont-plus-la- aspx?CaseNo=ARB/18/27.
cote_5269553_3224.html. 175 See http://lexuniversal.com/en/news/20288.
148 Jean-François Juéry , Emmanuel Monnet, Justine Coutard, In- 176 See https://peru21.pe/economia/aeropuerto-chinchero-se-
specteur des finances, Adrienne Brotons, Alban Hautier, under ra-construido-via-concesion-obra-publica-399428.
the supervision of Bruno Durieux, Report N° 2012-M-027 on 177 See https://elcomercio.pe/economia/peru/infiltra-corrup-
the Evaluation of Public-Private partnerships, December 2012, cion-concesiones-app-232651.
Finance Ministry, http://www.igf.finances.gouv.fr/files/live/ 178 See https://www.contratos.gov.co/consultas/detalleProceso.
sites/igf/files/contributed/IGF%20internet/2.RapportsPub- do?numConstancia=13-19-1390566.
lics/2012/2012-M-027.pdf. 179 Estrada, Valentín, ‘Analysis of the recovery project of navi-
149 Audit Court, ‘Ministry of Justice: Calling time on PPPs’, 13 gability of the Magdalena River. Regional Coalition for Trans-
December 2017), https://www.ccomptes.fr/sites/default/ parency and Participation’, 2017. See http://coalicionregional.
files/2017-12/20171213-press-release-The-Ministry-of-Jus- net/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/boletin_analisis_proyec-
tices-real-estate-policy.pdf. to_navegabilidad_rio_magdalena_odebrecht.pdf.
150 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/modulos/JER/Plantill- 180 PPP contract Nº001 of 2014. Annex 4. Social Management
aProyecto.aspx?ARE=1&PFL=2&JER=5897. Specifications https://www.contratos.gov.co/consultas/detal-
151 See https://www.nasdaq.com/markets/ipos/company/corpo- leProceso.do?numConstancia=13-19-1390566.
racion-america-airports-sa-1039182-85513. 181 Contraloría General de la República. 27 December 2016. Press
152 See https://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/company-offi- release No.224.
cers/AIH.LM. 182 See https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/impacto/articulo/
153 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/RepositorioAPS/0/2/JER/ obras-de-navegabilidad-del-rio-magdalena-amenazan-el-fu-
SA_CHINCHERO_ESTUDIOS_PRE_NIVEL_FACTIVILIDAD/ turo-de-los-pescadores/39663.
Vol_%20Resumen%20Ejecutivo.pdf. 183 See https://colombia2020.elespectador.com/opinion/la-deu-
154 The VfM methodology compares the costs of the PPP option to da-con-el-rio-magdalena.
the public sector works, taking into account the distribution of 184 See http://caracol.com.co/programa/2017/01/31/au-
risks in each option. dios/1485862211_821215.html.
155 For instance, the VfM methodology for projects co-financed 185 See http://www.portafolio.co/economia/infraestructura/el-
by the state establishes that the MEF recognises the use of gobierno-vuelve-a-revisar-la-app-del-rio-magdalena-520887.
qualitative criteria when there is not enough information to 186 See http://www.socialwatch.org/es/node/17811.
make the comparison. However, several experts interviewed 187 Observatorio de Conflictos Ambientales, ‘Infrastructure,
confirm that the use of a qualitative analysis is the general navigability and ports - Cormagdalena - Navelena - Magdalena
practice, and not the exception. See https://www.mef.gob.pe/ medium and low. Dynamic analysis of actors and actions’,
contenidos/archivos-descarga/Anexo_RM249_2014EF15_2. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2017. See http://conflic-
pdf. tos-ambientales.net/oca_bd/media_references/view/1634.
156 See http://www.proyectosapp.pe/RepositorioAPS/0/2/JER/ 188 Delvalle Quevedo, Rocío, ‘The Madgalena River Navigability
PC_AEROPUERTO_CHINCHERO/ACTA_DE_APERTURA_SO- Recovery Project as a generator of environmental conflicts
BRES_3_Y_ADJUDICACION_DE_BUENA_PRO.pdf. in the floodplain of the Magdalena River’, Master’s Thesis.
157 See https://gestion.pe/economia/empresas/kuntur-wasi-ex- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2017. See http://bdigital.
iste-garantia-us-80-mllns-caso-incumpliendo-chinche- unal.edu.co/56563/1/1032442236.2017.pdf.
ro-127439. 189 See http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
158 Proinversión had estimated an interest rate of 9.5 per en/893051468044100943/pdf/multi-page.pdf.
cent. See also: https://gestion.pe/blog/economia-aplica- 190 Harsano, A., ‘Water and politics in the fall of Suaharto’, Inter-
da/2017/05/la-adenda-de-chinchero.html?ref=gesr. national Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 12 March
159 See Informe de Contraloría General de la República, https:// 2012. Available at https://www.icij.org/investigations/water-
es.slideshare.net/MichaelMachacuayBaqu/informe-de-con- barons/water-and-politics-fall-suharto/.
tralora-de-chinchero. The Comptroller recommended 191 VOA, ‘Massive Water Privatization Program to End in Jakarta
denouncing 10 civil servants from the MTC, MEF and Ositran After 18 Years, 19 October 2017. Available at https://www.
due to incompatible negotiations. voanews.com/a/water-privatization-to-end-in-jakar-
160 D.L. 1224, Art. 22.1. https://www.proinversion.gob.pe/Reposi- ta/4077224.html
torioAPS/0/0/arc/ML_APP_DL_1224/DL%201224.pdf. 192 Colbran, N. ‘Piped Water in Jakarta: A Political, Economic or
161 The media leaked a picture of a manager of Andino Holding Social Good?’ In: Langford, M. et al. (eds) The Human Right to
participating at an event in which the party in office toasted Water: Theory, Practice and Prospects, 2017, p510.
the financiers at their election campaign. 193 Global Water Intel, ‘Thames continues Asian exit plan’, October
162 See http://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/iusetveritas/arti- 2006. Available at https://www.globalwaterintel.com/glob-
cle/view/19095 and https://gestion.pe/blog/economia-aplica- al-water-intelligence-magazine/7/10/general/thames-contin-
da/2017/05/la-adenda-de-chinchero.html?ref=gesr. ues-asian-exit-plan.

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194 World Bank: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ public-power-in-water-sector-might-not-work-well-89320.

en/661641468038719298/pdf/492900PAD0GPOB101OFFICIAL- 220 Interview with a shareholder in Moya in Jakarta on 27 July
0USE0ONLY1.pdf. 2018.
195 See https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-docu- 221 Pamungkas, A. et al, ‘A Conceptual Model for Water Sensitive
ment/79157/41913-014-ino-xarr.pdf. City in Surabaya’. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environ-
196 See http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ mental Science, 2017. Available at: http://iopscience.iop.org/
en/266251468039271153/pdf/multi-page.pdf. article/10.1088/1755-1315/79/1/012037/pdf.
197 See https://www.esc-pau.fr/ppp/documents/featured_proj- 222 PSI, ‘The Reliable Performance of Public Water Services’,
ects/indonesia.pdf. January 2015. Available at: http://www.world psi.org/sites/
198 Amrta Instiute, ‘Dried Water Tap, or Change’, March 2012. default/files/documents/research/fact_sheets_4_reliable_fi-
Available at http://amrta-institute.org/attachments/arti- nal.pdf; and Mongabay, ‘Babak Baru Pengelolaan Air Bersih
cle/150/Jakarta%20Water%20Privatization%20Today.pdf. Jakarta: Swasta atau Pemerintah?’ 10 April 2018. Available at
199 See https://www.esc-pau.fr/ppp/documents/featured_proj- https://www.mongabay.co.id/2018/04/10/babak-baru-penge-
ects/indonesia.pdf. lolaan-air-bersih-jakarta-swasta-atau-pemerintah.
200 PSI, ‘The Impact of Water Privatisation in Jakarta’, January 223 Perdana, D. ‘Profit PDAM Surya Sembada pada 2017 Mencapai
2015. Available at http://www.world-psi.org/sites/default/ Rp280 Miliar’ [Translated via Google translate], 14 Decem-
files/documents/research/fact_sheets_2_the_impact_final. ber 2017. Available at http://kelanakota.suarasurabaya.net/
pdf. news/2017/196950-Profit-PDAM-Surya-Sembada-pada-2017-
201 PSI, ‘The Unfair Cooperation Agreement on Water Privatisa- Mencapai-Rp280-Miliar.
tion’, January 2015. Available at http://www.world-psi.org/ 224 Hall and Lobina, ‘Water Privatisation and Remunicipalisation:
sites/default/files/documents/research/fact_sheets_3_the_ International Lessons for Jakarta’, 2013. PSIRU.
unfair_final.pdf. 225 See http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/04/12/what-
202 The Devil Shift in Water Privatization in Jakarta Ching Leong, you-need-to-know-about-jakartas-water-privatization.html;
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ropr.12138. TNI, Indonesian Supreme Court Terminates Water Privat-
203 See https://www.esc-pau.fr/ppp/documents/featured_proj- ization. Available at https://www.tni.org/en/article/indone-
ects/indonesia.pdf; and ‘Persistently Biased: The Devil Shift in sian-supreme-court-terminates-water-privatization
Water Privatization in Jakarta Ching Leong’, https://onlineli- 226 TNI, ‘Indonesian Supreme Court Terminates Water Privatiza-
brary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ropr.12138. tion’, 17 October 2017. Available at https://www.tni.org/en/
204 ‘The Devil Shift in Water Privatization in Jakarta Ching Leong’, article/indonesian-supreme-court-terminates-water-privat-
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ropr.12138. ization.
205 PSI, ‘The Impact of Water Privatisation in Jakarta’, January 227 For more details, see Gaurav Dwivedi, Rehmat, Manthan
2015. Available at http://www.world-psi.org/sites/default/ Adhyayan Kendra, Badwani (MP), ‘Private Water Supply
files/documents/research/fact_sheets_2_the_impact_final. Augmentation Project in Khandwa: A Study of Impacts of the
pdf Project’. Available at: http://www.manthan-india.org/wp-con-
206 Zamzami, I. and Ardhianie, N. ‘An end to the struggle? Jakarta tent/uploads/2015/04/Khandwa-book-FINAL.pdf.
residents reclaim their water system’, 2015. In: Kischimoto, 228 Financial Bid for Price Offer II – Khandwa Water Supply
S. et al. (eds.) Our Public Water Future, TNI, PSIRU, MSP and Augmentation Project submitted by Vishwa Infra to Khandwa
EPSU. Available at: https://www.tni.org/files/download/our- Municipal Corporation for Khandwa Water Supply Augmenta-
publicwaterfuture-1.pdf p43. tion Project, Dated – 2 February 2009.
207 Ibid. 229 See https://disclosures.ifc.org/#/projectDetail/SPI/30859,
208 Ibid. and ‘IFC lends $5M to Hyderabad’s Vishwa Infrastructures’. 14
209 See https://www.esc-pau.fr/ppp/documents/featured_proj- July 2011, https://www.vccircle.com/ifc-lends-5m-hydera-
ects/indonesia.pdf. bad%C2%92s-vishwa-infrastructures/ and ‘IFC Helps Improve
210 Zamzami, I. and Ardhianie, N. ‘An end to the struggle? Jakarta Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment Services in India’,
residents reclaim their water system’, 2015. In: Kischimoto, https://ifcextapps.ifc.org/ifcext/pressroom/ifcpressroom.
S. et al. (eds.) Our Public Water Future, TNI, PSIRU, MSP and nsf/1f70cd9a07d692d685256ee1001cdd37/0af7f28850aca7e-
EPSU. Available at: https://www.tni.org/files/download/our- 7852578cd002f3d82?OpenDocument.
publicwaterfuture-1.pdf. 230 See https://www.vccircle.com/ifc-lends-5m-hyder-
211 Ibid. abad%C2%92s-vishwa-infrastructures/ and https://www.
212 Interviews with various stakeholders in Jakarta 5-12 July vccircle.com/axis-private-equity-invests-15-million-vish-
2018, by Vera Weghmann. wa-infrastructures/.
213 See https://www.voanews.com/a/water-privatiza- 231 Financial Bid for Price Offer II - Khandwa Water Supply
tion-to-end-in-jakarta/4077224.html. Augmentation Project submitted by Vishwa Infra to Khandwa
214 Kimmelman, M. ‘Jakarta Is Sinking So Fast, It Could End Up Municipal Corporation for Khandwa Water Supply Augmenta-
Underwater’, The New York Times, 21 December 2017. Avail- tion Project, Dated – 2 February 2009.
able at https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/21/ 232 See http://www.remunicipalisation.org/print/Khandwa.
world/asia/jakarta-sinking-climate.html; and https:// 233 See http://www.manthan-india.org/wp-content/up-
www.voanews.com/a/water-privatization-to-end-in-jakar- loads/2015/04/Khandwa-book-FINAL.pdf.
ta/4077224.html. 234 See http://www.remunicipalisation.org/print/Khandwa.
215 Kimmelman, M. ‘Jakarta Is Sinking So Fast, It Could End Up 235 The World Bank, ‘Running Water in India’s Cities: A Review
Underwater’, The New York Times, 21 December 2017. Avail- of Five Recent Public-Private Partnership Initiatives’, Water
able at https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/21/ and Sanitation Program, The World Bank, 2014, Available
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216 Zamzami, I. and Ardhianie, N. ‘An end to the struggle? Jakarta dle/10986/17747/843840WSP0Box30tnership0Initiatives.
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