ENERGY AUDIT INSTRUMENTS

1. Watt Hour Meter

 Watt-hour meter is in fact a measuring device which can evaluate and records the electrical
power passing through a circuit in a certain time.

 By implementing the Watt-hour meter, we can know how much amount of electrical energy
is used by a consumer or a residence or an electrically powered device or a business.

 Electrical utilities install these meters at their consumer’s place to evaluate the electrical
usage for the purpose of billing.

 The reading is taken in each one billing period. Usually, the billing unit is Kilowatt-hour
(kWh).

 This is equal to the total usage of electrical energy by a consumer of one kilowatt during a
period of one hour and it is also equal to 3600000 joules.

 The Watt-Hour Meter is often referred as energy meter or electric meter or electricity meter
or electrical meter

 Mainly the watt-hour meter comprises of a tiny motor and a counter. The motor will operate
by diverting exact fraction of current which is flowing in the circuit to be measured.

 The running or turning speed of this motor is directly proportional to the amount of current
flow through the circuit. Thus, every revolution of the rotor of the motor is analogous to
the given quantity of current flow in the circuit.

 A counter is attached to the rotor to add and the usage of electrical energy is displayed from
the total number of rotor revolutions.
Tampering and Security
 Attaching a magnet outside of the old energy meter is the common tampering method seen.

 The use of the combination of some capacitance and inductive load also result in reduction
in rotor speed.

 The most modern meter can store up the previous value with time and date. So the
tampering is avoided.

 Utilities install remote reporting meters to detect tampering.

Types of Watt Hour Meter
Basically, the watt-hour meter is classified into three different types as follows:
1. Electromechanical type induction meter
2. Electronic energy meter
3. Smart energy meters
1. Electromechanical Type Induction Meter
 In this type of meter, a non-magnetic and electrically conductive aluminium metal disc is
made to revolve in a magnetic field.

 The rotation is made possible with the power passing through it.

 The rotation speed is proportional to the power flow through the meter.

 Gear trains and counter mechanisms are incorporated to integrate this power.

 This meter works by counting the total number of revolutions and it is relative to the usage
of energy.

 A series magnet is connected in series with the line and that comprises of a coil of few turns
with thick wire.

 A shunt magnet is connected in shunt with the supply and comprises of a coil of large
number of turns with thin wire.

 A braking magnet which is a permanent magnet is included for stopping the disc at the time
of power failure and to place the disc in position.

 This is done by applying a force opposite to the rotation of the disc.

 A flux is produced by the series magnet that is directly proportional to the current flow and
another flux is produced by the shunt magnet corresponding to the voltage.

 Because of the inductive nature, these two fluxes lag each other by 90o.

 An eddy current is developed in the disc which is the interface of the two fields. This current
is produced by a force that is corresponding to the product of instantaneous current, voltage
and the phase angle among them.

 A break torque is developed on the disc by the braking magnet positioned over one side of
the disc.

 The speed of the disc becomes constant when the following condition is achieved, Braking
torque = Driving torque.

 The gear arrangement linked with the shaft of the disc is implemented for recording the
number of revolution. This is for single phase AC measurement.

 Additional number of coils can be implemented for different phase configuration.

2. Electronic Energy Meter

 The major feature of the electronic meter other than power usage measurement is that it can
display the energy usage on a LED or LCD display.

 In some advanced meter, the readings can be transmitted to remote areas. It can also record
the amount of usage energy in on-peak hours and off-peak hours.

 In addition, this meter can record the parameters of supply and load like voltages, reactive
power used, instantaneous rate of usage demand, power factor, maximum demand etc.
3. Smart Energy Meter
 In this type of meter communication in both directions (Utility to the customer and
customer to the utility) is possible.

 Customer to the utility communication include parameter values, consumption of energy,

alarms etc. and utility to consumer communication include disconnect/reconnect
instructions, automatic meter reading system, upgrading of the software of the meter etc.

 Modems are implemented in this meter to make communications easy. Communication

system includes fiber cable, power line communication, wireless, telephone etc.
 Advantages of Different Types of Watt Hour Meter

Electromechanical
Electronic Energy Meter Smart Energy Meter
Energy Meter

Reduction in the need of visit for

Simple construction. Non-linear loads.
reading/taking monthly bills.

Accurate and precise

More robust. Tampering of meter can be avoided.
measurement.

Improvement in quality of
Reliable. Better accuracy.
electrical distribution.

Cost is low. Highly accurate Efficiency is high.

 2. DATA LOGGERS

 A data logger (also data logger or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data
over time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external
instruments and sensors.
 Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer).
 They generally are small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor,
internal memory for data storage, and sensors.
 Some data loggers interface with a personal computer, and use software to activate the data
logger and view and analyze the collected data, while others have a local interface device
(keypad, LCD) and can be used as a stand-alone device.
 Data loggers vary between general purpose types for a range of measurement applications
to very specific devices for measuring in one environment or application type only.
 It is common for general purpose types to be programmable; however, many remain as
static machines with only a limited number or no changeable parameters.
 Electronic data loggers have replaced chart recorders in many applications.
 One of the primary benefits of using data loggers is the ability to automatically collect data
on a 24-hour basis.
 Upon activation, data loggers are typically deployed and left unattended to measure and
record information for the duration of the monitoring period.
 This allows for a comprehensive, accurate picture of the environmental conditions being
monitored, such as air temperature and relative humidity.
 The cost of data loggers has been declining over the years as technology improves and costs
are reduced.
 Simple single channel data loggers cost as little as $25. More complicated loggers may
costs hundreds or thousands of dollars.

A data logger is a data acquisition system

Data loggers typically have slower sample rates.

A maximum sample rate of 1 Hz may be considered to be very fast for a data logger, yet very
slow for a typical data acquisition system.

Data loggers are implicitly stand-alone devices. This stand-alone aspect of data loggers implies
on-board memory that is used to store acquired data. Sometimes this memory is very large to
accommodate many days, or even months, of unattended recording. This memory may be
battery-backed static random access memory, flash memory or EEPROM. Earlier data loggers
used magnetic tape, punched paper tape, or directly viewable records such as "strip chart
recorders".

Data loggers range from simple single-channel input to complex multi-channel instruments.
Typically, the simpler the device the less programming flexibility.

The unattended and remote nature of many data logger applications implies the need in some
applications to operate from a DC power source, such as a battery.

Solar power may be used to supplement these power sources.

In many cases they are required to operate in harsh environmental conditions where computers
will not function reliably.

Applications

Data logger application for weather station

Applications of data logging include:

1. Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed / direction, temperature, relative
humidity, solar radiation)
2. Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water flow, water pH,
water conductivity)

3. Unattended soil moisture level recording

4. Unattended gas pressure recording

5. Offshore buoys for recording a variety of environmental conditions

6. Road traffic counting

7. Measure temperatures (humidity, etc.) of perishables during shipments.

8. Measure variations in light intensity

9. Process monitoring for maintenance and troubleshooting applications

10. Process monitoring to verify warranty conditions

11. Wildlife research with pop-up archival tags

12. Measure vibration and handling shock (drop height) environment of

distribution packaging.

13. Tank level monitoring

14. Deformation monitoring of any object with geodetic or geotechnical sensors controlled by
an automatic deformation monitoring system

15. Environmental monitoring

16. Vehicle testing (including crash testing)

17. Motor Racing

18. Monitoring of relay status in railway signalling

19. For science education enabling 'measurement', 'scientific investigation' and an appreciation
of 'change'

20. Record trend data at regular intervals in veterinary vital signs monitoring

21. Load profile recording for energy consumption management

22. Temperature, humidity and power use for heating and air conditioning efficiency studies
23. Water level monitoring for groundwater studies

24. Digital electronic bus sniffer for debug and validation

Examples

A flight data recorder (FDR), a piece of recording equipment used to collect specific aircraft
performance data. The term may also be used, albeit less accurately, to describe the cockpit
voice recorder (CVR), another type of data recording device found on board aircraft.

An event data recorder (EDR), a device installed by the manufacturer in

some automobiles which collects and stores various data during the time-frame immediately
before and after a crash.

A voyage data recorder (VDR), a data recording system designed to collect data from various
sensors on board a ship.

A train event recorder, a device that records data about the operation of train controls and
performance in response to those controls and other train control systems.

An accident data recorder (ADR), a device for triggering accidents or incidents in most kind of
land vehicles and recording the relevant data. In automobiles, all diagnostic trouble
codes (DTCs) are logged in engine control units (ECUs) so that at the time of service of a
vehicle, a service engineer will read all the DTCs using Tech-2 or similar tools connected to
the on-board diagnostics port, and will come to know problems occurred in the vehicle.
Sometimes a small OBD data logger is plugged into the same port to continuously record
vehicle data.

In embedded system and digital electronics design, specialized high-speed digital data logger
help overcome the limitations of more traditional instruments such as the oscilloscope and
the logic analyzer. The main advantage of a data logger is its ability to record very long traces,
which proves very useful when trying to correct functional bugs that happen once in a while.

In the racing industry, data loggers are used to record data such as braking points, lap/sector
timing, and track maps, as well as any on-board vehicle sensors.

Health data loggers:

A Holter monitor is a portable device for continuously monitoring various electrical activity of
the cardiovascular system for at least 24 hours.
Pyrometer

An optical pyrometer

A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a

surface.

It is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of
the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.

The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the
temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted by a body which is at least
red-hot.

Modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects,
down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux.

Principle

A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector.

The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector.

The output signal of the detector is related to the thermal radiation or of the target object
through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan-
Boltzmann constantan the emissivity ε of the object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the
pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers
(e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are placed in thermal contact
with the object, and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium.

Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin
filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot
gases.

The potter Josiah Wedgwood invented the first pyrometer to measure the temperature in his
kilns, which first compared the colour of clay fired at known temperatures, but was eventually
upgraded to measuring the shrinkage of pieces of clay, which depended on kiln
temperature Later examples used the expansion of a metal bar.

The first disappearing filament pyrometer was built by L. Holborn and F. Kurlbaum in
1901. This device had a thin electrical filament between an observer's eye and an incandescent
object. The current through the filament was adjusted until it was of the same colour (and hence
temperature) as the object, and no longer visible; it was calibrated to allow temperature to be
inferred from the current.

The temperature returned by the vanishing filament pyrometer and others of its kind, called
brightness pyrometers, is dependent on the emissivity of the object. With greater use of
brightness pyrometers, it became obvious that problems existed with relying on knowledge of
the value of emissivity. Emissivity was found to change, often drastically, with surface
roughness, bulk and surface composition, and even the temperature itself.

To get around these difficulties, the ratio or two-colour pyrometer was developed. They rely
on the fact that Planck's law, which relates temperature to the intensity of radiation emitted at
individual wavelengths, can be solved for temperature if Planck's statement of the intensities
at two different wavelengths is divided. This solution assumes that the emissivity is the same
at both wave lengths and cancels out in the division. This is known as the gray body
assumption. Ratio pyrometers are essentially two brightness pyrometers in a single instrument.
The operational principles of the ratio pyrometers were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and
they were commercially available in 1939.

As the ratio pyrometer came into popular use, it was determined that many materials, of which
metals are an example, do not have the same emissivity at two wavelengths.[8]For these
materials, the emissivity does not cancel out and the temperature measurement is in error. The
amount of error depends on the emissivities and the wavelengths where the measurements are
taken. Two-colour ratio pyrometers cannot measure whether a material’s emissivity is
wavelength dependent.

To more accurately measure the temperature of real objects with unknown or changing
emissivities, multi-wave length pyrometers were envisioned at the US National Institute of
Standards and Technology and described in 1992. Multi-wave length pyrometers use three or
more wavelengths and mathematical manipulation of the results to attempt to achieve accurate
temperature measurement even when the emissivity is unknown, changing, and different at all
wavelengths.

Pyrometer
Pyrometer, device for measuring relatively high temperatures, such as are encountered in
furnaces.

Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be
measured.

Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being measured.

Optical pyrometers, for example, measure the temperature of incandescent bodies by

comparing them visually with a calibrated incandescent filament that can be adjusted in
temperature.

In an elementary radiation pyrometer, the radiation from the hot object is focused onto a
thermopile, a collection of thermocouples, which generates an electrical voltage that depends
on the intercepted radiation.

Proper calibration permits this electrical voltage to be converted to the temperature of the hot
object.

In resistance pyrometers a fine wire is put in contact with the object. The instrument converts
the change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of the temperature of the object.

Thermocouple pyrometers measure the output of a thermocouple (q.v.) placed in contact with
the hot body; by proper calibration, this output yields temperature.

Pyrometers are closely akin to the bolometer and the thermistor and are used in thermometer

Basic types
Modern pyrometers come in various types and designs.

Some devices measure the full spectrum of emitted radiation, so they're called total radiation
or wideband pyrometers; they tend to use heat-based detectors such as thermopiles.

Narrow-band pyrometers capture a much smaller and more specific band of radiation, typically
using photocells. Exactly which radiation band you need to sample depends on the
temperatures (and materials) you're trying to measure.

Some pyrometers measure a single band of radiation and others can make more accurate
measurements by comparing two wavebands are called ratio pyrometers or two-colour
pyrometers.

Some pyrometers are designed to make quick one-off measurements, so they're shaped like
pistols, with built-in detectors, signal amplifiers, power sources, and temperature meters. You
point them at the object you want to measure and press the trigger.

Many industrial processes rely on constant, precise temperature measurements and control. For
those sorts of applications, handheld "pistol" pyrometers aren't suitable. Instead, optical
fibres (or similar light guides), permanently fitted to whatever machine or process they're
monitoring, are used to gather radiation from a hot area and channel it to a remote detector,
typically connected to some sort of electronic control system that automatically regulates the
overall process.

Applications

Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that
cannot be reached or cannot be touched.

Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and

continuous measurement of the metal temperature is essential for effective control of the
operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimum temperature,
fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened.
Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for
continuous measurement because they melt and degrade.

Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300 °C and are used for heat treatment. At
very high working temperatures with intense heat transfer between the molten salt and the steel
being treated, precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the molten salt. Most
errors are caused by slag on the surface which is cooler than the salt bath.

A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam temperature in
the superheater.

A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the temperature at the top of the
envelope in order to prevent overheating of the fabric.

Pyrometers may be fitted to experimental gas turbine engines to measure the surface
temperature of turbine blades. Such pyrometers can be paired with a tachometer to tie the
pyrometer output with the position of an individual turbine blade. Timing combined with a
radial position encoder allows engineers to determine the temperature at exact points on blades
moving past the probe.