Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Contents

1. Review of classical free electron theory

2. Drawbacks of the classical free electron theory
a. Temperature dependence of resistivity
b. Specific heat of electrons in a metal
c. Conductivity variations with electron concentrations
3. Concepts of quantum free electron theory
4. Fermi Dirac statistics and Fermi factor
5. Density of states of valence electrons in a metal
6. Merits of the quantum free electron theory and short comings
a. Temperature dependence of resistivity
b. Specific heat of electrons in a metal
c. Wiedemann-Franz law
d. Hall effect in certain metals
7. Bloch Theorem and Electron wave functions in a periodic potential
8. Origin of energy bands – metals insulators and semiconductors
9. Effective mass of charge carriers.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

1 Basics of CFET, expressions for electrical parameters

Drude and Lorentz proposed the classical free electron theory of electrical conductivity of metals
(as early as 1904). The model of conductivity of free electrons is based on the following
assumptions:

(1) The valence electrons of the atoms of the metal

contribute to the conduction process either electrical or
thermal. The electrons move in an array of ion cores
(which are nuclei surrounded by inner electrons excluding
the valance electrons). All the valance electrons are free
electrons and are treated as conduction electrons which
are in a state of random motion (like the molecules in an
ideal gas).

(2) The effect of positive ion cores on the electrons is considered to be constant and hence
neglected.

(3) The electrostatic repulsion between the electrons is neglected.

(4) The electrons in the metal are considered equivalent to molecules in a gas and the gas
laws are made applicable to the electrons in a metal. Accordingly, the distribution of
energy and velocity is assumed to follow Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.

The average velocity of electrons in the metal is dependent on the temperature of the metal
𝟑𝒌𝑻
and is termed as the thermal velocity of electrons 𝒗𝒕𝒉 = 𝒎
. At 300K the thermal velocity of
the electrons is 𝒗𝒕𝒉 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .
However this random motion of the electrons do not contribute to a net drift of electrons
across the metal and hence no current flows through the material
The conduction electrons in the lattice are scattered by collisions with the ionic cores and
other electrons. The mean time between collisions is the relaxation time of the electrons in the
metal and the distance between successive collisions is the mean free path. Taking the mean
lattice parameter of 10nm as the mean free path 𝜆, the relaxation time can be estimated
𝝀
as 𝝉 = 𝒗𝒕𝒉
≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒔.

Drift Velocity : In the presence of an Electric field E the electrons show a net drift across the
metal in a direction opposite to that of the electric field. The velocity of the electrons across
the metal in the presence is known as the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 .
𝒅𝒗
The force equation for the electron’s motion can be described by 𝒎 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒆𝑬 − 𝒌𝒎𝒗 where
the last term accounts for the loss of energy due to the scattering which is proportional to the
momentum of the electrons and k is the coefficient of scattering loss.
In the equilibrium condition this leads to an average velocity for the electrons which is the drift
𝒆𝑬
velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝒌𝒎

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Dimensionally k should be (time)-1.

1
The decay of the drift velocity to zero in the absence of the electric field yields that 𝒌 = 𝜏
where 𝜏 is the relaxation time – the time between successive collisions or the time for the drift
velocity to fall to 1/e times its steady value in the presence of an electric field.
𝒆𝝉𝑬 𝒆𝝉
The drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝒎
= 𝝁𝑬 where 𝝁 = 𝒎
is the electron mobility or the charge
𝒆𝝉 𝒗𝒅
carrier mobility. The mobility 𝝁 = = is the drift velocity per unit electric field.
𝒎 𝑬

The drift velocity of electrons is extremely low compared to the thermal velocity. To illustrate,
the drift velocity of electrons experiencing an electric field of 1V/m is of the order of 10-4 ms-1.
Expression for Electrical conductivity:
The current through a conductor with an electron concentration n of cross section A and
length L at an applied electric field E can be evaluated as
𝒆𝝉𝑬
𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅 𝑨 where 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity given by 𝒗𝒅 =
𝒎

𝒆𝝉𝑬 𝑰 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
∴ 𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝑨 𝒎
or 𝑱 = 𝑨
= 𝒎
𝑬 = 𝝇 𝑬 where 𝝇 is a constant for a given metal and is the
conductivity of the metal
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
𝝇= = 𝒏𝒆𝝁
𝒎
𝟏 𝒎 𝟏
The resistivity of the metal is 𝝆 = = = .
𝝇 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 𝒏𝒆𝝁

Thus the resistivity of a metal is inversely proportional to the concentration of free electrons
and the relaxation time of electrons in the metal.

2 Experimental temperature dependence of the resistivity

Experiments show that resistivity of metals in general vary
linearly with temperature in the normal operating temperatures.
At these temperatures the resistivity 𝝆𝒔𝒄 results from the
scattering of the electrons moving with high thermal velocities in
random directions.
However at very low temperatures the resistivity 𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒔 is found
to saturate to a non zero finite value, which is dependent on the
impurity concentration in the metal.
Hence two independent types of resistivities determine the total resistivity of the metal. Since the
phenomena are independent of each other the net resistivity would be the sum of the two
resistivity components which is known as the Mattheissen’s rule.
𝝆 = 𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒔 + 𝝆𝒔𝒄
𝒎 𝒎 𝒎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Hence 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
= 𝒏𝒆𝟐𝝉 + 𝒏𝒆𝟐𝝉 . This gives us the effective relaxation time as 𝝉
=𝝉 +𝝉
𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒄 𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒄

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

3 Draw backs of CFET and quantum corrections.

The classical free electron theory failed to correlate the experimental results of many a
phenomena such as the temperature dependence of resistivity, specific heat of electrons etc.
𝑚
a. According to the classical free electron theory the resistivity of a metal is given by 𝜌 = .
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
For a given material the temperature dependence of resistivity arises from the temperature
𝝀
dependence of the relaxation time 𝝉 = 𝒗 . Since the mean free path of the electrons is
𝒕𝒉
assumed to be a constant for a wide range of metals, the temperature dependence of the
𝟑𝒌𝑩 𝑻
thermal velocity should affect the relaxation time. For a given temperature 𝒗𝒕𝒉 = 𝒎
and
𝟏
hence 𝒗𝒕𝒉 ∞ 𝑻 𝑜𝑟 𝝉 ∞ 𝑻−𝟐 . Since the resistivity 𝝆 ∞ 𝝉−𝟏 , the temperature dependence of
resistivity can be inferred to be 𝝆 ∞ 𝑻. But experimental observations show that 𝝆 ∞ 𝑻
and hence the classical free electron conduction model fails to explain the correct
temperature dependence of resistivity of metals.

b. The contribution of electrons to the specific heat of the metal can be estimated using the
𝒅𝑼
principle that the specific heat 𝑪𝒆𝒍 = .
𝒅𝑻
Considering one mole of a mono valent metal, the energy of the valence electrons is given
𝟑
by U = 𝟐 𝒌𝑩 𝑻. 𝑵𝒂𝒗𝒈

𝒅𝑼 𝟑 𝟑
Hence the specific heat of the electrons should be equal to 𝑪𝒆𝒍 = 𝒅𝑻
= 𝟐 𝒌𝑩 . 𝑵𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐
𝑹
which is a constant.

However experimental estimation of the specific heat of electrons is only approximately

1% of the theoretical value and is also found to be temperature dependent. Thus the
theory fails to explain the actual specific heat dependence of electrons in metals.

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
c. The electrical conductivity of metals, given by 𝝇 = , should be dependent on the free
𝒎
electron concentration for a given temperature, assuming that the relaxation time is more
or less constant. However, it found that mono valent Copper with lesser electronic
concentration has a higher electrical conductivity as compared to trivalent Aluminum.
Similarly Zinc with higher electronic concentration has lesser conductivity than Aluminum.
Experimental results show that there is no linear dependence of the electronic
concentration on the conductivity of metals.

Thus the classical free electron theory fails to explain the experimental observations. It is obvious
that some of the assumptions of the CFET are over estimations or under estimations of the
physical parameters and hence need to be corrected.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

4 Quantum model of valence electrons in a metal - Fermi

energy
Metals have a very high concentration of valence electrons ≅
1028 𝑚−3 . According to the quantum mechanical principles these
valence electrons in a metal have to be in discrete energy states
following Pauli’s exclusion principle. This requires the energy states
of the atomic levels to split into discrete closely spaced energy
states to accommodate all the valence electrons. At 0K such an
arrangement leads to a sea of energy levels which have a
separation as small as ≅ 10−20 𝑒𝑉 . The upper most occupied
energy state at 0K is then termed as the Fermi energy of the metal.
Thus at 0K all the states below the Fermi energy are filled and all
the states about the Fermi energy are empty.
By convention electrons above the Fermi level should contribute to
the conduction process and the valence electrons are below the
Fermi level. (The electrons in states below the Fermi level do not
contribute to the conduction process). Thus according to this model
not all the valence electrons in a metal are conduction electrons.
𝒌𝑻
The effective number of electrons above the Fermi level could be approximated as 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 .
𝑬𝒇

The effective number of electrons above the Fermi level for copper (Ef=7eV) at 300K can be
𝒌𝑻
calculated to be 𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒏 𝑬 = 𝒏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟔 = 𝒏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔%. Thus a small fraction of the available
𝒇

valence electrons are excited into states above the Fermi level, which contribute to the
conductivity of the material.
This quantum model of the free electrons gives rise to the following modifications to the classical
free electron theory:
 The valence electrons in the metal are arranged in discrete energy states following
Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only electrons close to the Fermi level participate in the
conduction process
 The occupation probability of the electron states are described by the Fermi Dirac
distribution function applicable to fermions.
 The conduction electrons in a metal move in array of positive ions, colliding with the ionic
centers and other electrons resulting in the resistance of the material.
 The electrostatic interactions namely, the electron – electron interaction and the electron
– ion interactions are negligible.
 The electrons undergo random scattering due to the vibrating ionic centers giving rise to
resistance to flow of electrons.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

5 Fermi Dirac statistics, Fermi factor

The occupation probabilities of electrons in the different energy state at different temperatures are
1
estimated using the Fermi Dirac statistics for Fermions. (All particles with spin ± 2 are classified as
Fermions. Fermions follow the Fermi Dirac statistics for particles which are indistinguishable.)
1
The Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸−𝐸 𝑓 gives the probability of an energy state E to be occupied at a
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑒 +1

temperature T
Estimation of the Fermi factor at T=0K gives distinct results for E<Ef and E >Ef.
1
 If E<Ef then for E-Ef is negative, then the Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = ∆𝐸 .
−
𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 +1

1
At 0K this becomes 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑒 − ∞ +1
= 1. This implies that at 0K all electron states below
the Fermi level are filled states.
 If E>Ef then for E-Ef is positive, then
1
the Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = ∆𝐸 .
𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 +1

1
At 0K this becomes 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑒 ∞ +1
= 0.
This implies that at 0K all electron
states above the Fermi level are empty
states.
 For T>0 and E=Ef the Fermi factor
1 1 1
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸−𝐸 𝑓 = 𝑒 0 +1
= 2 = 0.5 . This
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑒 +1

gives a probability of occupation of 50%

for the Fermi energy.
The Fermi energy has a weak temperature dependence and is given by
2
𝜋 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑓0 1−
12 𝐸𝑓0
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where Efo is the Fermi energy at zero Kelvin. At normal temperature ranges the ratio of 𝐸𝑓0
is
very low and hence can be approximated to be a constant equal to the value at zero Kelvin.

6 Fermi temperature
The arrangement of electrons in discrete energy states leads to the concept that only electrons
near the Fermi energy are excited into the conduction band and it may be really difficult to excite
all the valence electrons into the conduction band. If the temperature of the metal is T then k BT

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

is the thermal energy available to the electrons in the metal. The thermal energy required to
excite the last electron at the bottom of the energy band if termed as k BTf, then at temperature Tf
the electron would have an energy 𝐸𝑓 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑓 . This temperature is termed as the Fermi
temperature of electrons in the metal.
Evaluating the temperature for Copper with Fermi energy as 7 eV gives the value of the Fermi
temperature as approximately 81000K. It is obvious that at such high temperatures the metal
cannot be in the solid state and hence this is only a representative temperature which highlights
the point that all valence electrons cannot be conduction electrons.

7 Fermi velocity
From the above analysis it is clear that only a small fraction of electrons close to the conduction
band can be taking part in the conduction processes. The electrons excited into the conduction
band have energies very close to the Fermi energy. These conduction electrons then possess
a kinetic energy which may be equal to the Fermi energy.
1
The kinetic energy of the electrons near the Fermi energy is 𝐸𝑓 = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 where 𝑣𝑓 the Fermi
velocity of conduction electrons is. Fermi velocity for conduction electrons in Copper gives 𝑣𝑓 =
1.06 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
This velocity is greater than the thermal velocity of electrons (as per the CFET). The electrons
in the conduction band are in a state of random motion and the scattering of the electrons by the
lattice is the origin of the electrical resistance of the metal.

8 Density of states derivation

The electrons in a metal can be approximated to the particle in a box in three
dimensions, since under normal conditions the electrons cannot escape the
boundaries of the metal. Consider a mono-valent metal in the form of a cube of
side L. Inside the metal the electrons can be assumed to be moving in a zero L
potential field.
The three dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equation can be written as three one dimensional
Schrödinger’s wave equation and their corresponding solutions analysed.
The x component of the particle motion can be described by the wave function which is the
solution of the SWE
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓 𝑥 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
+ Eψ 𝑥 = 0
ℎ 2𝑛𝑥 2
This gives the Eigen energy value for the x component as 𝐸𝑛 𝑥 =
8𝑚 𝐿2

h2ny 2
Similarly the energy in the other two dimensions can be evaluated as En y = 8mL 2
and En z =
h2nz 2
8mL 2

The total energy of the electron can be written as

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

h2 h2
En = nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 = R2 --------- (1) where R2 = nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2
8mL 2 8mL 2

The number of states with energy E can be evaluated by studying the variation of the
combinations of nx, ny and nz. It can be deduced that every combination of nx, ny and nz result in
an energy state as per equation (1).
π
(The n space corresponds to the momentum space since k = n L .Thus the combinations can
give the picture of particles moving in different directions.) When nx, ny and nz are equal the
energy state is unique and is non degenerate. It is also noted that the energy states can be
degenerate with degeneracy of 3 when two of the three nx, ny and nz are equal and degeneracy
of 6 when all the three are not equal.
The distribution of energy states depending of the
combinations of nx, ny and nz can be evaluated analyzing the
n space formed by nx, ny and nz.
It is observed that every combination of nx, ny and nz gives
additional unit volume in n space from which we conclude
that evaluating the number of states is equivalent to
evaluating the volume of the n space.
It is also noticed that the degenerate energy states with the
same energy values lie on the surface of an octant of a sphere with the center at the origin.
Hence it is sufficient to find the volume of the octant of a sphere of radius R to evaluate the
number of energy states up to R i.e., the combination of nx, ny and nz.
The sensitivity of the increase in the states with increasing nx, ny and nz can be found from the
change in the volume of the octant if the radius changes from R to R+dR realizing that R >>dR.
πR 2 dR
The volume of the shell of thickness dR is then given by 2
. This is also then the number of
energy states available between R and R+dR.
En dE
The energy expression En = Eo R2 gives us R2 = Eo
and dR = 1
2 En Eo 2

Therefore the number of energy states between E and E+dE is given by

1
πR2 dR π En dE π En 2
= 1 = . 3 dE
2 4 Eo En Eo 2 4 E 2
o

h2
Substituting for Eo = 8mL 2 we get the number of energy states between E and E+dE as
3
π 8mL2 2
1
. E 2 . dE
4 h2
The number of electrons states per unit volume can be estimated taking into consideration the
Pauli’s exclusion principle and allowing two electrons with opposite spins in each energy state.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

The density of states for electrons in a metal gives the number of electron states per unit
volume with energy E
3
π 8m 2 1
g E dE = 2 h2
E2 dE

This shows that the distribution of electrons in energy

states vary non- linearly with increasing energy E.
The probability that an energy state is occupied is given
by the fermi factor
1
Fd = E−E f
1 + e kB T
And hence the occupancy of the states described by
N(E) is determined by the factor
N E = g E ∗ Fd
This in effect is multiplying g(E) by a number between 0
and 1 depending on the position of the energy relative to
the Fermi energy and the temperature.
The states below Ef – kBT are completely occupied as Fd is 1.
The states in the range of kBT below the Fermi level are emptied and the probability of
occupancy Fd is between 1 and 0.5.
The states above Ef in a range kBT are now occupied and the probability of occupancy lies
between 0.50 and 0.00.

9 Expression for Fermi energy, average electron energy

The Fermi energy of metals can be evaluated from the fact that all available electrons occupy
energy levels below the Fermi level Ef at 0K. This means that the density of occupied states
N E = g E ∗ Fd when evaluated for all levels from 0 to Ef, should result in the total count of
electrons in the metal, ie.,
Ef Ef
The total free electronic concentration n = 0
N E dE = 0
g E ∗ Fd dE .

We know that Fd has to be 1 for all energy levels below Ef at 0K and hence
3 3
Ef Ef Ef
π 8m 2 1 π 8m 2 3
2
n= N E dE = g E dE = E2 dE = Ef
0 0 2 h2 0 3 h2
This gives us a method of estimating the Fermi energy of the system if the number of valence
electrons per unit volume is known.
The Fermi energy can be estimated if the concentration of free electrons is know and can be
evaluated as

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

2
3 3 h2 2
Ef = n 3
π 8m
Average energy of electrons in a metal at 0K
Since the distribution of electrons in the different energy states shows a non linear variation, the
average energy of the electron is not the simple average of the electron’s max and min energy.
From the graph of N(E) vs E we observe that N(E) states have energy E which implies that the
total energy of all electrons in filled states upto Ef should the summation of all N(E)*E
total energy of all electrons in different energy states
The average energy of the electron = total number of electrons
3
π 8m 2 Ef 1
Ef
g E ∗ E ∗ Fd dE 2 h2 0
E 2 dE ∗ E
0
Ef
= 3
0
g E ∗ Fd dE π 8m 2 Ef 1
2 h2 0
E 2 dE

3
This on integration gives the average energy E = 5
Ef = 0.6 ∗ Ef

Merits of Quantum free electron theory:

Heat capacity due to free electrons
The electronic specific heat (contribution to the specific heat from the conduction electrons) can
be evaluated in the light of the fact that only electrons close to the Fermi level participate in the
conduction. Hence the heat absorption happens due to that fraction of electrons. This number
can be estimated as the effective number of electrons (in one mole of the metal for a mono
Na
valent metal) in the conduction process as n eff = Ef
. k B T.
3
Hence if the average thermal energy of the electrons is taken to be k B T then the total energy
2
3 3 Na 3 Na
of electrons in one mole of the material U = neff . k T
2 B
= 2 kB T Ef
. kB T = .
2 Ef
. kB 2 T2

dU N kT
Hence the specific heat Cel = dT
= 3. E a . k B 2 T = 3R. E .
f f

kT
Thus the electronic specific heat is a fraction of the value predicted by the CFET (since Ef
is a
fraction less than 1% for most metals) and is temperature dependent . This analysis gives the
correct correlation with the experimental results.
A more accurate evaluation of the electronic specific heat of mono valent metals (using the
ideas of the number of electrons in the levels above Ef and their average energy values) results
π2 kB 2 T
in the relation Cel = 2
N∗ Ef

Temperature dependence of the resistivity

According to the classical free electron theory resistivity of the electrons originates from the
scattering mechanism in which the ionic centers are stationary.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

The quantum free electron theory takes into account the thermal vibrations of the ionic array
which accounts for the scattering of electrons. The amplitude of the random vibrations of the
lattice ions increase with increasing temperature and hence increase the probability of electron
scattering. This reduces the mean free path of the electrons.
When the ions vibrate the lattice presents an effective cross sectional area for scattering of r 2
where r is the amplitude of vibration. The electron mean free path λ is inversely proportional to
the scattering cross section and hence λ ∞ 1/T
ne 2 τ ne 2 λ
The expression for conductivity ς = m
= mv f
shows that the conductivity is proportional to
the mean free path. Hence the conductivity will be inversely proportional to temperature or
resistivity ρ ∞ T as is found experimentally.
Relation between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity (Wiedemann-Franz law
and Lorenz number)
From the discussions of the electronic arrangement it is obvious that the electrons close to the
Fermi energy are responsible for the electrical or thermal conduction and hence it should be
possible to find a relation between the two seeming different physical phenomena.
1 C
It is known that the thermal conductivity of the metal K = . . v. L
3 V

π2 kB 2 T
Where C is the electronic specific heat given by Cel = 2
N. Ef
,

V the volume, v is the velocity of electrons and L the mean free path. The mean free path of
electrons is given by L = v. τ. Taking velocity to be the Fermi velocity vF (since most of the
conduction electrons are located about the Fermi energy) the expression for the thermal
conductivity can be written as
1 1 π2 k 2T π2 kB 2 T
K= . . N. B . vF . vF τ = . n. . vF2 . τ.
3 V 2 Ef 6 Ef

N
where n = V
is the concentration of free electrons.

π2 k B 2 T mvF2 π2 kB 2T
K= . n. . .τ = . n. .τ
3 Ef 2m 3 Ef
ne 2 τ
The electrical conductivity of the metal is then given by ς =
m

The ratio of the thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity can be calculated as

K π2
= 2 k B 2 T.
ς 3e
K π2
This is the Wiedemann-Franz law. It was noticed by Lorenz that the ratio ςT = 3e 2 k B 2 is a
constant irrespective of the metal and is called the Lorenz number.
The Lorenz number has a value = 2.4 x10-8 WΩK-2.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Short comings of quantum free electron theory

The quantum free electron theory though successful in giving correct dependencies of some of
the electrical parameters and the specific heat of electrons, was not able to explain
Differences in conduction in metal, semiconductor and insulator, and the origin of the band gap
in semiconductors and insulators are not explained.
Experimentally observed positive Hall co-efficient observed in some metals like Zinc.
These demerits could be reflective of the real potentials of the ionic centers in the metal which
was ignored in the development of the model. The presence of the potentials can significantly
affect the wave function of the electrons.
11. Motion of electron in periodic potential (one dimensional treatment)
The free electrons in a metal are not free from electrostatic potentials and move in a periodic
potential due to the regular arrangement of the ionic centers.
The potential is lower close to the positive ions in the lattice (and in
some cases basis) positions. The electrons experience a potential
with the same periodicity as the lattice. The columbic potential in the
real crystal can be approximated by rectangular potentials.
If V(x) is the potential at x then, it can be seen from the figure that
V(x + a) = V(x) which means that the potential is periodic and
invariant under the translation through the lattice parameter.
However the wave function of the electrons
ψ x = eikx is affected by the periodic potential and can be written as
ψ x = eikx . Vk (x) where k is the wave number of the electron waves. This is known as the
Bloch function.
Kronig Penny model, allowed energy zones/energy bands
In the Kronig-Penney model the periodic potential is
approximated as a long chain of coupled finite square wells,
of barrier height Vo, with a period ‘a’, and barrier thickness c.
The wave function of the electron is a modulated wave of
the form ψ x = eikx . Vk (x) .
A solution to the Schrödinger’s equation exists if the
dispersive wave number of the electron k is related to the
energy through the equation
ma Sin(Ka)
Cos ka = 2
Vo . c. + cos(Ka)
ℏ Ka

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

2m(E)
where K = ℏ2
. We notice that the above is a transcendental equation and has approximate
solutions.
The left hand side of the equation is bound with upper and lower limits of +1 to -1.
The right side of the equation has oscillations of decreasing amplitude with increasing αa .
π
However, the solutions exist only for those allowed range of k = n a . Thus there exists a range of
allowed energy states and forbidden energy states.
ma
In the limit V . c tends to infinity sin Ka = 0 which
ℏ2 o
nπ ℏ2 π 2
implies K = a and hence the energy En = 2ma 2
ma
In the limit 2 Vo . c tends to zero cos Ka = 1 which implies
ℏ
ℏ2 K 2
k = K and hence the energy E = which is the solution
2m
for a free particle.
The E(k) –k diagram for the system show discontinuity in
π
the energy at the zone boundary of k = ±n . (The
a
parabolic variation of E for the free electrons is shown for
comparison).
𝝅
Since the functions are symmetric (and periodic with period of 𝟐 ), it is possible to represent the
𝒂
𝛑 𝛑
energy band diagram in a single zone of + 𝐚 𝐭𝐨 − 𝐚 .
The lowest allowed energy state is non-zero. The lowest
band is the completely filled inner band followed by a band
of forbidden energy states (shaded).
The next band of allowed states represents the valence
band. The upper most occupied states form the conduction
band.
Thus we observe allowed and forbidden energy states for
the electrons in the material.
Materials are then classified as metals, semiconductors or
insulators on the basis of the Fermi energy of the material.
In the case of conductors the Fermi level is in the
uppermost band the conduction band. All states below the Fermi level are filled and all levels
above the Fermi energy are empty. Thus metal are characterized by a partially filled conduction
band.
In the case of materials with a completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction
band, the Fermi energy is theoretically the midpoint of the energy band gaps. Materials with
energy gap of 3-5 eV are classified as semiconductors. At normal temperatures it is possible for
the electrons in the valence band to move into the conduction in the case of metals and
semiconductors.
Materials with energy band gap greater than 5eV are classified as Insulators in which the electron
conduction is impossible and attempts to excite the electrons lead to a dielectric breakdown.

13 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY

Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Concept of Effective mass

ℏ𝟐 𝒌𝟐
The motion of electrons in the crystal is governed by the energy equation 𝑬 = 𝟐𝒎
which shows
that the energy is nonlinearly dependent on the propagation constant k.
Differentiating the expression twice with respect to k
𝒅𝟐 𝑬 ℏ𝟐
𝒅𝒌𝟐
= 𝒎∗
−𝟏
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑬
it is observed that 𝒎∗ = 𝟐 𝟐 is not a constant and depends on
ℏ 𝒅𝒌
the non linearity of E. This means that the charge carriers have an
effective mass which depends on the curvature of E-k.
𝒅𝟐 𝑬
Higher curvature (larger ) means smaller effective mass and
𝒅𝒌𝟐
smaller curvature results in higher effective mass.
It can be seen that the slope of the E-K curve is minimum at the band
edges and hence the effective mass of the charge carriers are highest
at the band edges.
Since curvature of the E-k is positive in the conduction band the
effective mass is +ve and the curvature in the valence band is
negative indicating a negative mass. However, this can be construed
to be the motion of a charge carrier with a charge of the opposite type
as that of electrons. This leads to the concept of hole conduction in
the valence band. The effective mass of electrons can be higher or
lower than the rest mass of the electrons and depends on the position
of the electron in the particular band.
The concept of the effective mass helps understand the mobility of charge carriers in a system
particularly in semiconductors. In most compound semiconductors the effective mass of electrons
and holes are much smaller than the rest mass of electrons. These materials exhibit a higher
mobility of charge carriers.

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Solved Numericals:
1. Estimate the Fermi factor of an energy state 0.01eV below the Fermi level at 500K
1
The Fermi factor 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸−𝐸 𝑓 gives the probability of occupancy of an energy state E above or
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑒 +1
below the Fermi energy at temperature T.
The Fermi factor for an energy state 0.01 eV below the Fermi level at 500 K
1
𝐹𝑑 = −0.01∗1.6𝑥10 −19
=0.558
𝑒 1.38𝑥 10 −23 ∗500 +1

2. If the Fermi energy of the metal is 3.75 eV calculate the molar specific heat at 500 K
dU Na
The molar electronic specific heat is given by Cel = = 3. . kB 2T
dT Ef

At 500K the electronic specific heat = 0.29 J/mol

3. Determine the free electron concentration, the Fermi velocity for electrons in a metal with Fermi
energy of 5.10 eV.
The concentration of free electrons in a metal is related to the Fermi energy as
3
π 8m 2 3
2
n= Ef
3 h2
For E=5.10eV n = 5.211 X 1028 m-3.
1 2𝐸𝑓
The Fermi velocity of electrons is given by 𝐸𝑓 = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 Hence 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑚
=1.34 x 106 ms-1.

4. A mono valent metal has 5 x 1028 valence electrons per m3. Estimate the number of electron energy
states per unit volume in the metal between 2eV and 2.005eV from the concept of the density of
states.
The density of states for electrons in a metal gives the number of electron states per unit volume with
3
1
π 8m 2
energy E g E dE = 2 h2
E 2 dE

E =2.00eV dE = 0.005eV
𝟑
𝝅 𝟖𝒎 𝟐 𝟏
Hence g E dE = 𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝑬 = 4.80 x 1025 per m3.
𝟐 𝒉𝟐

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Unit III: Quantum theory of solids 2019

Problem set

1. A certain conductor has a free electron concentration of 5.9 x 10 28 m-3. What current density
in the conductor will correspond to a drift velocity of 1/1.6 mm s-1? Calculate the mobility of
charge carriers given conductivity as 6.22x107 (Ωm)-1. (Ans :
2. Calculate the free electron concentration, mobility and drift velocity of electrons in an Al wire
of diameter 0.5mm, length 5m, resistance of 60 milli ohms that carries a current of 15A . Al
has 3 free electrons At wt of Al=26.98 and density 2.7 x 103 kg m-3.
3. Find the relaxation time and mobility of conduction electrons in a metal having 6.5 x 10 28
electrons m-3 if the resistivity of the metal is 1.43x 10-8 ohm m
4. There are 1020 electrons per m-3 in a material having a resistivity of 0.1 ohm -m. Find the
charge mobility and the electric field needed to produce a drift velocity of 1ms-1.
5. A copper wire of radius 1mm and length 10 meter carries a direct current of 5 ampere.
Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper if n = 5 × 1028/m3.
6. Silver has a density of 10.5 x 103 Kgm-3 and atomic weight of 107.9. If conductivity of silver
at 27o C is 6.8 x 107 (ohm-m)-1, find the mean free path of electrons as per the classical free
electron theory.
7. Calculate the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity of 1.55 x 10-8 Ω
– m and an electronic concentration of 6 x 1028 per m3.
8. Show that the probability of occupancy of an energy level ΔE above the Fermi level is the
same as that of the probability of non-occupancy of an energy level ΔE below the Fermi
level.
9. Estimate the probability of occupancy of an energy level 0.1 eV above the Fermi level for
Copper with Ef= 7.0eV for i) 100K ii) 300K iii) 1000K
10. Find the temperatures at which the occupancy of an energy state 0.3 eV above the Fermi
level has an occupancy probability of i) 0.01 and ii) 0.05
11. Calculate the Fermi energy of electrons in a mono valent metal with atomic weight 132.9 x
10-3 kg / mol and density of 1.9 x 103 kg/m3 at 0K.
12. Estimate the energy for which the probability of occupation at 300K is 0.1 for copper with
Fermi energy of 7.0eV. Comment on the probability of this level to be 0.5.
13. The Fermi temperature of two metals A and B are in the ratio 1.103. If the electron
concentration of metal A is 5.86x1028 m-3, find the Fermi velocity of electrons in metal B.
(Ans: 1.325 x 106 ms-1.)
14. Calculate the density of states with energy between 4eV and 4.005eV in copper with fermi
energy of 7.02eV.( E = 4eV = 4*1.6x10-19 J and dE = .005*1.6x10-19 J mass of electron =
9.1x 10-31 kg )

16 DEPT OF PHYSICS, PES UNIVERSITY