STEAM BOILER INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL

Introduction
Steam is mainly required for power generation, process heating and space heating
purposes. The capacity of the boilers used for power generation is considerably large compared
with other boilers.
Due to the requirement of high efficiency, the steam for power generation is produced at
high pressures and in very large quantities. They are very large in size and are of individual design
depending on the type of fuel used.
A steam generator popularly known as boiler is a closed vessel made of high quality steel
in which steam is generated from water by the application of heat. The water receives heat from
the hot gases through the heating surface of the boiler. The hot gases are formed by burning fuel,
may be coal, oil or gas. Heating surface of the boiler is that part of the boiler which is exposed to
hot gases on one side and water or steam on the other side. The steam which is collected over the
water surface is taken from the boiler through super heater and then suitable pipes to turbine.
Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.
Classification of Boiler
The boilers may be classified as follows:
1. Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined

If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal, if the axis is vertical, it
is called vertical boiler and of the axis is inclined it is known as inclined boiler. The parts of a
horizontal boiler can be inspected and repaired easily but it occupies more spaces. The vertical
boiler occupies less floor area.
 Fig.4.1 Horizontal Boiler.
2. Fire Tube And Water Tube

In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes.
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tube and hot gases surround them. Examples:
Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling boiler etc.

Fig.4.2 Fire Tube Boiler.

3. Externally Fired And Internally Fired

The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the boiler shell. Examples: Babcock
and Wilcox, Stirling boiler.

In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Example:
Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.

Fig.4.3 Externally Fired Boiler.

4. Forced Circulation And Natural Circulation
 In forced circulation type boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump. Examples:
Velox, Lamont, Benson boiler etc.
In natural circulation type boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural
convention currents produced by the application of heat. Examples: Lancashire, Babcock and
Wilcox boiler etc.

Fig.4.4 Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation Boiler.

5. High Pressure And Low Pressure Boiler

The boiler which produce steam at a pressure of 80 bar and above are called high pressure
boiler. Examples: Babcock and Wilcox, Velox, Lamont, Benson boilers.
The boilers which can produce steam at a pressure below 80 bars are called low pressure
boilers. Examples: Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and locomotive boilers.
6. Single Tube And Multi-Tube Boiler

The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the fire tube is one or more than one. The examples of former type are Cornish, simple
vertical boiler and rest of the boilers are multi-tube boilers.

Fig.4.5 Single Tube Boiler.

STEAM BOILER INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL

Introduction
 Different fittings and devices necessary for the operation and safety of a boiler are known
as boiler mountings. The safety valve, water level indicator, and the fusible plug are the devices
used for safety operation of the boiler. The pressure gauge, feed check valve, blow-off cock and
steam stop valve fall under the category of fittings and these are essential for the operation of the
boiler.

Safety Valve
When there is a sudden drop in steam requirements, the steam pressure in the boiler will
increase. The main function of a safety valve is to prevent under such a condition, an increase in
the steam pressure in the boiler exceeding a predetermined, maximum pressure for which the boiler
is designed. This is automatically done by opening of the valve and discharging the steam to the
atmosphere as soon as the pressure inside the boiler increases above the predetermined value. The
safety valves are directly placed on the top of the boiler shell.

Spring Loaded Safety Valve

This type of safety valve is commonly used now-a-days for stationary as well as mobile
boilers. It is loaded with spring instead of weights. The spring is made from a square steel rod in
helical form.
Spring loaded safety valve consists of two valves, each of which is placed over a valve seat
fixed over a branch pipe. The two branch pipes are connected to a common block which is fixed
on the shell of the boiler. The lever has two pivots each of which is placed over each respective
valve. The lever is attached with a spring at its middle which pulls the lever in downward direction.
The lower end of the spring is attached to the back. Thus the vales are held tight to their sates by
the spring force.

Fig.4.6 Safety Valve.

These valves are fitted against the spring when the steam pressure is greater than the
working pressure and allows the steam to escape from the boiler till the pressure in the boiler
reaches its working pressure. The lever has an extension which projects into the driver’s cabin.
The driver can release the pressure if required just by raising the lever. The lever is connected
loosely by a link to the block. This limits the valve opening and prevents the lever blowing off in
case of spring failure.

Water Level Indicator

It is an important fitting which indicates water level inside the boiler to the observer.
Usually two water level indicators are fitted in front of the boiler. The water indicator shows the
level or water in the boiler drum and warns the operator if by chance the water level goes below a
fixed mark, so that corrective action may be taken in time to avoid any accident.

Pressure Gauge
A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of steam inside the boiler. The commonly
used pressure gauge is known as Bourdon type pressure gauge. It consists of an elastic metallic
type of elliptical cross-section and is bent in the form of circular arc. One end of the tube is fixed
and connected to the steam space of the boiler and other end is connected to a sector wheel through
a link. The sector remains in mesh with a pinion fixed on a spindle to read the pressure on a dial
gauge.

Fig.4.7 Pressure Gauge.

When high pressure steam enters the elliptical tube, the tube section tries to become circular
which causes the other end of the tube to move outward. The movement of the closed end of the
tube is transmitted and magnified by the link and sector. The magnitude of the movement is
indicated by the pointer on the dial.

Fusible Plug
The main objective of the fusible plug is to put off the fire in the furnace of the boiler when
the water level in the boiler falls below an unsafe level and thus avoids the explosion which may
take place due to overheating of the tubes and shell. This plug is generally fitted over the crown of
the furnace or over the combustion chamber.
 Fig.4.8 Fusible Plug.
Under normal water level condition in the boiler, this plug is covered with water which
keeps the temperature of the fusible metal below its melting point. But when the water level in the
boiler falls low enough to uncover the plug; the fusible metal between the plug quickly melts and
drops out. The opening so made allows the steam to rush the water into the furnace and extinguish
the fire. The steam rushing out puts out the fire and gives warning that the crown of the furnace is
in danger of being overheated.

Feed Check Valve

The function of the feed check valve is to allow the supply of water to the boiler at high
pressure continuously and to prevent the back flow of water from the boiler when pump pressure
is less than boiler pressure or when pump fails.

Fig.4.9 Feed Check Valve.

It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler. The lift of the
non-return valve is regulated by the end position of the spindle which is attached with the hand
wheel. The spindle can be moved upward or downward with the help of hand wheel as the upper
portion of the spindle is screwed to a nut.
At normal working condition, the non-return valve is lifted due to the pressure of water
from the pump and the water is fed to the boiler. But when the pump pressure falls below boiler
pressure or if the pump stops, non-return valve is closed automatically due to the pressure of the
steam from the boiler and prevents the escape of water form the boiler.

Blow-Off Cock
 The blow-off cock used for dual functions:
1. To empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, repair and inspection.
2. To discharge the mud and sediments carried with the feed water and accumulated at the
bottom of the boiler.

By periodic blow-off, the salt concentration in the boiler is also reduced. Even with a small
amount of dissolved salt, over a period of time, due to the evaporation of water, the salt
accumulates in the boiler, raising the salt concentration.
It is fitted to the lowest part of the boiler either directly with the boiler shell or to a pip[e
connected with the boiler.

Fig.4.10 Blow-Off Cock.

It consists of a conical plug fitted accurately into a smaller casing. The plug has a rectangular
opening which may be brought with the line of the passage of the casing by rotating the plug. This
causes the water to be discharged from the boiler. The discharging of water may be stopped by
rotating the plug again.
The blow-off cock should be operated only when the boiler is on if the sediments are to be
removed. This is because; the sediments are forced out quickly due to the high steam pressure in
the boiler.

Steam Stop Valve

It is the largest valve on the steam boiler and usually fitted to the highest part of the boiler
shell. The function of the stop valve is to regulate the flow of steam from the boiler to the turbine
as per requirement and shut off the steam flow when not required.
 Fig.4.11 Steam Stop Valve.
The main body is made of cast steel. The valve, valve seat and the nut through which the
valve spindle works, are made of brass for smooth working. The spindle is passed through a gland
to prevent the leakage of steam. The spindle is rotated by means of hand wheel. Due to the rotation
of hand wheel, the valve may move up or down and it may close or open the passage fully or
partially for the flow of the steam.

Boiler Accessories
Introduction
Accessories are the auxiliary plants required for steam boilers for their proper operation
and for the increase of their efficiency. Water feeding equipments, air-preheater, economisers and
super heaters are some of the essential accessories of the boiler.
In the present age of costly fuel, it has become necessary to conserve the fuel by utilizing
the wasted energy to the atmosphere. This is done in all modern power plants by incorporating
economiser and air preheater. By increasing the temperature of feed water passing through the
economiser using waste heat of gas, the quantity of heat given per kg of steam generated in the
boiler is reduced. Similarly, the temperature of air is also increased by passing through the air
preheater using remaining waste energy of the gases. The preheated air increases the combustion
efficiency in the furnace and reduces the fuel loss. In both equipments, the quantity of fuel is
reduced by extracting the heat from the exhaust gases.
The common equipments used in thermal power plants to increase the thermal efficiency
are economisers, and air pre-heaters. The heat carried with the flue gases is partly recovered in air-
preheater and economiser and reduces the fuel supplied to the boiler. The preheating of air with
gases increases the combustion efficiency and reduces the fuel consumption.
The adoption of one or both equipments depends upon the economical justification. It is
also equally essential to maintain the performance of these equipments by preventing corrosion
and fouling from inside and outside; otherwise the gain from these equipments reduces rapidly
with respect to time. The corrosion is generally prevented by using proper materials for the
equipments and controlling the flue gas temperature to avoid the condensation of corrosive gases
carried by the exhaust gases.

ECONOMISER
An economiser is a device used for heating the feed water by means of flue gases from
boiler. The economiser usually extracts the waste heat of the chimney gases to preheat the water
before it is fed into the boiler.
A boiler producing between 10 to 100tonnes of steam per hour and operating at 30% or
more loads should be evaluated for possible retrofitting with an economiser. The cost benefits
depend upon the boiler size; type of fuel used and exhausts gas temperature. It has been estimated
that about 1% fuel can cost can be saved for every 6˚C rise in temperature of

Fig.4.12 Return Bend Economiser.

the boiler feed water. Saving upto maximum 20% can be achieved by incorporating economiser
where boiler operates very effectively.
Types of Economisers. Basically there are two types of economisers:
1) Plain Tube Economiser. Plain tube types are generally used under natural draught
condition. The tubes are made of cast iron to resist corrosive action of the flue gases and
their ends are pressed into top and bottom headers.
An economiser consists of a group of these cast iron tubes located in the main flue between
the boiler and the chimney. The waste flue gases flow outside the economiser tubes and
heat is transferred to the feed water flowing inside the tubes. The external surfaces of the
tubes are continuously cleaned by soot scrapers moving up and down.
2) Gilled Tube Type Economiser. A reduction in economiser size together with increase in
heat transmission can be obtained by casting rectangular gills on the bare tube walls. Cast
iron gilled tube economiser can be used upto 50bar working pressure and such economisers
are indigenously available. At higher pressure steel tubes are used instead of cast-iron
gilled sleeves are shrunk to them.

AIR PREHEATER
 Air preheater, recovers some portion of the waste heat of the flue gases. Air supplied to the
combustion chamber is preheated by using the heat in the waste flue gases. Airs preheater is placed
after the economiser and before the gases enter the chimney.
The heat carried with the flue gases coming out of the economiser is further utilised for
preheating the air before supplying to the combustion chamber. It has been found that an increase
of 20˚C in the air temperature increases the boiler efficiency by 1%.
The air heater is not only considered in terms of boiler efficiency in modern power plants,
but also as a necessary equipment for supply of hot air for drying the coal in pulverised fuel systems
to facilitates grinding and satisfactory combustion of fuel in the furnace.
The use of preheater is much economical when used with pulverised fuel boilers because
the temperature of flue gases going out is sufficiently large and high air temperature is always
desirable for better combustion.
Air heaters are usually installed on steam generators that burn solid fuels but rarely on gas
or oil fired units. By contrast, economisers are specified for most boilers burning liquid or gas or
coal whether or not an air heater is provided.
The two recuperative types of heat-exchangers which are commonly used for air-heating
are described below:
Tubular Air-Heater. The flue gases flow through the tubes and air is passed over the outer
surface of the tubes. The horizontal baffles are provided to increase time of contact which will help
for higher heat transfer. The steel tubes 3 to 10 m in height and 6 to 8 cm in diameter are commonly
used.

Fig 4.14 Tubular Air-Heater.

Plate Type Air-Heater. It consists of rectangular flat plates spaced from 1.5 to 2.5 cm
apart leaving alternate air and gas passage. This type of air-heater is not used in modern installation
as it is more expensive both as to flat cost and maintenance cost compared with tubular air-heaters.
Regenerative Heat Exchangers. The transfer of heat from hot gases to cold air is divided
into two stages. In the first stage, the heat of the hot gases flowing through the heat exchanger is
transferred to the packing of the heater and it is accumulated in the packing and the hot gases are
cooled to sufficiently low temperature before exhaust to atmosphere. This stage is referred to as
‘Heating period’. In the second stage, the cold air is passed through the hot packing where the heat
is accumulated and the heat from the packing is transferred to the cold air. This stage is known as
‘Cooling period’.

Superheater
The function of the superheater in the thermal power plant is to remove the last traces of
moisture (1 to 2%) from the saturated steam coming out of boiler and to increase its temperature
sufficiently above saturation temperature. The superheating raises overall cycle efficiency as well
as avoids too much condensation in the last stages of the turbine which avoids the blade erosion.
The heat of combustion gases from furnace is utilised for the removal of moisture from
steam and to superheat the steam. Super heaters usually have several tube circuits in parallel with
one or more return bends, connected between headers.

Fig.4.15 Superheater.
Types of Superheater
There are two types of super heaters:
1. Convective superheater
2. Radiant superheater

Convective superheater makes use of heat in flue gases whereas a radiant superheater is
placed in the furnace and a wall tube receives heat from the burning fuels through radiant process.
The radiant type of superheater is generally used where a high amount of superheat temperature is
required.
Heat from the hot gases to the vapour in the superheater is transferred at high temperatures.
Therefore primary section of superheater is arranged in counter flow and secondary section in
parallel flow to reduce the temperature stressing of the tube wall. The metal used for superheat
tubes must have high temperature strength, high creep strength and high resistance to oxidation as
superheater tubes get rougher service than water wall of the modern boilers. Carbon steels (510˚C)
and chromium-molybdenum alloys (650˚C) are commonly used for superheater tubes.
The superheater tubes are subjected to corrosion when they are exposed to oxidising and
reducing conditions alternately. This destroys the protective oxide film and exposes the metal
surface open to further corrosion. The alkali deposits formed also have corrosion effect on steel
depending upon its temperature and composition. Low chromium ferritic steels confer some
corrosion resistance but marked resistance is obtained by the use of austenitic alloys.

Steam Separator
The steam available from a boiler may be wet, dry; or superheated; but in many cases there
will be loss of heat from it during its passage through the steam pipe from the boiler to the engine
tending to produce wetness. The use of wet steam in an engine or turbine is uneconomical besides
involving some risk; hence it is usual to need to separate any water that may be present from the
steam before the latter enters the engine. This is accomplished by the use of a steam separator.
Thus the function of a steam separator is to remove the entrained water particles from the steam
conveyed to the steam turbine.

Fig 4.16 Steam Separator.

STEAM TURBINE
The steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy and latter in its turn is transformed into the mechanical energy of
rotation of the turbine shaft. The turbine shaft, directly or with the help of a reduction gearing, is
connected with the driven mechanism. Depending on the type of the driven mechanism a steam
turbine may be utilised in most diverse fields of industry, for power generation.
The steam turbines are mainly divided into two groups as:
a) Impulse turbine
b) Reaction turbine
 In both types of turbine, first the heat energy of the steam at high pressure is converted into
kinetic energy passing through the nozzles. The turbines are classified as impulse or reaction
according to the action of high velocity steam used to develop the power.
In impulse turbine, the steam coming out at a very high velocity through the fixed nozzles
impinges on the blades fixed on the periphery of a rotor. The blades change the direction of the
steam flow without changing its pressure. The resulting motive force (due to the change in
momentum) gives the rotation to the turbine shaft.

Fig 5.1 Impulse and Reaction Turbine.

In the reaction turbine, the high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through the
nozzles. When the steam comes out through this nozzles the velocity of the steam increases relative
to the rotating disc. The resulting reaction force of the steam on nozzle gives the rotating motion
to the disc and the shaft. The shaft rotates in the opposite direction to the direction of the steam jet.
In an impulse reaction turbine, the steam expands both in fixed and moving blades
continuously as the steam passes over them. Therefore, the pressure drop occurs gradually and
continuously over both moving and fixed blades.

ALTERNATOR
The alternator is universally used in automotive applications. It converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy, by electro-magnetic induction.

In a simple version, a bar magnet rotates in an iron yoke which concentrates the magnetic
field. A coil of wire is wound around the stem of the yoke. As the magnet turns, voltage is induced
in the coil, producing a current flow. When the North Pole is up, and South is down, voltage is
induced in the coil, producing current flow in one direction.
 Fig.5.7 Alternator.

As the magnet rotates, and the position of the poles reverses, the polarity of the voltage
reverses too, and as a result, so does the direction of current flow. Current that changes direction
in this way is called alternating current, or AC. The change in direction occurs once for every
complete revolution of the magnet.

Theory of Operation

Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators. When magnetic

field lines cut across a conductor, a current is induced in the conductor. In general, an alternator
has a stationary part (stator) and a rotating part (rotor). The stator contains windings of conductors
and the rotor contains a moving magnetic field. The field cuts across the conductors, generating
an electrical current, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.

Fig.5.8 Alternator Working Principle.

The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless" generator), by
permanent magnets, or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and
brushes. Automotive alternators invariably use brushes and slip rings, which allows control of the
alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet
machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor but are restricted in size owing to
the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage
varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger
machines than those used in automotive applications.

STEAM CONDENSER
A steam condenser is a device or an appliance in which steam condenses and heat released
by steam is absorbed by water. The use of condenser in the power plant improves the efficiency of
the power plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmosphere. Another
advantage of the condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to provide a source of
good pure feed water to the boiler and reduces the water softening plant capacity to a considerable
extent.
The maximum possible thermal efficiency of a power system is given by (T1 – T2)/T1 where
T1 and T2 are the supply and exhaust temperatures. This expansion of efficiency shows that the
efficiency increases with an increase in temperature T1 and with the decrease in temperature T2.
The maximum value of temperature T1 of the steam supplied to a steam prime-mover is limited by
the material consideration. The temperature T2 can be reduced if the exhaust of the steam prime
mover takes place below the atmospheric pressure. This is because; there is definite relation
between the steam temperature and pressure. Low exhaust pressure means low exhaust
temperature. The steam cannot be exhausted to atmosphere if it is expanded in the turbine below
atmospheric pressure. Under this condition, the steam is made to exhaust in a vessel known as
condenser where the pressure inside is maintained below the atmospheric pressure by condensing
the steam with the circulation of the cold water.
A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting heat from steam and the
pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as condenser. The efficiency of the
steam plant is considerably increased by the use of condenser.

Types of Steam Condenser

The condensers are mainly classified as mixing type or jet condenser and non-mixing type
or surface condenser.

In mixing type condensers, the exhaust steam form prime mover and cooling water come
in direct contact with each other and steam condenses in water directly. The temperature of the
condensate (condensed steam + cooling water) is same as that of cooling water leaving the
condenser. The condensate coming out from the mixing type condenser cannot be used as feed to
the boiler as it is not free form salt and pollutant. These type of condenser are generally preferred
where the good quality water are feed to the boiler are easily available in ample quantity. Mixing
condenser is seldom used in modern power plants.

In non-mixing type of condenser, steam and cooling water do not come in direct contact
with each other. The cooling water passes through the number of tubes attached to condenser shell
and steam surrounds the tubes. These type of condensers are universally used in all high capacity
modern steam power plants as the condensate coming out from the condenser is used as feed for
the boiler.

A. Mixing or Jet Type of Condenser. The jet condensers are mainly divided as parallel flow
and counter flow jet condenser.
In parallel flow condensers, the steam and cooling water flow in same direction where as
the flow in opposite direction in counter flow condenser.
Mixing type condenser is mainly classified into three categories depending upon the
arrangement used for the removal of condensate as low level, high level and ejector
condenser.
B. Non-Mixing Type or Surface Condenser. In this type of condenser, the cooling tower
and exhaust steam do not come in direct contact with each other as in case of jet condenser.
This is generally used where large quantity of inferior water is available and better quality
of feed water to the boiler must be used most economically.
Surface condenser consists of a cast iron air-tight cylindrical shell closed at each end. A
number of water tubes are fixed in the tube plates which are located between each cover
head and shell.

The exhaust steam from the prime mover enters at the top of the condenser and surrounds
the condenser tubes through which cooling water is circulated under force. The steam gets
condensed as it comes in contact with cold surface of the tubes. The cooling water flows in one
direction through the first set of the tubes situated in the lower half of condenser and returns in the
opposite direction through the second set of the tubes situated in the upper half of the condenser.
The cooling water comes out from the condenser is discharged into the river or pond. The
condensed steam is taken out form the condenser by a separate extraction pump and air is removed
by an air pump.
 Fig.6.1 Surface Condenser.

Material for Steam Condenser

The application of stainless steel tubing for surface condenser is approximately 30 years
old. The major growth of this application has occurred in past two decade only. Originally these
materials were only considered for highly corrosion environments or areas exposed to severe
erosion. The cost of stainless steel tubes and available heat transfer data, a decade ago, restricted
there used to the really difficult problems areas. Since that time, a number of important advances
have been achieved which have permitted a more use of these materials for condenser application.

The determination of the overall heat transfer properties of stainless steel condenser tubes
in the early 1960 led to more extensive use of these materials. The popular types are 304 (72%
iron, 19% chromium, 9% nickel) and 316. 304 are used in cooling water environment with low
chloride concentrations and 316 are used for sea water environments.

In case of stainless steel tubes, the fouling is due to the formation of deposits from the
cooling water only but the fouling of the brass is caused by deposits and corrosion of the inside
tube surface also.

The overall corrosion resistance of stainless steel, 304 type is excellent for condenser tube
service both the interior and exterior surface resist the formation of corrosion product which has
an important influence on the heat transfer characteristics of the tubes. It offers excellent erosion
and corrosion resistance in fresh water, immunity to NH3 and sulphide attack and the elimination
of potentially troublesome copper ions in feed water.

COOLING WATER SYSTEM

The cooling water system is one of the most important systems of power plant and its
availability predominantly decides the plant site. The high cost of water makes it necessary to use
cooling towers for water cooled condenser.
 The main steam condenser performs the dual function of removing this rejected energy
from the plant cycle and keeping the turbine back pressure at the lowest possible level. The rejected
energy must be returned to the atmosphere. The condenser does this by transferring the latent heat
of the exhaust steam to water exposed to the atmosphere. This water is called circulating or cooling
water. The cooling water requirement in an open system is about 50times the flow of the steam to
the condenser.

In power plants the hot water from condenser is cooled in cooling tower, so it can be reused
in condenser for condensation of steam. In a cooling tower water is made to trickle down drop by
drop so that it comes in contact with the air moving in the opposite direction. As a result of this
some water is evaporated and is taken away with air. In evaporation the heat is taken away from
the bulk of water, which is thus cooled.

Factors affecting cooling of water in a cooling tower are:

1. Temperature of air.
2. Humidity of air.
3. Temperature of hot air.
4. Size and height of tower.
5. Velocity of air entering tower.
6. Accessibility of air to all parts of tower.
7. Degree of uniformly in descending water.
8. Arrangement of plates in tower.

Classification of Cooling Tower

The cooling towers may classify as follows:

1. Natural Draught Cooling Tower

2. Mechanical Draught Cooling Tower
(i) Forced Draught Cooling Tower
(ii) Induced Draught Cooling Tower
1. Natural Draught Cooling Tower. In this type of tower, the hot water from the condenser
is pumped to the troughs and nozzles situated near the bottom. Troughs spray the water
falls in the form of droplets into a pond situated at the bottom of the tower. The air enters
the cooling tower from air openings provided near the base, rises upward and takes up the
heat of falling water.
 Fig.7.1 Natural Draught Cooling Tower.

Natural draught cooling tower has the following advantages:

I. Low operating and maintenance cost.

II. It gives more or less trouble free operation.
III. Considerable less ground area required.
IV. The enlarged top of the tower allows water to fall out of suspension.

The main drawbacks of this tower are:

I. High initial cost.

II. Its performance varies with the seasonal changes in dry bulb temperature and relative
humidity of air.
2. Mechanical Draught Cooling Tower. In these towers the draught of air for cooling the
tower is produced mechanically by means of propeller fans. These towers are usually built
in cells or units, the capacity depending upon the number of cells used.

Fig.7.2 Forced Draught Cooling Tower.

 It is similar to natural draught tower as far as interior construction is concerned, but the
sides of the tower are closed from an air and water tight structure, except for fan opening at the
base for the inlet of fresh air, and the outlet at the top for the exit of air and vapour. There are
hoods at the base projecting from the main portion of the tower where the fans are placed for
forcing the air, into the tower.

Forced Draught Cooling Tower

Advantages:

1. More efficient (than induced draught).

2. No problem of fan blade erosion (as it handles dry air only).
3. More safe.
4. The vibration and noise are minimum.

Disadvantages:

1. The fan size is limited to 4 meters.

2. Power requirement high (approximately double that of induced draught system for the
same capacity).
3. In the cold weather, ice is formed on nearly equipments and buildings or in the fan housing
itself. The frost in the fan outlet can break the fan blades.

Fig.7.3 Induced Draught Cooling Tower.