ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES (BRUHN)

A1 THE WORK OF THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER

STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES (LOADS, REACTIONS, STRESSES, SHEARS,

BENDING MOMENTS, DEFLECTIONS)

A2 —- Equilibrium Of Force Systems. Truss Structures. Externally Braced Wings.

Landing Gear.
A2.1 Introduction A2.1
A2.2 Equations Of Static Equilibrium A2.1
1. Equations For General Space (3d) Force System
2. Equations Of Space Parallel-Force System
3. Equilibrium Of General Co-Planar Force System
4. Equilibrium Of Coplanar-Concurrent-Force System
5. Equilibrium Of Coplanar Parallel Force System
6. Equilibrium Of Colinear Force System
A2.3 Structural Fitting Units For Establishing The Force Characteristics Of
Direction And Point Of Application A2.2
Ball And Socket Fitting
Single Pin Fitting
Double Pin – Universal Joint Fittings
Rollers
Lubricated Slot Or Double Roller Type Of Fittings Unit
Cable-Tie Rods
A2.4 Symbols For Reacting Fitting Units As Used In Problem Solution A2.3
A2.5 Statically Determinate And Statically Indeterminate Structures A2.4
A2.6 Examples Of Statically Determinate And Statically Indeterminate
Structures A2.4
A2.7 Example Problem Solutions Of Statically Determinate Coplanar
Structures And Coplanar Loadings A2.7
A2.8 External Reactions And Internal Loads In Coplanar Truss Structures
Under Coplanar Loading A2.9
A2.9 Method Of Joints A2.10
A2.10 Method Of Moments A2.11
A2.11 Method Of Shears A2.12
A2.12 Aircraft Wing Structure: Truss Type With Fabric Or Plastic Cover A2.14
A2.13 Landing Gear Structure A2.23
A2.14 Example Problems Of Calculating Reactions And Loads On Members
Of Landing Gear Units A2.23
A3 —- Properties Of Sections – Centroids, Moments Of Inertia, Etc.
A3.1 Introduction
A3.2 Centroids, Center Of Gravity
A3.3 Moment Of Inertia
A3.4 Moment Of Inertia Of An Area
A3.5 Polar Moment Of Inertia
A3.6 Radius Of Gyration
A3.7 Parallel Axis Theorem
A3.7a Mass Moment Of Inertia
Moments Of Inertia Of Airplanes
A3.8 Product Of Inertia
Product Of Inertia Of A Solid
A3.9 Product Of Inertial For Axes Of Symmetry
A3.10 Parallel Axis Theorem
A3.11 Moments Of Inertia With Respect Of Inclined Axes
A3.12 Location Of Axes For Which Product Of Inertia Is Zero
A3.13 Principal Axes
A3.14 Section Properties Of Typical Aircraft Structural Sections
A3.15 Problems

A4 —- General Loads On Aircraft.

A4.1 Introduction
A4.2 Limit Or Applied Loads, Design Loads
A4.4 Weight And Inertia Forces
A4.5 Air Forces On Wing
A4.6 Forces On Airplane In Flight
A4.7 Load Factors
A4.8 Design Flight Requirements For Airplanes
A4.9 Gust Load Factors
A4.10 Illustration Of Main Flight Conditions. Velocity-Load Factor Diagram
A4.11 Special Flight Design Conditions
A4.12 Example Problems Involving Accelerated Motion Of Rigid Airplane
A4.13 Effect Of Airplane Not Being A Rigid Body
A4.14 General Conclusions On Influence Of Dynamic Loading On Structural
Design Of Airplane
A4.15 Problems
A5 —- Beams – Shear And Moments. Beam – Column Moments
A5.1 Introduction
A5.2 Statically To Determinate And Statically Indeterminate Structure
A5.3 Shear And Bending Moment
A5.4 Shear And Bending Moment Diagrams
A5.5 Relation Between Shear And Bending Moments
A5.6 Moment Diagram Has Made Up Of Parts Static Moment Curves In
Solving Indeterminate Structures
A5.7 Forces At A Section In Terms Of Forces At A Previous Station
A5.8 Equations For Curved Beams
A5.9 Torsional Moment
A5.10 Shear And Moments On Wing
A5.11 Example Problems Of Calculating Wing Shear And Moments For Unit
Load Calculations
A5.12 Shear And Moments On Airplane Body
A5.13 Introduction
A5.14 Design Conditions And Design Weights
A5.15 Body Weight And Balance Distribution
A5.16 Load Analysis Unit Analysis
A5.17 Example Problem Illustrating The Calculation Of Shear And Moment
On Fuselage Due To Unit Load Conditions
A5.18 Unit Load Analysis For Fuselage Shears And Moments
A5.19 Example Of Fuselage Shears And Moments For Landing Conditions
A5.20 Inertia Loads Due To Angular Acceleration
A5.21 Solution For Inertia Loads Due To Unit 100,000 Inch Pounds Pitching
Moment
A5.22 Problems
A5.23 Bending Moments-Beam Column Action Introduction
A5.24 General Action Of A Member Subjected To Combined Axial And
Transverse Loads
A5.25 Equations For A Compressive Axially Loaded Strut With Uniformly
Distributed Side Load
A5.26 Formulas For Other Single Span Loadings
A5.27 Moments For Combinations Of Radius Load Load Systems Has Given
In Table A5.1, Margins Of Safety, Accuracy Of Calculation
A5.28 Example Problems
A5.29 Stressless About Proportional Limit, Stress Off Material
A5.30 Problems
A5.31 Beam-Columns In Continuous Structures
A6 —- Torsion – Stresses And Deflections.
A6.1 Introduction
A6.2 Torsion Of Members With Circular Cross-Sections
A6.3 Transmission Of Power By A Cylindrical Shaft
A6.4 Torsion Of Members With Non-Circular Cross-Section
A6.5 Elastic Membrane Analogy
A6.6 Torsion Of Open Sections Composed Of Thin Plates
A6.7 Torsion Of Solid Non-Circular Shapes And Thick Walled Tubular Shapes
A6.8 Torsion Of Thin Walled Closed Sections
A6.9 Expression For Torsional Moment In Terms Of Internal Shear Flow
Systems For Multiple Cell Closed Sections
A6.10 Distribution Of Torsional Shear Stresses In Multiple Sell Thin Walled
Closed Section Angle Of Twist
A6.11 Stress Distribution And Angle Of Twist For Two Celled Thin Wall
Closed Sections
A6.12 Example Problems Of Torsional Stresses In Multiple Cell Thin Walled
Tubes
A6.13 Example 3 Cell Tube
A6.14 Torsional Shear Flow In Multiple Cell Beams By Method Of
Successive Corrections
A6.16 Torsion Of Thin Walled Cylinder Having Closed Type Stiffeners
A6.17 Effect Of The End Restraints On Members Carrying Torsion
A6.18 Example Problem Illustrating The Effect Of The End Restraint On
Member In Torsion
A6.19. Problems
A7 —- Deflections Of Structures. Castigliano’s Theorem. Virtual Work. Matrix
Methods.
A7.1 Introduction
A7.2 Work And Strain Energy
A7.3 Strain Energy Expressions For Various Loadings
A7.4 Theorems Of Virtual Work And Minimum Potential Energy
A7.5 Theorems Of Complementary Energy And Castigliano’s Theorem
A7.6 Calculation Of Structural Deflections Using Castigliano’s Theorem
Use Of Fictitious Loads
Derivation Under The Integral Sign
A7.7 Calculation Of Structural Reflections By The Method Of Dummy Unit
Loads Or Method Of Virtual Loads
Derivation Of Equations For The Method Of Virtual Loads
Linear Deflection Of Beams Due To Shear By Virtual Work
Method Of Virtual Work Applied To Torsion Of Cylindrical Bars
A7.8 Deflections Due To Thermal Strains
A7.9 Matrix Methods In Deflection Calculations
Basis Of Methods
Choice Of Generalized Forces
Strain Energy
Relating The Internal Generalized Forces To The External Applied Loads
Strain Energy In Terms Of Applied Loads
Comparison With Dummy Unit Load Equations
A7.10 Member Flexibility Coefficients: Compilation Of A Library
Bars
Beams
Shear Panels
Torsion Bar
A7.11 Application Of Matrix Methods To Various Structures
A7.12 Deflections And Angular Change Of The Elastic Curve Of Simple
Beams By The Method Of Elastic Weights (Mohrs Method )
A7.13 Example Problems
A7.15. Beam With Fixed End Moments By Method Of Area Moments
A7.16 Truss Deflection By Method Of Elastic Weights
A7.17 Example Problems
A7.18 Problems
THEORY AND METHODS FOR SOLVING STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

A8 —- Statically Indeterminate Structures. Theorem Of Least Work. Virtual Work.

Matrix Methods.
A8.00 Introduction
A8.0 The principle of superposition
A8.1 The statically indeterminate problem
A8.2 The Theorem of least work
Determination of redundant reactions by least work
A8.3 Reduntant stresses by least work
A8.4 Redundant problems by the methods of dummy unit loads
A8.5 Trusses with Double redundancy
A8.6 Trusses with multiple redundancy
A8.7 Redundant structures with members subjected to loadings in addition
to axial forces
A8.8 Initial stresses
A8.9 Thermal stresses
A8.10 Redundant problem stress calculation by matrix methods
A8.11 Redundant problem deflection calculations by matrix methods
A8.12 Precision and Accuracy in redundant stress calculations
Member thermal distortions
Bars
Beams

A8.14 Thermal Deflections by matrix methods

Statically Determinate Structures
Closure
A8.15 Problems

A9 —- Bending Moments In Frames And Rings By Elastic Center Method.

A9.1 Introduction
General Methods of Analysis
Assumptions
A9.2 Derivation of Equations – Unsymmetrical Frames
Referring Redundants to Elastic Center
A9.3 Equations for Structure with Symmetry About One Axis through Elastic
Center
A9.4 Example Problems Solutions – Structures with at least one Axis of
Symmetry
A9.5
A9.6 Analysis of Frame with Pinned Supports
A9.7 Analysis of Frame with One Pinned and One Fixed Support
A9.8 Solution of Unsymmetrical Frames using Principal Axes
A9.9 Problems

A10 —- Column Analogy Method.

A10.1 General
A10.2 General Explanation of Column Analogy Method
A10.3 Frames with One Axis of Symmetry
A10.4 Unsymmetrical Frames or Rings
A10.5 Example Problem – Unsymmetrical Section
A10.6 Problems
A11 —- Continuous Structures – Moment Distribution Method.
A11.1 Introduction
A11.2 Definitions and Derivation of Terms
Fixed End Moments
Stiffness Factor
Carry-over Factor
Distribution Factor
Sign Convention
A11.3 Calculation of Fixed End Moments
A11.4 Derivation of Stiffness Factor and Carry-over Factor
A11.5 General Expressions for Stiffness and Carry-Over Factor in Terms of
Fixation Factor (F) at Far End of a Beam
Example Problems
A11.6 General Summary of Procedure
A11.7 Continuous beams with yielding or Deflected Supports
A11.8 Check on Final Moments
A11.9 End Moments for Continuous Frameworks Whose Members are not in
a straight line. Joint Rotation only
A11.10 Continuous Structure with Members of Variable Moment of Inertia
A11.11 Frames with Unknown Joint Deflections Due to Sidesway
A11.12 Effect of Axial Load on Moment Distribution
A11.13 Fixed End Moment, Stiffness and Carry Over Factors for Beam
Column of Constant Sections
A11.14 Illustrative Problems
A11.15 Secondary Bending Moments in Trusses with Rigid Joints.
A11.16 Structures with Curved Members.
A11.17 Structures with Curved Members.
A11.18 Stiffness and Carry-Over Factors For Curved Members
A11.19 Example Problems. Continuous Structures Involving Curved
Members.
A11.20 Problems

A12 —- Slope Deflection Method.

A12.1 General
A12.2 Derivation of Slope Deflection Equation.
A12.3 Hinged End. Slope Deflection Equation
A12.4 Example Problems.
A12.5 Loaded Continuous Beam with Yielding Supports.
A12.6 Statically Indeterminate Frames Joint Rotation Only.
A12.7 Frames with Joint Displacements
A12.8 Example problems of Frames with Unknown Joint Displacement.
A12.9 Comments on Slope-Deflection Method.
A12.10 Problems
BEAM BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES. MEMBRANE STRESSES. COLUMN AND
PLATE INSTABILITY.

A13 —– Bending Stresses.

A13.0 Introduction
A13.1 Location of Neutral Axis.
A13.2 Equations for Bending Stress, Homogeneous Beams, Stresses
Below Proportional Limit Stress.
A13.3 Method 1. Stresses for Moments About the Principal Axes.
A13.4 Method 2. Stresses by use of Neutral Axis for Given Plane of
Loading.
A13.5 Method 3. Stresses from Moments, Section Properties and
Distances Referred to any Pair of Rectangular Axes through the
Centroid of the Section.
A13.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Three Methods.
A13.7 Deflections
A13.8 illustrative Problems. Example Problem l.
A13.9 Bending Stresses in Beams with Non-Homogeneous Sections,
Stresses within the Elastic Ranges.
SOLUTION BY MEANS OF TRANSFORMED BEAM SECT ION
A13.10 Bending Stresses of Homogeneous Beams Stressed above the
Elastic Limit Stress Range.
A13.11 Curved Beams. Stresses Within the Elastic Range.
A13.12 Problems

A14 —- Bending Shear Stresses – Solid And Open Sections – Shear Center.
A14.1 Introduction
A14.2 Shear Center.
A14.3 Derivation of Formula for Flexural Shear Stress.
A14.4 Example Problems. Symmetrical Sections. External Shear Loads Act
Thru Shear Center.
A14.5 Maximum Shear stresses for Simple Cross-Sections.
A14.6 Derivation of Flexural Shear Flow Equation Symmetrical Beam Section.
A14.7 Shear Stresses and Shear Center for Beam Sections with One Axis of
Symmetry.
A14.8 Shear Stresses for Unsymmetrical Beam Sections
A14.9 Beams with Constant Shear Flow Webs
A14.10 Example Problems for Beams with Constant Shear Flows Between
Flange Members.
A14.11 Shear Center Location By Using Neutral Axis Method.
A14.12 Problems
A15 —- Shear Flow In Closed Thin-Walled Sections.
A15.1 Introduction
A15.2 Single Cell Beam. Symmetrical About One Axis. All Material Effective
in Resisting Bending Stresses.
A15.3 Single Cell - 2 Flange Beam. Constant Shear Flow Webs.
A15.4 Shear Center of Single Cell - Two Flange Beam.
A15.5 Single Cell-Three Flange Beam. Constant Shear Flow Webs.
A15.6 Shear Center of Single Cell-Three Flange Beam. Constant Shear Flow
Webs.
A15.7 Single Cell-Multiple Flange-One Axis of Symmetry.
A15.8 Single Cell - Unsymmetrical - Multiple Flange.
A15.9 Two Cell-Multiple Flange Beams. Symmetrical About One Axis
A15.10 Three Cell - Multiple Flange Beam. Symmetrical About One Axis.
A15.11 Shear Flow in Beam with Multiple Cells. Method of Successive
Approximations.
A15.12 Example Problem Solution. Problem No. 1.
A15.13 Example Problem 2. All Material Effective in Bending Resistance.
A15.14 Use of Successive Approximation Method for Multiple Cell Beams
when Subjected to Combined Bending and Torsional Loads.
A15.15 Shear Flow in Cellular Beams with Variable Moment of Inertia.
A15.16 Determination of the Flexural Shear Flow Distribution by Considering
the Changes in Flange Loads (The ΔP Method. )
A15.17 Example Problem to Compare Results in Using Equations (1) and
(3).
A15.18 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panel.
A15.19 Example Problem of Shear Flow in Tapered Multiple Flange Single
Cell Beam.
A15.20 Problems

A16 —- Membrane Stresses In Pressure Vessels.

A16.1 Introduction
A16.2 Membrane Equations of Equilibrium: Shells of Revolution Under
Rotationally Symmetric Pressure Loadings.
A16.3 Applications to Simple Pressure Vessels.
A16.4 Displacements, Boundary Conditions and Local Bending in Thin
Walled Shells.
Special Problems in Pressurized Cabin Stress Analysis.
DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES BETWEEN SHELL PoND STRINGERS
INTERACTION BETWEEN RINGS AND SHELL
DOORS AND WINDOWS
LARGE DEFLECTIONS OF PLANE PANELS; "QUILTING"
A16.5 Shells of Revolution Under Unsymmetrical Loadings
A17 —- Bending Of Plates.
A17.1 Introduction
A17.2 2 Plate Bending Equations
A17.3 An illustrative Plate Bending Analysis.
A17.4 Compilations of Results for Plate Bending Problems.
A17.5 Deflection Limitations in Plate Analyses.
A17.6 Membrane Action in Very Thin Plates.
A17.7 Large Deflections in Plates
A17.8 Considerations in the Applications of Large-Deflection Plate and
Membrane Analyses.

A18 —- Theory Of The Instability Of Columns And Thin Sheets.

A18 Part 1 —- Elastic and Inelastic Instability of Columns
A18.1 Introduction
A18.2 Combined Bending and Compression of Columns.
A18.3 Elastic Stability of a Column.
A18.4 The Failure of Columns by Compression
A18.5 Buckling Loads of Columns with Various End Conditions.
A18.6 Inelastic Column Strength – Inelastic Buckling - Introduction
A18.7 Perfect Column. Reduced Modulus Theory.
A18.8 Imperfect Column. Tangent-Modulus Theory.

A18 Part 2 —- Theory of the Elastic Instability of Thin Sheets

A18.9 Introduction
A18.10 Pure Bending of Thin Plates.
A18.11 The Differential Equation of the Deflection Surface.
A18.12 Strain Energy in Pure Bending of Plate
A18.13 Bending of Rectangular Plates.
A18.14 Combined Bending and TenSion or Compression of Thin Plates.
A18.15 Strain Energy of Plates Due to Edge Compression and Bending.
A18.16 Buckling of Rectangular Plates with Various Edge Loads and
Support Conditions.
A18.17 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plates Uniformly
Compressed in One Direction.
A18.18 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plate Compressed in
Two Perpendicular Directions
A18.19 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plate Under
Combined Bending and Compression.
A18.20 Inelastic Buckling of Thin Sheets
A18.21 References

A18 Part 3 —- Strength of Columns with Stable Cross Sections

A18.22 Methods of Column Failure. Column Equations
A18.23 Column End Restraint. Fixity Coefficients. Column Effective
Length
A18.24 Design Column Curves for Various Materials.
A18.25 Selection of Materials for Elevated Temperature Conditions.
A18.26 Example Problem.
A18.27 Comprehensive Treatment of Column Strength
A18.28 Some Mechanical and Physical Properties of a Few Typical Aircraft
Materials
INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL AIRCRAFT STRESS ANALYSIS

A19 —- Introduction To Wing Stress Analysis By Modified Beam Theory.

A19.1 Typical Wing Structural Arrangement
A19.2 Some Factors Which Influence Wing Structural Arrangements
Light Weight
Wing-Fuselage Attachments
Cut-Outs in Wing Surface
Folding Wings
Wing Flutter Prevention
Ease and Cost of Production
A19.3 Wing Strength Requirements
A19.4 Wing Stress Analysis Methods
Methods of Stress Analysis for Statically Indeterminate Wing Structures
A19.5 Example Problem 1: 3 Flange – Single Cell Wing
A19.6 Example Problem 2: Metal Covered Wing with Single External Brace
Strut
A19.7 Single Spar – Cantilever Wing – Metal Covered
A19.8 Stress Analysis of Thin Skin – Multiple Stringer Cantilever Wing.
Introduction and Assumptions
Assumptions – Beam Theory
A19.9 Physical Action of Wing Section in Resisting External Bending Forces
from Zero to Failing Load
A19.10 Ultimate Strength Design Requirement
A19.11Effective Section at Failing Load
Effective Factor for Buckled Stringers
A19.12 Example Problem
A19.13 Bending and Shear Stress Analysis of Tapered – Multiple Stringer
Cantilever Wing. Unsymmetrical Beam Method
A19.14 Bending and Shear Stress Analysis of 2-Cell Multiple Stringer
Tapered Cantilever Wing
A19.15 Bending Strength of Thick Skin- Wing Section
A19.16 Example Problem
A19.17 Application to Practical Wing Section
A19.18 Shear Lag Influence
A19.19 Application of Shear Lag Approximation to Wing with Cut-Out
A19.20 Approximate Shear Lag Effect in Beam Regions where Large
Concentrated Loads are Applied
A19.21 Approximation of Shear Lag Effect for Sudden Change in Stringer
Area
A19.22 Problems
A20 —- Introduction To Fuselage Stress Analysis By Modified Beam Theory.
A20.1 General
A20.2 Loads. Basic Structure
A20.3 Stress Analysis Methods. Effective Cross-Section
A20.4 Example Problem.
A20.5 Ultimate Bending Strength of Fuselage Section. Example Calculation.
A20.6 Shear Flow Analysis for Fuselage Structures
A20.7 Example Problem. Tapered Circular Fuselage with Unsymmetrical
Stringer Areas.
A20.8 Discontinuities - Shear Lag - Pressurization Stresses. Combined
Stresses .
A20.9 Problems
A20.10 Secondary Stresses in Fuselage Stringers and Rings

A21 —- Loads And Stresses On Ribs And Frames.

A21.1 Introduction
A21.2 Types of Wing Rib Construction
A21.3 Distribution of Concentrated Loads to Thin Sheet Panels.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM ILLUSTRATING TRANSFER OF CONCENTRATED
LOAD TO SHEET PANEL
A21.4 Stresses in Wing Ribs - Rib for Single Cell 2 Flange Beam.
A21.5 Stresses in Rib for 3 Stringer Single Cell Beam.
A21.6 Stress Analysis of Rib for Single Cell Multiple Stringer Wing.
A21.7 Rib Loads Due to Discontinuities in Wing Skin Coverin
A21.8 Example Problem. Wing with Cut-Out Subjected to Torsion.
A21.9 Example Problem. Wing with Cut-Out Subjected to Bending and
Torsional Loads.
A21.10 Fuselage Frames
A21.11 Supporting Boundary Forces on Fuselage Frames.
A21.12 Calculation of Frame Boundary Supporting Forces.
A21.13 Problems

A22 —- Analysis Of Special Wing Problems. Cutouts. Shear Lag. Swept Wing.
A22.1 Introduction
A22.2 Stresses Around a Panel Cutout
A22.3 Shear Lag Analysis of Box Beams
A22.4 Stress Analysis of a Box Beam With a Cutout.

A23 —- Analysis By The “Method Of Displacements”.

A23.1 Introduction
A23.2 Structural Coordinates
A23.3 Theoretical Basis of the Method of Displacements
A23.4 Tabulation of Element Properties
A23.5 Transformation o{'Coordinates
A23.6 Calculation of Displacements and Stresses
A23.7 Method of Gaussian Elimination
A23.8 Gauss -Seidel Iteration
A23.9 Calculation of Nodal Forces for Loads Acting Between Nodal Points
A23.10 Structural Modeling Using Finite Elements
A23.11 A Delta Wing Example Problem*
A23.12 Accuracy, Convergence and Error Bounds
A23.13 Management of Problem for the Computer
THEORY OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

A24 —- The 3-Dimensional Equations Of Thermoelasticity.

A24.1 Assumptions
A24.2 Formulation of the 3-Dimensional Equations of Thermoelasticity
A24.3 The Equilibrium Equations.
A24.4 Strain - Displacement Relations .
A24.5 Stress-Strain Relations.
A24.6 The General Equations of 3-Dimensional Thermoelasticity .
A24.7 The Compatability Equations.
A24.8 Boundary Conditions
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
A24.9 General Notes

A25 —- The 2-Dimensional Equations Of Elasticity And Thermoelasticity.

A25.1 Introduction
A25.2 Plane Stress
A25.3 Derivation of Equations
Equations of Equilibrium
Stress-Strain Relation
Strain-Displacement Relations
Formulation of Plane Stress Problem
Stress Formulation
Displacement Formulation
A25.4 Formulation of Plane Stress Problem
Stress Formulation
Displacement Formulation
A25.5 Plane Strain
A25.6 Mathematical Equality of the Plane Stress and Plane Strain Problems
A25.7 Formulation of Plane Strain Problem.
A25.8 Concluding Discussion.
A25.9 Problems

A26 —- Selected Problems In Elasticity And Thermoelasticity.

A26.1 Introduction
A26.2 One-Dimensional Problem
A26.3Two-Dimensional Problems
FLIGHT VEHICLE MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

B1 —- Basic Principles And Definitions.

B1.1 Introduction
B1.2 Failure of Structures.
B1.3 General Types of Loading.
B1.4 The Static Tension Stress-Strain Diagram.
B1.5 The Static Compression Stress-Strain Diagram.
B1.6 Tangent Modulus. Secant Modulus.
B1.7 Elastic - Inelastic Action.
B1.8 Ductility.
B1.9 Capacity to Absorb Energy. Resilience. Toughness.
B1.10 Poisson's Ratio .
Poisson's Ratio in Plast1c Range.
B1.11 Construction of a Stress-Strain Curve Through a Given Yield Stress by
Using a Known Test Stress-Strain Curve.
B1.12 Non-Dimensional Stress-Strain Curves •
B1.13 Influence of Temperature on Material Properties.
B1.14 Creep of Materials.
Effect of Time
B1.15 The General Creep Pattern.
B1.16 Stress-Time Design Charts.
B1.17 Effect of Time of Exposure.
B1.18 Effect of Rapld Rate of Heating
B1.19 General Effect of Low Temperatures Upon Material Properties.
B1.20 Fatigue of Materials.
B1.21 Effect of Impact Loading on Material Properties
B1.22 Example of Some Results of Impact Testing of Materials

B2 —- Mechanical And Physical Properties Of Metallic Materials For Flight Vehicle

Structures.
STRENGTH OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

C1 —- Combined Stresses. Theory Of Yield And Ultimate Failure.

C1.1 Uniform Stress Condition
C1.2 Shearing Stresses on Planes at Right Angles
C1.3 Simple Shear Produces Tensile and Compressive Stresses.
C1.4 Principal Stresses
C1.5 Shearing Stresses Resulting From Principal Stresses.
C1.6 Combined Stress Equations
C1.7 Mohr's Circle for Determination of Principal Stresses.
C1.8 Components of stress From PrinCipal Stresses by Mohr's Circle.
C1.9 Example Problems.
C1.10 Triaxial or Three Dimensional Stresses
C1.11 Principal Strains
C1.12 Elastic Strain Energy
C1.13 Structural Design Philosophy. Limit and Ultimate Loads. Factors of
Safety. Margin of Safety.
C1.14 Required Strength of Flight Structures.
C1.15 Determination of the Ultimate Strength of a Structural Member Under a
Combined Load System. Stress Ratio-Interaction Curve Method.
C1.16 Determination of Yield Strength of a Structural Member Under a
Combined Load System.
C1.17 The Octahedral Shear Stress Theory.
C1.18 Example Problem

C2 —- Strength Of Columns With Stable Cross-Sections.

C2.1 Methods of Column Failure. Column Equations.
C2.2 Column End Restraint. FiXity Coefficients. Column Effective Length.
C2.3 Design Column Curves for Various Materials.
C2.4 Tangent Modulus Et from Ramberg-Osgood Equation
C2.5 Non-Dimensional Column Curves.
C2.6 Strength of Columns with Variable Cross-Section or Moment of Inertia.
C2.7 Design Column Curves for Columns with Non-Uniform Cross-Section.
C2.8 Column Fixity Coefficients c for Use with Columns with Elastic Side
Restraints and Known End Bending Restraint.
C2.9 Selection of Materials for Elevated Temperature Conditions.
C2.10 Example Problems.
C2.11 Solution Without Using Column Curves.
C2.12 Strength of Stepped Column.
Case 1: Elastic Failure
Case 2: Inelastic Failure
C2.13 Column Strength With Known End Restraining Moment.
C2.14 Columns With Elastic Lateral Supports.
Problems.
C3 —- Yield And Ultimate Strength In Bending.
C3.1 Introduction
C3.2 Bastc Approach to Finding the Bending Strength of Members
C3.3 Bending Strength of a Solid Round Bar.
C3.4 The Cozzone Simplified Procedure.
C3.5 Design Curves for Finding Modulus of Rupture (Fb).
C3.6 Example Problems in Finding Bending Strength
C3.7 Complex Bending. Symmetrical Section. Moment Vector Not Parallel
to Principal Axis.
C3.8 Section with One Axis of Symmetry.with Moment Vector not Parallel to
Either Axis.
C3.9 Unsymmetrical Section with No Axis of Symmetry.
C3.10 Alternate More Exact Method for Complex Bending.
C3.11 Alternate More Exact Method for Complex Bending
C3.12 Strength Under Combined Bending and Flexural Shear.
C3.13 Strength Under Combines Bending, Flexural Shear, and Axial
Compression
C3.14 Further Values of fm and fo .
C4 —- Strength And Design Of Round, Streamline, Oval And Square Tubing In
Tension, Compression, Bending, Torsion And Combined Loadings.
C4.1 Introduction
C4.2 Design for Tension.
C4.3 Design for Compression.
C4.4 Column Formulas for Round Steel Tubes.
C4.5 Column Formulas for Aluminum Alloy Tubes.
C4.6 Column Formulas for Magnesium Alloys
C4.7 Short Column Equations for Other Materials.
C4.8 Column Failure Due to Local Failure
C4.9 Design Column Charts
C4.10 Section Properties of Round Tubing.
C4.11 Some General Facts in Tubing Design.
C4.12 Effect of Welding of Steel Tubes Upon the Tension and Column
Strength.
C4.13 Illustrative Problems in Strength Checking and Design of Round Steel
Tubes as Columns and Tension Members.
C4.14 llustrative Problems Using Aluminum Alloy and Magnesium Round
Tubes as Columns and Tension Members.
C4.15 Strength of Streamline Tubing.
C4.16 Strength of Oval and Square Shaped Tubes in Compression.
C4.17 ULTIMATE BENDING STRENGTH OF ROUND TUBES - Charts for
Finding Modulus of Rupture Stress.
C4.18 Problems Involving Bending Strength of Tubes.
C4.19 ULTIMATE TORSIONAL STRENGTH OF ROUND TUBES - Torsional
Modulus of Rupture.
C4.20 Torsional Modulus of Rupture Curves.
C4.21 Problems nlustrating Use of Torsional Modulus of Rupture Curves.
C4.22 STRENGTH OF ROUND TUBES UNDER COMBINED LOADINGS -
Combined Bending & Compression.
C4.23 IlIustrative Problem Involving Combined Bending and Compression.
C4.23a Combined Bending and Tension
C4.24 Combined Bending and Torsion.
C4.24a Ultimate Strength in Combined Compression, Bending and
Torsion.
C4.25 Ultimate Strength in Combined Bending and Flexural Shear.
C4.26 Ultimate Strength in Combined Compression, Bending, Flexural Shear
and Torsion.
C4.27 Ultimate Strength in Combined Tension and Torsion.
C4.28 Ultimate Strength in Combined Tension, Torsion and Internal Pressure
p in psi.
C4.29 Problems
C5 —- Buckling Strength Of Flat Sheet In Compression, Shear, Bending And Under
Combined Stress Systems.
C5.1 Introduction
C5.2 Equation for Elastic Buckling Strength of Flat Sheet in Compression
C5.3 Buckling Coefficient, kc
C5.4 Equation for Inelastic Buckling Strength of Flat Sheet in Compression.
C5.5 Simple Problems to illustrate Use of Curves in Figs C5. 7 and C5. 8.
C5.6 Cladding Reduction Factors.
C5.7 Buckling Under Shear Loads - Buckling of Flat Rectangular Plates
Under Shear Loads.
C5.8 BUCKLING UNDER BENDING LOADS- Buckling of Flat Plates Under
Bending Loads.
C5.9 BUCKLING OF FLAT SHEETS UNDER COMBINED LOADS -
Combined Bending and Longitudinal Compression
C5.10 Combined Bending & Shear.
C5.11 Combined Shear and Longitudinal Direct Stress. (Tension or
Compression. )
C5.12 Combined Compression, Bending & Shear .
C5.13 Illustrative Problems.
C5.14 Problems

C6 —- Local Buckling Stress For Composite Shapes.

C6.1 Introduction
C6.2 Compressive Buckling Stress for Equal Flanged Elements.
C6.3 Compressive Buckling Stress for Simple Flange-Web Elements.
C6.4 Design Charts for Local Buckling Stresses of Some Composite Web-
Flange Shapes.
C6.5 Problems lllustrating Use of Charts.
C6.6 Buckling of Stiffened Flat Sheets Under Longitudinal Compression.
C7 —- Crippling Strength Of Composite Shapes And Sheet-Stiffener Panels In
Compression. Column Strength.
C7.1 Introduction
C7.2 Method 1. The Angle Method or the Needham method
C7.3 Design Curves
C7.4 Method 2. For Crippling Stress Calculation – The Gerard Method
C7.5 Stresses and Displacements of Flat Plates After Buckling Under
Conditions of Uniform End Shortening
C7.6 The Gerard Equations for Crippling Stress
C7.7 Correction for Cladding
C7.8 Maximum Values for Crippling Stresses
C7.9 Restraint Produced by Lips and Bulbs
C7.10 Illustrative Problems in Calculating Crippling Stresses
C7.11 Effective Sheet Widths - Introduction
C7.12 Sheet Effective Widths
C7.12 Effective Width W1 for Sheet with one Edge Free
C7.13 Effective Width When Sheet and Stiffener Have Different Material
Properties.
C7.14 Inter-Rivet Buckling Stress.
C7.15 lllustrative Problem Involving Effective Sheet.
C7.16 Failing Strength of Short Sheet-Stiffener Panels in Compression.
C7.17 Failure by Inter-Rivet Buckling
C7.18 Failure of Short Panels by Sheet Wrinkling.
C7.19 Equation for Wrinkling Failing Stress Fw
C7.20 Rivet Criterion for Wrinkling Failure.
C7.21 Problem 1. Illustrating Calculation of Short Panel Failing Strength.
C7.22 General Design Limitations to Prevent Secondary Failure in Sheet-
Stiffener Panels.
C7.23 Y Stiffened Sheet Panels.
C7.24 Example Problem Y Stiffened Panel.
C7.25 COLUMN STRENGTH - Column Curve for Members With Unstable
Cross-Sections.
C7.26 Methods Used for Determining the Column Failing Stress in the
Transition Region.
METHOD 1. JOHNSON-EULER EQUATION.
METHOD 2
METHOD 3
C7.27 Example Problems Involving the Finding of the Column Strength of
Columns With Unstable Cross-Sections.
C7.28 Column Strength of Stiffener With Effective Sheet
C7.29 Sheet-Stiffener Panels With Relatively Heavy Sheet Thickness.
Problems
C8 —- Buckling Strength Of Monocoque Cylinders.
C8.1 Introduction
C8.2 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders Under Axial Compression.
C8.3 Additional Convenient Design Charts for Determining Compressive
Buckling Stress.
C8.4 Plasticity Correction.
C8.5 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders Under Axial Load and
Internal Pressure.
C8.6 BUCKLING OF MONOCOQUE CIRCULAR CYLINDERS UNDER PURE
BENDING - Introduction
C8.7 Available Design Curves for Bending Based on Experimental Results.
C8.8 Buckling Strength of Circular Cylinders in Bending with Internal
Pressure.
C8.9 External Hydrostatic Pressure.
C8.10 External Radial Pressure.
C8.11 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders Under Pure Torsion.
C8.12 Buckling Under Transverse Shear.
C8.13 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Pure Torsion With Internal
Pressure.
C8.14 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Transverse Shear and Internal
Pressure.
C8.15 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Combined Load Systems.
C8.16 Illustrative Problems for Finding the Buckling Strength of Circular
Monocoque Cylinders.
C8.17 Buckling Strength of Thin-Walled (Monocoque) Conical Shells.
C8.18 Allowable Compressive Buckling Stress for Thin-Walled Conical
Shells.
C8.19 Additional Design Buckling Curves for Thin-Walled Conical Shells.
C8.20 Problems
C9 —- Buckling Strength Of Curved Sheet Panels And Spherical Plates. Ultimate
Strength Of Stiffened Curved Sheet Structures.
Part 1 – Buckling Strength of Curved Sheet Panels
C9.1 Introduction
C9.2 State of the Theory
C9.3 Compressive Buckling Stress of Curved Sheet Panels
C9.4 Shear Buckling Stress of Curved Sheet Panels
C9.5 Buckling Strength of Curved Sheet panels Under Combined Axial
Compression and Shear
C9.6 Compressive Buckling Stress of Curved Panels with Internal
Pressure
C9.7 Shear Buckling Stress of Curved Sheet Panels with Internal
Pressure.
C9.8 Example Problems.
PART 2 - ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CYLINDRICAL
STRUCTURES.
C9.9 Introduction
C9.10 Types of Instability Failure of Semi-Monocoque Structures
Skin Instability
Panel Instability
General Instability
C9.11 The Determination of the Stresses in a Stiffened Cylindrical
Structure Under External Loads.
C9.12 Panel Instability Strength.
C9.13 Calculation of General Instability.
C9.14 Buckling of Spherical Plates Under Uniform External Pressure.
C9.15 Problems
C10 —- Design Of Metal Beams. Web Shear Resistant (Non-Buckling) Type.
FLAT SHEET WEB WITH VERTICAL STIFFENERS.
C10.1 Introduction
C10.2 Flange Design
C10.3 Allowable Flange Design Stresses
C10.4 Use of Stress-strain Diagrams in Computing Beam Flange Bending
Allowable Design stresses.
C10.5 Flange Strength (Crippling).
C10.6 Web Strength. Stable Webs.
C10.7 Web Bending and Shear Stresses.
C10.8 Shear Resistance Provided by Sloping Flanges.
C10.9 Effect of Variable Moment of Inertia on FIexural Shear Stress
Distribution.
C10.9a Flange Discontinuities.
C10.10 Stiffener Size to Use with Non-Buckling Web.
C10.11 Notes on Beam Rivet DeSign.
C10.12 Loads on Rivets Attaching Reinforcing Plates to Flange Member.
C10.13 Web Splices.
C10.14 Example Rivet Problem.
C10.15 Example Problem. Strength Check of Beam.
C10.15a Use of Longitudinal stiffener to Increase Bending Buckling Stress of
Web Sheet.
PART 2. OTHER TYPES OF NON-BUCKLING BEAM WEBS.
C10.16 Other Types of Web Design.
C10.17 Beaded Webs.
C10.18 Webs With Round Lightening Holes Having Formed 45 Flanges.
C10.19 Webs With Round Beaded Flange Lightening Holes and
Intermediate Vertical Male Beads.
C10.20 Example Problems.
C11 —- Diagonal Semi-Tension Field Design.
PART 1. BEAMS WITH FLAT WEBS.
C11.1 Introduction
C11.2 Elementary Approximate Explanation of Tension-Field - Beam Action
C11.3 Elementary Derivation of Approximate Tension- Field Beam Formulas.
C11.4 General Wagner Equations for Tension Field Beams
C11.5 Modified Wagner Equations for Use in Design.
C11.6 Shear Carried by the Beam Flanges.
C11.7 Shear Load Carried by Web.
C11.8 Beams with Parallel Flanges but with Oblique Web Stiffeners.
C11.9 Rivet Loads.
C11.10 Flange Loads
C11.11 Loads in Web Vertical Stiffeners.
C11.12 Beams with Non-Parallel Flanges.
C11.13 Example Problem Using Method 1.
C11.14 Method 2 -NACA Method of Strength Analysis for Semi-Tension Field
Beams with Flat Webs.
C11.15 Engineering Theory of Incomplete Diagonal Tension.
C11.16 Formulas for Stress Analysis.
C11.17 Critical Shear Stress.
C11.18 Loading Ratio.
C11.19 Diagonal-Tension Factor k.
C11.20 Average and Maximum Stress in Upright or Web Stiffener.
C11.21 Angle of Diagonal Tension.
C11.22 Allowable Stresses in Uprights.
(1) Column Failure.
(2) Forced CrIppling Failure.
(3) Natural Crippling Failure.
(4) General elastic instability failure of web and stiffeners.
C11.23 Web Design.
C11.24 Rivet Design.
C11.25 Secondary Bending Moments in Flanges.
C11.26 Shear stiffness of Web.
C11.27 Example Problem. Using NACA Method. (Method 2).
C11.28 General Conclusion.
C11.29 End Bay Effects.
PART 2. CURVED WEB SYSTEMS.
C11.30 Diagonal Tension in Curved Web Systems - Introduction.
C11.31 General Discussion.
C11.32 Analysis of Stringer Systems in Diagonal Tension.
C11.33 Allowable Stresses (and Interactions).
C11.34 Example Problem.
C11.35 LONGERON TYPE SYSTEM
C11.36 Calculation Procedure
C11.37 Example Problem
C11.38 Summary
C11.39 Problems for Part 1
C11.40 Problems for Part 2
C12 —- Sandwich Construction And Design.
C12.1 Introduction
C12.2 Basic Design Principles.
C12.3 Nomenclature.
C12.4 Basic Sandwich Structural Properties.
C12.4.1 Sandwich Bending Stiffness.
C12.4.2 Sandwich Shear Stiffness
C12.4.3 Core Properties
C12.4.4 Core Density
C12.4.4 Core Shear Properties
C12.4.6 Core Flatwise Compresslon Properties
C12.4.7 Core Flatwise Tensio'n Properties.
CI2. 4. 8 Combined Load Strength.
C12.4.9 Other Isotropic Cores
C12.5 Honeycomb Flat Panel Failure Modes.
C12.5.1 General.
C12.5.2 Intracell Buckling
C12.5.2.1 Compression
C12.5.2.2 Shear
C12.5.2.2 Shear
Biaxial Loading
Biaxial and Shear Loading.
C12.5.3 Wrinkling
C12.5.3.1 Compression
C12.5.3.2 In-Plane Shear
C12.5.3.2 Biaxial Loading
C12. 5.3.4 Biaxial and Shear Loading.
C12.5.4 Shear Crimping.
C12. 5. 5 General Instability - Uniaxial Compression.
C12. 5. 6 General Shear Buckling Allowables.
C12. 5.7 Biaxial Compression.
C12.5.8 Biaxial Compression and Shear.
C12.6 Failure Modes in Curved Honeycomb Panels.
C12.6.1 General
C12.6.2 Uniaxial Compression - Curved Panel (Ref. 6)
C12. 6. 3 Uniaxial Compression.
C12.6.4 Torsion (Ref. 012).
C12.6.5 Uniform External Lateral Pressure (Ref. 7).
C12. 6. 6 Bending Moment.
C12. 6.7 Lateral Load and Axial Compression.
C12. 6. 8 Axial Compression, Lateral Load and Torsion.
C12.7 Buckling of Flat Panels with Dissimilar Faces.
C12. 7.1 General.
C12. 7.2 Uniaxial Compression.
C12.10
C12.8 Core Shear Induced by Loads Applied at an Insert.
C12.8.1 General.
C12. 8.2 Shear Stress Distribution .
C12.9 Corrugated Core Sandwich Failure Modes - Ref. 10.
C 12.9.1 General.
C12. 9. 2 Corrugated Sl'.ndwich Panel General Buckling Coefficients
C12.10 Design of Sandwich Structures.
C12. 10. 1 General:
C12. 10.2 Dimpling of Sandwich Facings.
C12. 10.3 Wrinkling of Sandwich Facings
4 C12.10.4 Shear Crimping of Sandwich Panels.
C12. 10. 5 General Buckling of Sandwich Panels.
12. 10. 5 Design of Flat Sandwich Panels.
C12. 10. 5. 1 Determining FaCing Thicknesses and Panel
Parameters
C12. 10. 5. 2 Determining FaCing Thickness and Panel Parameters for
Honeycomb Panels in Shear.
C12. 10. 5.3 Determining Facing Thickness and Panel Parameters for
Corrugated Panels in Compression
C12.10. 5.4 Determining Facing Thickness and Panel Parameters for
Corrugated Panels in Shear.
C12. 10. 6 Design of Sandwich Cylinders.
C12. 10.6. 1 Determining Fac·ing Thicknesses and Panel Parameters
for Cylinder in Axial Compression.
C12. 10.6.2 Determining Facing Thickness and Panel Parameters for
Cylinders in Torsion.
C12. 10. 6. 3 Determining FaCing Thickness and Panel Parameters for
Cylinders Under Lateral Pressure.
C12. 11. 1 Example Problem.
C12. 11.2 Example Problem.
C12. 11.3 Example Problem.
C12. 11.4 Example Problem.
C12. 11.5 Example Problem.
C12. 11.6 Example Problem.
C12. 11.7 Example Problem.
C13 —- Fatigue
C13.1 Introduction
C13.2 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
C13.3 FATIGUE DATA
C13. 3.1 Unnotched Data
CI3. 3. 2 Notched Data
C13.3.3 Endurance Limit
C13. 3. 4 Fatigue Testing Machines
CI3. 3. 5 Test Scatter
C13. 3. 6 Load-N Curves
C13. 3. 7 Elevated Temperature
C13.5 INCREASING FATIGUE RESISTANCE
CI3.5.1 Introduction
C13. 5.2 Stress, Strain & Plastic Deformation
C13. 5. 3 Effect of Residual Stress on Fatigue
C13. 5. 4 Mechanically Introduced Residual Stresses
C13. 5. 5 Residual Stresses by Diffusion Hardening
C13. 5. 6 Increasing Rigidity
C13. 5. 7 Combined Rigidity and Residual Stress
C13. 5. 8 Load Relief at Fasteners
C13.6 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE
C13.6.1 Introduction
C13. 6. 2 Loads
CI3. 6. 3 Predicting Life
C13. 6. 4 Stress Interaction
C13.6.5 Fatigue Strength Index -- An Easy Out
C13. 6. 6 Summary on Life Production
C13.7 SAFE LIFE, FAIL SLOW, AND FAIL SAFE
C13.7.1 Safe Life and Crack Propagation
C13. 7.2 Fail Safe
C13.8 FREQUENTLY OVERLOOKED PROBLEM AREAS
C13.8.1 Fatigue Failures of Compressive Surfaces
C13. 8. 2 Heavy Forging Attachments on Stressed Parts
C13. 8. 3 Single Shear Flush Joints
C13. 8. 4 Fastener Sizes·
C13. 8. 5 Acoustic Fatigue
C13.9 Check List
C13.10 Concluding Remarks
CONNECTIONS AND DESIGN DETAILS

D1 —- Fittings And Connections. Bolted And Riveted.

Introduction
D1.2 Economy in Fitting Design
D1.3 Fitting Design Loads – Minimum Margin of Safety
D1.4 Special or Higher Factors of Safety
D1.5 Aircraft Bolts
D1.6 Aircraft Nuts
D1.7 Bolt Shear, Tension, and Bending Strengths
D1.8 Bolts in Combined Shear and Tension
D1.8a Bushings
D1.9 Single Bolt Fitting
D1.10 Methods of Failure of Single Bolt Fitting and the Allowable Fitting
Loads
D1.10.1 Failure by Bolt Shear
D1.10.2 Failure by Bolt Loading
D1.10.3 Failure of Lug Portion of Fitting
D1.10.4 Method 1 of Bolt And Lug Strength Analysis
D1.10.5 Failure in Shear Tear out
D1.10.6 Failure by Bearing of Bushing on Plate
D1.10.7 Failure by Bearing of Bolt Bushing
General Comments on Margins of Safety for Lugs
Failure in Shear Tear out
D1.11 Method 2 – Lug Strength Analysis Under Axial Loading
D1.11.1 Tension across the Net Section
D1.11.2 Shear Out-Bearing Strength
D1.11.3 Bushing Yield
D1.11.4 Pin Shear Strength
D11.11.5 Bolt or Pin Bending
D1.12 Lug Strength Analysis Under Transverse Loading
D1.13 Lug Strength Analysis Under Oblique Loads
D1.14 Bolt Bending Strength
D1.15 Illustrative Problems
D1.16 Bolt Loads for Multiple Bolt Fitting. Bolts Sizes Different. Concentric
Loading
D1.17 Multiple Riveted or Bolted Joints Subjected to Eccentric Loads
D1.18 Riveted Connections – Types of Rivets
D1.19 Rivet Material
D1.20 Strength of Rivets – Protruding Head Type
D1.21 Strength of Rivets – Flush Type
D1.22 Blind Rivets
D1.23 Riveted Sheet Splice Information
D1.24 Illustrative Problems involving Use of Rivets
D1.25 Rivets in Tension
D1.26 Rivet Tension Strengths
D2 —- Welded Connections.
D2.1 Introduction
D2.2 Gas Welding
D2.3General Notes on the Practical Design of Welded Joints
D2.4 General Types of Welded Steel Fitting Units.
D2.5 Electric Arc Welding.
D2.6 Effect of Welding on Base Metal.
D2.7 Weld-Metal Allowable Stress.
D2.8 Brazing.
D2.9 Welding of Aluminum Alloys.
D2.10 llustrative Problems Involving Welding.
D2.11 Spot Welding.
D2.12 Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloys.
D2.13 Spot Strengths.
D2.14 Reduction of Tensile Strength of Parent Metal Due to Spot Welding
D2.15 Problems

D3 —- Some Important Details In Structural Design.

D3.1 Introduction
D3.2 Shear Clips.
D3.3 Tension Clips
D3.4 Joggled Members.
D3.5 Fillers.
D3.6 Cut-outs in Webs or Skin Panels.
D3.7 Special Cases of Beam Design.
(a) Curved Beams
(b) Flanges with Local Changes in Direction (Bent Flange)
(c) Flanges Subjected to Normal Loads Tending to Bend Them.
(d) Flanges Requir1ng Stabi1ization Against Out-of-Plane Buckling.
D3.8 Structural Skin Panel Details.
(a) Rectangular Holes
(b) Recessed Panels
(c) Installation of Axial Members on Skin Panels
(d) Spot Welded Doublers
(e) Tension Skin Splices
D3.9 Additional Important Structural Details.