HISTORY OF GEARS

Indian history as per our mythological stories is more than 12,000 years old. Since
then people living here have been striving to improve the living conditions. We also know
that earlier people were living in the caves and the doors of the caves were made of granite.
How were these heavy doors opened and closed? They were opened and closed by none
other than a system with gear mechanism, wheel, lever and rope drives. However, the
documented evidence has been lost due to destruction by the invaders and improper storing
of palm leaf literature. The guru Kula method of teaching and passing of the information
from mouth to ear procedure and keeping some of the advances as closely guarded secret
have resulted in poor dissemination of the knowledge and documentation. But, the
knowledge of gears has gone from India to east through some of the globe trotters from
China as back as 2600 years BC. They have used the gears then ingeniously in chariots for
measuring the speed and other mechanisms. Primitive gears shown in Fig. 1 were first used
in door drive mechanism in temples and caves, and water lifting mechanisms 2600 B.C. in
India and elsewhere. Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. mentions in his writings that gears
were being used very commonly in many applications. Classical origin of worm gearing
was made by Archimedes 287-212 B.C. Vitruvius a military engineer in his writing in 28
B.C. has described a number of gear applications, typical ones are shown in Figs. 1.2

Fig.1.1 Primitive gears made of wood

DEFINITION OF GEARS
Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by meshing
without any slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair of gears, the
smaller one is called pinion and the larger one is called gear immaterial of which is driving
the other. When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed
decreases and the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it results
in step up drive in which the output speed increases and the torque decreases.
CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into spur,
helical, double helical, straight bevel, spiral bevel and hypoid bevel, worm and spiral gears
and this is shown in Fig. 1.6\
Fig. 1.6 (a) Spur gear, (b) helical
gear, (c) Double helical gear or
herringbone gear, (d) Internal
gear, (e) Rack and pinion, (f)
Straight
bevel gear, (g) Spiral bevel gear,
(h) Hypoid bevel gear, (i) worm
gear and (j) Spiral gear

SPUR GEARS
Spur gears have their teeth parallel to the axis Fig.1.7 and
are used for transmitting power between two parallel
shafts. They are simple in construction, easy to
manufacture and cost less. They have highest efficiency
and excellent precision rating. They are used in high speed
and high load application in all types of trains and a wide
range of velocity ratios. Hence, they find wide applications
right from clocks, household gadgets, motor cycles,
automobiles, and railways to aircrafts. Fig.1.7 Spur Gear

HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears are used for parallel shaft drives. They have
teeth inclined to the axis as shown in Fig. 1.9. Hence for
the same width, their teeth are longer than spur gears and
have higher load carrying capacity. Their contact ratio is
higher than spur gears and they operate smoother and
quieter than spur gears. Their precision rating is good.
They are recommended for very high speeds and loads.
Thus, these gears find wide applications in automotive

Fig.1.9 Helical Gear

gearboxes as illustrated in Fig. 1.10. Their efficiency is slightly lower than spur gears. The
helix angle also introduces axial thrust on the shaft.

DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR OR HERRINGBONE GEAR

Double helical or Herringbone gears used for transmitting
power between two parallel shafts. They have opposing
helical teeth with or without a gap depending on the
manufacturing method adopted, Fig. 1.11. Two axial thrusts
oppose each other and nullify. Hence the shaft is free from
any axial force. Though their load capacity is very high,
manufacturing difficulty makes them costlier than single
helical gear. There applications are limited to high capacity
reduction drives like that of cement mills and crushers, Fig. 1.11 Double Helical Gear or
one such application is exhibited in Fig. 1.12. Herringbone Gear

INTERNAL GEAR
Internal gears are used for transmitting power between two
parallel shafts. In these gears, annular wheels are having
teeth on the inner periphery. This makes the drive very
compact Fig.1.13. In these drives, the meshing pinion and
annular gear are running in the same direction

Fig.1.13. Internal Gear

Rack and Pinion

Rack is a segment of a gear of infinite
diameter. The tooth can be spur as in Fig.
1.15 or helical as in Fig.1.16. This type of
gearing is used for converting rotary motion
into translatory motion or vice versa. Typical
example of rack and pinion applications are
shown in Figs. 1.17 Fig .1.15 Spur tooth rack and pinion
STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR
Straight bevel gears are used for transmitting power between
intersecting shafts, Fig. 1.19. They can operate under high
speeds and high loads. Their precision rating is fair to good.
They are suitable for 1:1 and higher velocity ratios and for
right-angle meshes to any other angles. Their good choice is
for right angle drive of particularly low ratios. However,
complicated both form and fabrication limits achievement of
precision. They should be located at one of the less critical
meshes of the train. Wide application of the straight bevel
drives is in automotive differentials, right angle drives of Fig.1.19 Straight Bevel Gear
blenders and conveyors.

SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR

Spiral bevel gears shown in Fig. 1.21 are also used for transmitting
power between intersecting shafts. Because of the spiral tooth, the
contact length is more and contact ratio is more. They operate
smoother than straight bevel gears and have higher load capacity.
But, their efficiency is slightly lower than straight bevel gear.

Fig.1.21 Spiral Bevel Gear

HYPOID BEVEL GEAR

These gears are also used for right angle drive in
which the axes do not intersect. This permits the
lowering of the pinion axis which is an added
advantage in automobile in avoiding hump inside
the automobile drive line power transmission.
However, the non – intersection introduces a
considerable amount of sliding and the drive
requires good lubrication to reduce the friction and
wear. Their efficiency is lower than other two types
of bevel gears. These gears are widely used in
current day automobile drive line power transmission. Fig.1.23 Hypoid Bevel Gear
 WORM GEAR
Worm and worm gear pair consists of a worm, which is very similar to a screw and a worm
gear, which is a helical gear as shown in Fig. 1.25. They are used in right-angle skew
shafts. In these gears, the engagement occurs without any
shock. The sliding action prevalent in the system while
resulting in quieter operation produces considerable frictional
heat. High reduction ratios 8 to 400 are possible. Efficiency of
these gears is low anywhere from 90% to 40 %. Higher speed
ratio gears are non-reversible. Their precision rating is fair to
good. They need good lubrication for heat dissipation and for
improving the efficiency. The drives are very compact.

Fig.1.25 Worm Gear

Spiral Gear
Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears, Fig. 1.27.
They have high helix angle and transmit power between two non-
intersecting non-parallel shafts. They have initially point contact
under the conditions of considerable sliding velocities finally
gears will have line contact. Hence, they are used for light load
and low speed application such as instruments, sewing machine
etc. Their precision rating is poor.

Fig 1.27 Spiral Gear

TABLE 1 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES

Type Features and Applications Comments Regarding Precision

Precision Rating

Spur Parallel Shafting. Applicable to all types Simplest tooth elements offering
High speeds and loads of trains and a wide maximum precision. First choice,
highest efficiency range of velocity ratios. recommended for all the gear
meshes, except where very high
Precision Rating is
speeds and loads or special features
excellent
of other types, such as right angle
drive, cannot be avoided.

Helica Parallel Shafting. Very Most applicable to high Equivalent quality to spurs, except
l high speeds and loads. speeds and loads; also for complication of helix angle.
 Efficiency slightly less used whenever spurs Recommended for all high-speed and
than spur mesh. are used. high-load meshes. Axial thrust
component must be accommodated.
Precision Rating is
good

Crosse Skewed shafting. Relatively low velocity To be avoided for precision meshes.
d Point contact. ratio; low speeds and Point contact limits capacity and
Helica High sliding light loads only. Any precision. Suitable for right angle
l angle skew shafts. drives, if light load. A less expensive
Low speeds
substitute for bevel gears. Good
Light loads
lubrication essential because of point
Precision Rating is of contact and high sliding action.
poor

Interna Parallel shafts Internal drives Not recommended for precision

l spur High speeds requiring high speeds meshes because of design,
and high loads; offers fabrication, and inspection
High loads
low sliding and high limitations. Should only be used
Precision Rating is fair
stress loading; good for when internal feature is necessary.
high capacity, long life.
Used in planetary gears
to produce large
reduction ratios.

Bevel Intersecting shafts, Suitable for 1:1 and Good choice for right angle drive,
High speeds, higher velocity ratios particularly low ratios. However,
and for right-angle complicated both form and
High loads.
meshes (and other fabrication limits achievement of
Precision Rating is fair
angles) precision. Should be located at one of
to good
the less critical meshes of the train.
Worm Right-angle skew High velocity ratio Worm can be made to high precision,
mesh shafts, Angular meshes but worm gear has inherent
High velocity ratio, High loads limitations. To be considered for
High speeds and loads, average precision meshes, but can be
Low efficiency, Most of high precision with care. Best
designs nonreversible. choice for combination high velocity
Precision rating is fair ratio and right-angle drive. High
to good sliding requires excellent lubrication.

LAW OF GEARING
The fundamental law of gearing states that the angular velocity ratio between the gears of a
gear set must remain constant throughout the mesh. This amounts to the following
relationship:

where the terminology for the above is as follows:

Fig.1.29 Two spur gears in mesh

In order to maintain constant angular velocity ratio between two meshing gears, the
common normal of the tooth profiles, at all contact points with in mesh, must always pass
through a fixed point on the line of centers, called pitch point.

PROFILES SATISFYING LAW OF GEARS

Profiles which can satisfy the law of gearing are shown in Fig. 1.22 a to c. These are (a)
involute (b) cycloidal and (c) circular arc or Novikov. Among these, cycloidal was the first
to be evolved. This is followed by the invention of involute profile which replaced many of
the other profiles due to several technological advantages. Circular arc or Novikov profile
has some advantages over the other profiles. But due to manufacturing difficulties, it did
not become popular. However, with powder metallurgy process it is slowly getting into
industry now for specific application.
 (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.22 Profiles satisfying the law of gearing, (a) involute (b) cycloidal and (c) Circular
arc
Involute Gear Tooth Profile
Involute is the path generated by the end of a thread as it unwinds from a reel. In order to
understand what is involute, imagine a reel with thread wound in the clockwise direction as
in Fig.1.2. Tie a knot at the end of the thread. In the initial position, the head is at B0 with
knot on the reel at C0. Keeping the reel stationary, pull the thread and unwind it to position
B1. The knot now moves from C0 to C1. If the thread is unwound to position B2 the knot
moves to C2 position. In repeated unwinding, the taut thread occupies position B3, B4
while the knot moves to C3, C4 positions. Connect these points C0 to C4 by a smooth
curve, the profile obtained is nothing but an involute, the illustration of which is given
below. This forms the left side part of the tooth profile. If similar process is repeated with
thread wound on the reel in anticlockwise direction in the same position, it forms the right
side part of the same tooth. The completely formed involute tooth is shown in Fig.1.25.

Fig.1.23 The generation of Fig.1.24 The generation of

involute profile on left side involute profile on right side
 Involute profiles have special properties. Imagine two involute teeth in contact as
shown in Fig.1.26. If a normal is drawn at the contact point to the involute profile, it will be
tangent to the generating circles. This can be visualized better from Fig. 1.23 where the taut
thread is normal to the profile as well as tangent to the reel which forms the generating or
the base circle. The profile will be involute above the base circle only. Below the base
circle the profile will not be involute. The common normal to the profile at the contact
point will be tangent to the base circles. It passes through a fixed point lying at the
intersection of the tangent to the rolling/pitch circles and the line connecting the centers of
the gear wheels. This point is known as the pitch point. As the gears rotate the contact point
travels along the common tangent to the base circle. Hence this line is also known as the
line of action. The movement of
the contact point along the line of action can be seen in the gear meshing later on.

Fig. 1.26 Gear meshing

Fig.1.25 Involute gear tooth profile
appearance after generation

Advantages of Involute Gears

1. Variation in center distance does not affect
the velocity ratio.
2. Pressure angle remains constant throughout
the
engagements which results in smooth running.
3. Straight teeth of basic rack for involute admit
simple tools. Hence, manufacturing becomes
simple and cheap.
Cycloidal Gear Tooth Profile
Cycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle when it rolls on a
straight line without slipping. If the circle rolls
on the outside of another circle or inside of
another circle gives rise to epicycloid and
hypocycloid respectively. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.27. The profile of a cycloidal tooth
consists of two separate curves or double
curvature. gearing or conjugate action similar to an involute gear.
Fig.1.27 Figure illustrating the generation of cycloidal tooth
Advantages of Cycloidal Gears
1. Cycloidal gears do not have interference.
2. Cycloidal tooth is generally stronger than an involute tooth owing to spreading flanks in
contrast to the radial flanks of an involute tooth.
3. Because of the spreading flanks, they have high strength and compact drives are
achievable.
4. Cycloidal teeth have longer life since the contact is mostly rolling which results in low
wear.
Disadvantages of Cycloidal Gears
1. For a pair of Cycloidal gears, there is only one theoretically correct center distance for
which a constant angular-velocity ratio is possible.
2. The hob of Cycloidal gear has curved teeth unlike involute rack teeth. Hence hob
manufacture is difficult and costly.
3. Cycloidal gear will cost more.

Novikov, Wildhaber or Circular Arc Tooth Profile

Fig.1.31 Transverse section of

Fig.1.32 Novikov gears in mesh
Novikov gear
The Novikov gears are having circular tooth surfaces in the transverse section Fig.
1.31. Normally pinion has a convex tooth profile and the gear tooth has a concave tooth
profile. They can also have concave profile for pinion and convex profile for the gear or
convex profiles for both. The teeth of Novikov gears have point contact in mesh. Hence to
increase the contact ratio the teeth are made helical and appearance of Novikov gear is
shown in Fig.1.32. The height of a Novikov gear tooth is about half that of the
corresponding an involute tooth of the same module. Hence these teeth can with stand high
load with weight of the gears approximately half the size of involute gears. Since these
gears are having pure rolling action at the contact, their efficiency is as high as 99.5%.
Novikov gear also satisfies the law of gearing since the common normal to the gears at the
point of contact will always be passing through a fixed point, viz., pitch point as illustrated
in Fig. 1.31 and in more detail in Fig. 1.33. Hence these profiles are conjugate to each other
and pressure angle remains constant

Fig.1.33
Enlarged view
of Novikov gears in mesh in transverse section

Advantages of Novikov Gears

1. A convex surface is always in contact with another concave surface.
2. The beam strength is much higher for the pinion than for the gear when the gear is much
larger than the pinion.
3. The contacting teeth have rolling action and hence wear is less.
4. If the convex profile is on the pinion teeth, and within the practical limits, the radii are
close to the same value to provide the maximum possible wear strength.
Disadvantages of Novikov Gears
1. The circular-arc profiles are not conjugate and consequently, in a plane each tooth can
make contact at only one point in each revolution.
2. The circular-arc gears are very sensitive to variations in center distances and are hence
best suited for slow-speed operation.
3. For the circular-arc gears in a plane, the contact ratio is zero. Hence, the circular-arc
teeth cannot be used on spur gears but must be used on helical gears, where the contact
ratio for the gear can be made greater than 1.0 by providing overlap ratio.

MESHING OF GEARS
In order to have a more understanding of the conjugate action in gears and how
the point of contact moves during the mesh, an illustration is provided in flash.