1

CHAPTER – 2

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Potential energy difference between two points is the work required to be done by
an external force in moving (without acceleration)a charge from one point to another
for electric field of any charge configuration.
WAB = UB - UA
If A is assumed ∞ → UA = 𝑈∞ = 0
WAB = UB - 𝑈∞ = UB
 Potential energy of a charge at a point is the work done by the external force
(equal and opposite to the electric force) in bringing the charge from infinity
to that point.

Electrostatic potential: Work done per unit charge in bringing the charge from
infinity to that point against electrostatic force.
 Denoted by V
 Scalar quantity
 SI unit : volt (V)
 Other units: stat volt ( 1 stat volt = 300 volts)
Abvolt (1 abvolt = 10 volts)
Electron volt ( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J)

Electrostatic potential due to a point charge:

dW = 𝐹⃗ ‫ﹾ‬۰⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑥 = F dx cos 180

= -F dx = -E q0 dx

Potential is work done per unit charge

dV = dW / q0 = - E dx

𝑘𝑞
=- dx
𝑥2

V = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
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𝑥=𝑟
= -k q∫𝑥= ∞ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑘𝑞 1
= ; k = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟 0

Potential difference:

 Work done per unit charge in bringing the charge from one point to another
against electrostatic force.
dV = dW / q0 = - E dx
𝑘𝑞
=- dx
𝑥2

V = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑥=𝑟
= -k q∫𝑥= 𝑟 𝐵 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐴

1
= - k q [− ]
𝑥

1 1
=kq[𝑟 -𝑟 ]
𝐴 𝐵

 Potential and potential difference:

Work done = potential difference

= VA - VB

It is potential difference that is physically significant.

Unit: volt (V)
Potential is taken as zero at infinity.

Potential at a point due to a system of charges:

 Consider a system of charges q1, q2,q3,q4 and q5 with position vectors r1, r2,…r5
 Their individual potential are,
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1 𝑞1
V1 = 4𝜋𝜀 ; r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
0 𝑟1𝑃

1 𝑞2
V2 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2𝑃

1 𝑞3
V3 = 4𝜋𝜀 ;r2P and r3P are the distances of P from charges q2 and
0 𝑟3𝑃
q3, respectively and so on for the potential due to other
charges.

1 𝑞4
V4 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟4𝑃

1 𝑞5
V5 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟5𝑃

 By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge

configuration is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 +V5

1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3 1 𝑞4 1 𝑞5
V = 4𝜋𝜀 + 4𝜋𝜀 + 4𝜋𝜀 + 4𝜋𝜀 + 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟1𝑃 0 𝑟2𝑃 0 𝑟3𝑃 0 𝑟4𝑃 0 𝑟5𝑃

1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 3 + 𝑟 4 + 𝑟 5 ]
0 1𝑃 2𝑃 3𝑃 4𝑃 5𝑃

For n number of charges

1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 3 + 𝑟 4 + 𝑟 5 + ……… + 𝑟 𝑛 ]
0 1𝑃 2𝑃 3𝑃 4𝑃 5𝑃 𝑛𝑃

 For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the shell is as
if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre. Thus, the potential outside the
shell is given by
1 𝑞
V= ( r ≥ R)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Where q is the total charge on the shell and R its radius.

 The electric field inside the shell is zero. This implies that potential is constant
inside the shell (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the shell) and,
therefore, equals its value at the surface, which is
1 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑅
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Potential due to an electric dipole:

I. Axial point:

𝑘𝑞
 V+ = (𝑟+𝑎)

−𝑘 𝑞
V - = (𝑟−𝑎)

V = V+ + V-

𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
= (𝑟+𝑎) - (𝑟+𝑎)

1 1
= k q [ (𝑟+𝑎) - (𝑟−𝑎) ]

𝑟−𝑎−𝑟−𝑎
= k q [ (𝑟+𝑎)(𝑟−𝑎) ]

− 2𝑎
= k q [(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2) ]

−𝑘𝑝
= (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 ) ; p = 2aq

If r >>> a then,

−𝑘𝑝
V= 𝑟2

II. Equatorial plane:

 At this point , electric field is non-zero, but potential is zero.

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𝑘𝑞
V+ = √𝑟 2
+ 𝑎2

−𝑘 𝑞
V- = √𝑟 2
+ 𝑎2

V = V+ + V-

𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
V = √𝑟 2 - √𝑟 2
+ 𝑎2 + 𝑎2

=0

III. Potential due to electric dipole at any point:

fig. (1)

 we take the origin at the centre of the dipole. Now we know that the electric
field obeys the superposition principle. Since potential is related to the work
done by the field, electrostatic potential also follows the superposition
principle. Thus, the potential due to the dipole is the sum of potentials due to
the charges q and –q,
1 𝑞 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 - 𝑟 ] ------------(i)
0 1 2

;where r1 and r2 are the distances of the point P from q and –

q, respectively.

 [note: by geometry
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𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
Here, cos𝜃 = 2 𝑏𝑐

2 bc cos𝜃 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 - 2 bc cos𝜃 aply this on fig.(1)]

𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑟1 2
 cos𝜃 = 2 𝑎𝑟

2ar cos𝜃 + 𝑟1 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2

𝑟1 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 2ar cos𝜃 ----------(ii)

𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑟2 2
 cos(180‫ ﹾ‬− 𝜃) = 2 𝑎𝑟

-2ar cos𝜃 + 𝑟2 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2

𝑟2 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2ar cos𝜃 ----------(iii)

𝑎2 2a cos𝜃
𝑟1 2 = 𝑟 2 ( 1 + 𝑟 2 - ) ----------(iv)
𝑟

𝑎2 2a cos𝜃
𝑟2 2 = 𝑟 2 ( 1 + 𝑟 2 + ) -----------(v)
𝑟

1 1 𝑎2 2a cos𝜃
2
= ( 1 + 𝑟2 - ) -1 -----------(vi)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟

1 1 𝑎2 2a cos𝜃
2 = ( 1 + 𝑟2 + ) -1 ----------(vii)
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟

 We take r much greater than a ( r >>>a ) and retain terms only up to the first
order in a/r

1 1 2a cos𝜃
2
≅ (1 - ) -1 ---------(viii)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟

1 1 2a cos𝜃
2
≅ (1+ ) -1 ----------(ix)
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟
1 1 2a cos𝜃
=𝑟 ((1− ) −1/2 ---------(x)
𝑟1 𝑟
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1 1 2a cos𝜃
=𝑟 ((1+ ) −1/2 ---------(xi)
𝑟2 𝑟

 Using the Binomial theorem and retaining terms up to the first order in a/r ;
we obtain,
1 1 𝑎
= 𝑟 ( 1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) ----------(xii)
𝑟1

1 1 𝑎
= 𝑟 ( 1 - 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) ----------(xiii)
𝑟2

 Put value of equation (xii) and (xiii) in equation (i),

𝑞 1 1
 V = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 - 𝑟 ]
0 1 2

𝑞 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
= 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 ( 1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) - ( 1 - 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) ]
0 𝑟

𝑞 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
= 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 + cos 𝜃 - + cos ]
0 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟2

𝑞 2𝑎 cos 𝜃
= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

1 𝑝 cos θ
= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

p cos𝜃 = p۰r̂

1 p۰r̂
V = 4𝜋𝜀 (r >>> a)
0 𝑟2

potential on the dipole axis (𝜃 = 0 , 𝜋) is given by,

1 p
V=± 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

(i) The potential due to a dipole depends not just on r but also on the angle between
the position vector r and the dipole moment vector p.

(ii) The electric dipole potential falls off, at large distance, as 1/ r2, not as 1/r,
characteristic of the potential due to a single charge.

Equipotential surface:

 Electric potential on every point on the surface is same.

 Work done to move a charge on an equipotential surface is zero.

 Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.

 Two equipotential surfaces never intersect.

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Relation between electric field and electric potential:

 Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B (fig) with potential values
V and V + 𝛿 V, where 𝛿V is the change in V in the direction of the electric field E. Let
P be a point on the surface B. 𝛿𝑙 is the perpendicular distance of the surface A from P.
Imagine that a unit positive charge is moved along this perpendicular from the surface
B to surface A against the electric field. The work done in this process is |E| 𝛿𝑙.

 This work equals the potential difference VA - VB

 |E|δ l = V – (V + δV)= –δV

δV
|E| = - 𝛿𝑙

Since dV is negative, δV = – δ|V|

δV δV
|E| = - =+
𝛿𝑙 𝛿𝑙

Conclusions:
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential
per unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.

Potential energy:
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 Potential energy of a charge at a point is the work done by the external force
(equal and opposite to the electric force) in bringing the charge from infinity
to that point.
 Denoted by U
 SI unit : joule (J)
 Other unit : electron volt (eV)

 Potential energy of a system of two point charges:

 Work done to bring q2 from ∞ to B = q2 [ VB - 𝑉∞ ]

= q2 VB
𝑘𝑞1
VB : due to q1 at A  VB = 𝑟

𝑘𝑞1
Work done = q2 ( )
𝑟

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
U= 𝑟

 Potential energy of a system of N point charges:

 Work done to bring q1 from ∞ to A = U1 = 0

 Work done to bring q2 from ∞ to B = U2 = q2 [ VB - 𝑉∞ ]
= q2 VB
𝑘𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑟1 2
12

 Work done to bring q3 from ∞ to C = U3 = q3 [ VC - 𝑉∞ ]

= q3VC
= q3 [ VCA- VCB]
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
= q3[ 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 2 ]
13 23

𝑘𝑞1 𝑘𝑞2
U3 = q3[ + +]
𝑟13 𝑟23

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞4 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞4 𝑘𝑞3 𝑞4

U4 = [ + + ]
𝑟14 𝑟24 𝑟34

U5 = …….

Unet = U1 + U2 +U3 + U4+……

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞4 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞4 𝑘𝑞3 𝑞4
=0+ +[ + ]+[ + + ] +……
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23 𝑟14 𝑟24 𝑟34

𝑁 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗
= k ∑𝑁
𝑗=1 ∑𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖𝑗
𝑖≠𝑗
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Potential energy in an external field:

 Potential energy in an external field: single point charge:

 Suppose, V∞ = 0 and electric field of q1 doesn’t bother ⃗E⃗

Work done to bring q1 from ∞ to P: q1[Vp - V∞ ] = q1Vp
E = q1V (r)

 Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field:

 U1 = work done to bring q1 from ∞ to P = q1[Vp - V∞ ] = q1 Vp

= q1V(r1)

 U2 = work done to bring q2 from ∞ to Q = q2[VQ - V∞ ]

= q2 [V(r2) + VQP]
𝑘𝑞
= q2 [V(r2) + 𝑟 1 ]
12

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
 Unet = q1V(r1) + q2 V(r2) + 𝑟12

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

 Consider a dipole with charges q1 = +q and q2 = -q placed in a uniform

Electric field E, as shown in Fig.

 In a uniform electric field, the dipole experiences no net force; but experiences
a Torque 𝜏 given by
𝜏=p×E
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which will tend to rotate it (unless p is parallel or antiparallel to E).

 Suppose an external torque τext is applied in such a manner that it just

neutralises this torque and rotates it in the plane of paper from angle θ0 to
angle θ1 at an infinitesimal angular speed and without angular acceleration.
The amount of work done by the external torque will be given by

θ θ
W = ∫θ 1 τ(θ) dθ = ∫θ 1 pE sinθ dθ = pE (cosθ0 - cosθ1 )
0 0

 This work is stored as the potential energy of the system. We can then
associate potential energy U(θ) with an inclination q of the dipole.

 There is a freedom in choosing the angle where the potential energy U is taken
π
to be zero. A natural choice is to take θ0 = 2

π
 U(θ) = pE (cos 2 - cos𝜃) = -pE cosθ = -p ۰E

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
 Now, U’(θ) = q1V(r1) + q2 V(r2) + in these equation,
𝑟12

𝑞2
U’(θ) = q [V(r1) - V(r2)] - 4𝜋𝜀
0 × 2𝑎

 Here, r1 and r2 denote the position vectors of +q and –q. Now, the potential
difference between positions r1 and r2 equals the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge against field from r2 to r1. The displacement parallel to the
force is 2a cosθ Thus,
[V(r1)–V (r2)] = – E × 2a cosθ.

𝑞2 𝑞2
 U’(θ) = - pE cosθ - 4𝜋𝜀 = - p۰E - 4𝜋𝜀
0 × 2𝑎 0 × 2𝑎

 Note that U’(𝜃) differs from U(θ) by a quantity which is just a constant
for a given dipole. Since a constant is insignificant for potential energy.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTOR:

 INSIDE A CONDUCTOR, ELECTROSTATIC FIELD IS ZERO.

 Conductor has free electrons. As long as electric field is not zero, the free
charge carriers would experience force and drift. In the static situation, the free
charges have so distributed themselves that the electric field is zero
everywhere inside. Electrostatic field is zero inside a

 Under no external electric field or static condition, the charge carriers are
distributed evenly and there is no electric field inside

 THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD AT THE SURFACE OF A CHARGED

CONDUCTOR IS NORMAL TO THE SURAFCE AT EVERY POINT
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 If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-zero component
along the surface. Free charges on the surface of the conductor would then
experience force and move.
 In the static situation, therefore, E should have no tangential component. Thus
electrostatic field at the surface of a charged conductor must be normal to the
surface at every point.

 For a non-normal Electric field, there is a non-zero component along the

normal. Therefore, Electric field should have no tangential component in
static.

 THE INTERIOR OF A CONDUCTOR CAN HAVE NO EXCESS CHARGE IN A

STATIC SITUATION:

 Under static conditions, the excess charge resides at the surface of the
conductor. On a closed surface, the electrostatic field is zero. So from gauss’s
law, there is no net charge enclosed by the surface.

 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL IS CONSTANT THROUGHOUT THE

VOLUME OF THE CONDUCTOR AND HAS A SAME VALUE (AS INSIDE) ON

 As electric field inside the conductor is zero so there is no work done in

moving a small test charge within the conductor. Therefore there is no
potential difference between any two points inside the conductor that is
electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor.

 ELECTRIC FIRLD AT THE SURFACE OF A CHHARGED CONDUCTOR

 Choose a pill box (a short cylinder) as the Gaussian surface about any point P
on the surface, as shown in Fig.

 The pill box is partly inside and partly outside the surface of the conductor. It
has a small area of cross section 𝛿𝑆 and negligible height.

 Just inside the surface, the electrostatic field is zero; just outside, the field is
normal to the surface with magnitude E

 since over the small area δS, E may be considered constant and E and δS are
parallel or antiparallel. The charge enclosed by the pill box is 𝜎 𝛿𝑆.By Gauss’s
law
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 ELECTROSTATIC SHEILDING

 The phenomenon of making a region free from any electric field is called
electrostatic shielding. Applications: In lightening thunderstorm, it is safe to
sit inside the car, rather than near a tree or in open ground. The metallic body
of the car acts as electrostatic shielding from lightening.

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE:

 Capacitor is a system of two conductor separated by an insulator.

 The conductors have charges, say Q1 and Q2 , and potential difference V = V1 –
V2 between them.
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 The total charge on capacitor is zero.

 The electric field in the region between the conductors is proportional to the
charge Q.
 Potential difference V is the work done per unit positive charge in taking a
small test charge from the conductor 2 to 1 against the field.
 V is also proportional to Q , and the ratio Q/V is constant.

V∝Q
Q = VC
C = Q/V ;C = capacitance of the capacitor
(C is independent of Q and V.
C is depends only on the shape, size and separation of
the system of two conductors.)
Unit : SI – Farad
1 Farad = 1 coulomb/volt
1 F = 1 C/V

 A capacitor with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as while the

one with variable capacitance is shown as

 Measure of a conductor’s ability to store charge denoted by ‘C’

Small unit : microfarad – 10-6 F
Pico farad – 10-12F

The Parallel plate capacitor:

 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates
separated by small distance.
 Medium between the plates to be vacuum.
 A is the area of each plate and d the separation between them.
 The two plates have charges Q and –Q .
 d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates. So, d2 << A
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 For plate 1 surface charge density is 𝜎 and for plate 2 surface charge density
is –𝜎 .
 Outer region 1
𝜎 𝜎 𝑄
E = 2𝜀 − =0 [;E۰A=𝜀
0 2𝜀0 0
𝑄
𝜎= so, Q = 𝜎𝐴
𝐴
Here, one side of surface,
𝜎𝐴 𝜎
E A = 2𝜀 = 2𝜀 ]
0 0
 Outer region 2
𝜎 𝜎
E = 2𝜀 − 2𝜀 = 0
0 0

 In the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric field due to the
charged pates add up,

𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑄 𝑄
E = 2𝜀 + = =𝜀 [𝜎 = ]
0 2𝜀0 𝜀0 0𝐴 𝐴

 The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate. Thus,
the electric field is localised between the two plates and is uniform throughout.

 For uniform electric field, potential difference is simply the electric field times
the distance between the plates, that is,

1 𝑄𝑑
V=Ed=𝜀
0 𝐴

 The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is then,

𝑄 𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
C=𝑉= 1 𝑄𝑑 = =
𝑄𝑑 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴

𝜀0 𝐴
C= 𝑑

Effect of dielectric and capacitance:

 A parallel plate capacitor is modified when a dielectric is present.

 We have two large plates, each of area A, separated by a distance d, charge on

the plates is ±Q corresponding to the charge density ±𝜎 .

 When there is vacuum between the plates,

𝜎
E0 = 𝜀
0
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 Potential difference V0 is

1 𝑄𝑑
V0 = E0 d = 𝜀
0 𝐴

The capacitance C0

𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
C0 = 𝑉 =
0 𝑑
 Now consider a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying the
intervening region.

 The dielectric polarised by the field.

 The effect is equivalent to two charged sheets with surface charge densities 𝜎𝑝
and -𝜎𝑝 .
 The electric field in the dielectric then corresponds to the case when the net
surface charge density on the plates is ±( 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑝 ).
𝜎− 𝜎𝑝
⸫E= 𝜀0

Potential difference across the plates,

𝜎− 𝜎𝑝
V=Ed= d
𝜀0

For linear dielectrics, we expect 𝜎𝑝 to be proportional to E0

Thus,( 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑝 ) is proportional to 𝜎 and we can write,

𝜎 − 𝜎𝑝 ∝ 𝜎
𝜎
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑝 = 𝐾 ; K = constant characteristics of dielectric

𝜎 𝑄
V=Ed= d =𝜀 d
𝜀0 𝐾 0 𝐾𝐴

Capacitance,
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𝑄 𝑄 𝜀0 𝐾𝐴
C=𝑉= 𝑄 =
d 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐾𝐴

For vacuum K = 1 and 𝜀 = 𝜀0

𝜀
K=𝜀
0

𝐶
And K = 𝐶
0

Combination of capacitors:

(i) Capacitor in series:

V = V1 + V2

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2

1 1 1
⸫ = +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2

For n number of capacitance,

V = V1 + V2 +……..+ Vn

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + +⋯+𝐶
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑛

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+𝐶
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑛

(ii) Capacitors in parallel:

Q1 = C1V
Q2 = C2V
Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = CV = C1V + C2V
C = C1 + C 2
If n number of capacitors,
C = C1 + C2+ …… +Cn

Energy stored in a capacitor:

 Work done in transferring charge from negative towards positive plate is

stored as electrostatic energy in capacitor.
 At any stage, charge = q
 18

𝑞
Potential V = 𝐶

𝑞
dw = dq × V = dq 𝐶

𝑞 1 𝑄
W = ∮ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝐶 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶 ∫0 𝑞 𝑑𝑞

1 𝑞2
W=𝐶[ ]
2

1 𝑄2
=𝐶[ ]
2

1 𝐶 2𝑉2
=𝐶[ ]
2

1 𝜀0 𝐴
= 2 C V2 ;C= 𝑑
𝑄
𝜎=𝐴 Q=𝜎A
(𝐴𝜎)2 𝑑
= ×𝜀
2 0𝐴

 Energy density in capacitor:

Energy stored per unit volume of space

Denoted by ‘u’
𝑈 𝑈 1 1
u = 𝑉 = 𝐴 ۰𝑑 = (2 C V2) (𝐴 ۰𝑑 )

1 𝜀0 𝐴 1
=2 V2
𝑑 𝐴 ۰𝑑

1 𝜀0 𝑉 2 𝜀0 𝐴
=2 ;C=
𝑑2 𝑑

𝑉
;E = 𝑑

1
u = 2 𝜀0 E2