Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) has two parts:
Theorem (Part I).

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and define a function g: [a, b] → R by
𝑥
g(x) =∫𝑎 𝑓
Then g is differentiable on (a, b), and for every x ∈ (a, b),
g′(x) = f(x).
At the end points, g has a one-sided derivative, and the same formula holds. That is,
the right-handed derivative of g at a is f(a), and the left-handed derivative of f at b is
f(b).
Proof: This proof is surprisingly easy. It just uses the definition of derivatives and
the following properties of the integral:
𝑏
1. If f is continuous on [a, b], then ∫𝑎 𝑓 exists.
2. If f is continuous on [a, b] and c ∈ [a, b], then

𝑐 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓 + ∫𝑐 𝑓 = ∫𝑎 𝑓
3. If m ≤ f ≤ M on [a, b], then
𝑏
(b − a) m ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓 ≤ (b − a) M
Let x be a point in (a, b). (We just treat the case of x ∈ (a, b) since the endpoints can
be treated similarly.) If x ∈ (a, b), we shall show that g′ (x+) = g′ (x--) = f(x). Knowing
that the two one-sided derivatives exist and are equal, we can conclude that the
derivative exists and has this value. By definition,
𝑔(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑔(𝑥)
g′ (x+) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Property (1) assures us that g is well defined provided that h < b − x. Property (2)
allows us to simplify the numerator, since it implies that
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥 𝑥+ℎ
g (x + h) − g(x) = ∫𝑎 𝑓 − ∫𝑎 𝑓= ∫𝑥 𝑓. (1)
This is already great, since we only need to worry about f over the small interval [x,
x + h]. A picture is helpful here, but I don’t have time to include one in these notes.
Now recall the definition of a limit. We have to show that given any ϵ > 0, there is a
δ > 0 such that
| − 𝑓(𝑥)| ˂ ϵ (2)
ℎ
whenever 0 < h < δ. This is where we use the continuity of f at x. We know from
this that there is a δ such that |f (x′) − f(x)| < ϵ whenever |x′ − x| < δ. This means that
f(x) − ϵ < f (x′) < f(x) + ϵ.

for all such x′. We use this same δ our criterion for the limit in equation (2). Let us
verify that this works. Suppose that 0 < h < δ. Then on the interval [x, x + h], we
know that f is between f(x) − ϵ and f(x) + ϵ. By property (3) of integrals, it follows
that
𝑥+ℎ
(f(x) − ϵ) h ≤∫𝑥 𝑓 ≤ (f(x) + ϵ) h.
Since h > 0, we can divide both sides by h to conclude that
𝑥+ℎ
f(x) − ϵ ≤ 1/h∫𝑥 𝑓 ≤ f(x) + ϵ, i.e.,
f(x) − ϵ ≤ ≤ f(x) + ϵ
ℎ
This is exactly what we needed.
The left-handed derivatives are done in essentially the same way.
Theorem (Part II).

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b]. Suppose that F is continuous on [a, b] and
that F′= f on (a, b). Then
b
∫a f = F(b) − F(a).
Proof: Consider the function g in the previous theorem. Since g is differentiable

on [a, b] it is continuous there (including at the end points, where the one-sided
derivatives exist). We also know that g and F are differentiable on (a, b), and that
their derivatives are equal.
Recall that we had (as a consequence of the mean value theorem for derivatives) that
F and g differ by a constant. That is, there is a number C such that g(x) = F(x) for
all x ∈ [a, b]. Then
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
F(b) − F(a) = (g(b) + C) − (g(a) + C) = g(b) − g(a) = ∫𝑎 𝑓 -∫𝑎 𝑓 = ∫𝑎 𝑓
Applications:
The FTC as a reversal of the derivative process:
𝑥
The function F(x)= ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is often called an accumulation function because it
represents the accumulation of signed area (positive or negative) under the curve.
The Fundamental Theorem implies that the process of finding an accumulation
formula is the reverse of the process of finding a derivative. For this reason, the
𝑏
function F(x)= ∫𝑎 𝑓 dt is an antiderivative of the function f with a fixed lower limit
a.
Antidifferentiation can be thought of as the process of starting with a known
rate-of-change function and developing the quantity function. The slope graph of an
accumulation function graph is the original graph, but with a different input variable.
Figure 1.1 depicts the transformation of the representations of an original
function into an accumulation function and again back to the original function.
Figure 1.1: Conversion of graphs. Transformation of a function to an accumulation function and
back to the original function.
FTC in physics contexts:

The FTC is, arguably, among the most used mathematical tools in calculus-based
introductory, upper-division, and graduate-level physics. The reason for its
relevance in physics is due to the fact that many physics contexts deal with the
accumulation of physical quantities resulting from the rate of change of those
quantities. For example, displacement, potential difference, and impulse are the
consequences of the rates of change of position, potential, and momentum
respectively.
Example 1: Find
𝟑𝝅
𝟐
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒅𝜽.
𝝅
𝟐
Solution:
We already know this integral is 0 by the previous set of notes. But let’s compute
this using the First Fundamental Theorem. First, we need to find an antiderivative of
sin θ. But
∫ sin θ dθ = − cos θ + C,
so, we’ll use F(θ) = − cos θ in the fundamental theorem. (The fundamental theorem
only requires that we find some antiderivative, not the most general antiderivative,
so we don’t need to use the +C.) So,
3𝜋
2 3𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 . = F ( 2 ) − F (2 )
𝜋
2
3𝜋 𝜋
= − cos ( ) − (− cos ( ))
2 2
= −0 + 0 = 0,
consistent with the answer we obtained in the last set of notes.
We make two comments on the above example. First, what if we used a different
antiderivative? Could that have changed our answer? Fortunately, the answer is no.
The most general antiderivative is F(θ) = − cos θ + C, so if we used this, we would
have had
3𝜋
2 3𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = F ( 2 ) − F ( 2 )
𝜋
2
3𝜋 𝜋
= − cos ( )+C − (− cos ( ) +C)
2 2
= −0+ C + 0− C
= 0,
The C’s will always cancel off like this, so we don’t need the +C when computing
definite integrals. Second, we will find it convenient to write
𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏𝑎 = F(b) − F(a).

Thus, we could write
3𝜋 3𝜋
2 2
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐹(𝑥)| = . . ..
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
Example 2: Find
𝟒
𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 √𝒙
Solution:
First, we find an antiderivative:
1 1⁄
∫ dx = ∫ 𝑥 − 2 dx
√𝑥
1⁄
= 2𝑥 2+ C.
We’ll use 2√𝑥 as our antiderivative. Thus
4 1 4
∫1 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑥|1
√𝑥
= 2√4 – 2√1
=4–2
=2

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) has two parts:

Theorem (Part I).

2. If f is continuous on [a, b] and c ∈ [a, b], then

f(x) − ϵ < f (x′) < f(x) + ϵ.

Theorem (Part II).

Proof: Consider the function g in the previous theorem. Since g is differentiable

FTC in physics contexts:

𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏𝑎 = F(b) − F(a).

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