CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1CONNECTING ROD

Connecting Rod is an intermediate member between the piston and the

crankshaft. Its primary function is to transmit the push and pull from the piston
pin to the crank pin and thus converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
the rotary motion of the crank. It consists of a long shank a small end and a big
end. The cross-section of the shank may be rectangular, circular, tubular “I
section and H section”. Generally circular sections are used for low speed
engines where I section is preferred for high-speed engines.
The length of the Connecting Rod (l) depends upon the ratio of l/r where
r is the radius of the crank. It may be noted that smaller length will decrease the
ratio l/r. This increases the angularity of the Connecting Rod which increases
the side thrust of the piston against the cylinder liner which in turn increases the
wear of the liner. The larger length of the Connecting Rod will increase the ratio
l/r. This increases the angularity of the Connecting Rod and thus decreases the
side thrust and the resulting wear of the cylinder. But the larger length of the
Connecting Rod increases the overall height of the engine. Hence the ratio l/r is
generally kept as 3 to 5.
The small end of the Connecting Rod is usually made in the form of eye
and is provided with the bush, generally phosphor bronze. It is connected to the
piston by means of the piston pin. The big end of the Connecting Rod is
mounted on the crank pin bearing shells. The Connecting Rods are usually
manufactured by drop forging process and it should have adequate strength
stiffness and minimum weight. The material mostly used for Connecting Rod
varies from mild carbon steels (0.35 to 0.45 % of Carbon) alloy steels (chrome-
nickel or chrome – molybdenum steels) forged steels. The carbon steel having
0.35% carbon has an ultimate tensile strength of about 650 Mpa. When properly

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heat treated and carbon steel with 0.45% of carbon has an ultimate tensile
strength of 750 Mpa.
The alloy steels have an ultimate tensile strength of about 1050 Mpa. The
main advantages are the mass reduction that is a crucial topic for a components
subjected to very high inertial loads. Furthermore, the very good fatigue
behavior of such materials, meets very well the requirement to withstand cyclic
loads.
Connecting Rod design is a quite complex task because engine operates
at wide variable conditions, and load on crank slider mechanism are produced
both by pressure and inertia.
Assuming that the Connecting Rod has to replace the original component
of an existing engine, the main objective is material replacement for Principal
design constraints are fatigue strength and buckling strength.
Other design data are required and are the cylinder pressure at service
RPM, load, reciprocating mass, slider-crank mechanism geometric parameters.
The design problem consists in the evaluation of objective and constraint
functions once design parameters are chosen. The way to obtain desired
functions is quite complex: Stress analysis results are then processed to obtain
fatigue stress histories at each point for each RPM, and fatigue damage at each
location is obtained.

THE VARIOUS FORCES ACTING ON CONNECTING ROD

1. Force on the piston due to gas pressure and
inertia of the reciprocating parts
2. Force due to inertia of the Connecting Rod or
inertia bending forces
3. Force due to friction of the piston rings and of
the piston

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 4. Forces due to friction of the piston pin bearing
and the crank pin bearing.

1.2. PROBLEM DEFINITION

To drive out the major failures in an engine and its cause and effects,
Results predict the wear and tear of the moving parts does the major role. In
spite of that, the forged intermediate member that often fails due to its
translation from reciprocating to rotation deforms and buckles it.
This mechanism is studied under investigation; deal with an engineering
approach for its reason for failure and repeated replacements, frequently.
Precision care has been taken in evolving out the typical reason for failure and
towards its solution. After an establishing survey, we made a conclusion in
focusing towards replacement of forged carbon steel into metal matrix
composite (MMC) Connecting Rod

1.3. OBJECTIVE
The main focus is on design and fatigue analysis of metal matrix
composite connecting rod in the suitable method without affecting its properties
and performance, for which an innovative technique is approached and MMC
Connecting Rod is generated and analyzed.
1. Increase in fatigue strength
2. Increase the tensile strength
3. Increase the life of connecting rod

1.4. PROBLEM ANALYSIS

Though the task word is found to be so small and easy, the material
replacement, but not at the work. Because Connecting Rod is a member which
deserves certain constrains we should never even altered. For example its big

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end should greater than eye end, its shank length converging from big end to
small end, “I section or H section”.
While this is the case we have a solution, focusing towards material
replacement, material properties a real factor will play a vital role without
affecting other regular functioning of the Connecting Rod. Material replacement
is a long step process which comprises of modeling of the conventional design
and its analysis and modeling of modified material or optimized design and its
analysis.

The objective that we are focusing on material replacement of the

Connecting Rod in the right method is quite difficult in sense, without causing
the Connecting Rod to fail at the same time positively making it a possible
solution for the facing problem.
As mentioned earlier material replacements has to be done from the
Connecting Rod by which it should not suffer further more instability or
damage. Considering the shank whose length should never be changed since it
is proportional to l/rratio governing the selection of Connecting Rod to its
corresponding power.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Many recent papers in the literature indicate the resurgence of interest in
the use of lightweight Connecting Rod materials for inertial force reduction,
increased speed, and cost effective methods of manufacturing. The studies
carried out in the literature cover a variety of topics related to Connecting Rods
including load or stress analysis, durability analysis, manufacturing aspects,
economic issues and cost analysis, and optimization studies.
2.2. STUDY DETAILS
Folgar(1987) Developed a fiber FP/Metal matrix composite Connecting
Rod with the aid of FEA, and loads obtained from kinematic analysis. Fatigue
was not addressed at the design stage. However, prototypes were fatigue tested.
They identified design loads in terms of maximum engine speed, and loads at
the crank and piston pin ends. They performed static tests in which the crank
ends and the piston pin end failed at different loads. Clearly, the two ends were
designed to withstand different loads. Connecting rod has a central body made
of composite materials and suitable for taking up traction and compression
forces, but the big and small ends are made by steel material. This is a multi-
piece connecting rod, Jean-Piece maumus(1992) deals with only resistance top
erosion, high temperature performance. But this paper not deals about the stress
and fatigue analysis of the composite connecting rod.
Sonsino and Esper(1994) have discussed the fatigue design of sintered
Connecting Rods. They did not perform optimization of the Connecting Rod.
They designed a Connecting Rod with a load amplitude with different regions
being designed for different load ratios. They performed preliminary FEA
followed by production of a prototype.

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 Fatigue tests and experimental stress analysis were performed on this
prototype based on the results of which they proposed a final shape. In order to
verify that the design was sufficient for fatigue, they computed the allowable
stress amplitude at critical locations, taking the R-ratio, the stress concentration,
and statistical safety factors into account, and ensured that maximum stress
amplitudes were below the allowable stress amplitude.
While investigating a Connecting Rod failure that led to a disastrous
failure of an engine, Rabb(1996) performed a detailed FEA of the Connecting
Rod. He modeled the threads of the Connecting Rod, the threads of Connecting
Rod screws, the prestress in the screws, the diametric interference between the
bearing sleeve and the crank end of the Connecting Rod, the diametric clearance
between the crank and the crank bearing, the inertia load acting on the
Connecting Rod, and the combustion pressure. The analysis clearly indicated
the failure location at the thread root of the Connecting Rod, caused by
improper screw thread profile. The Connecting Rod failed at the location
indicated by the FEA. An ax symmetric model was initially used to obtain the
stress concentration factors at the thread root. A detailed FEA including all the
factors mentioned above was performed by also including a plasticity model
and strain hardening.
Based on the comparison of the mean stress and stress amplitude at the
threads obtained from this analysis with the endurance limits obtained from
specimen fatigue tests, the adequacy of a new design was checked.

The invention relates to a connecting rod made of composite material.

Fantino(2002) deals with corrosion resistance and excellent high temperature
behavior. This is made by reinforcement of yarns or fibre, this reinforcement
being embedded in a material of curd synthetic materials. This paper is not deals
the performance analysis of composite connecting rod, only manufacturing
aspects are only considered.

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 Hakan Persson(2005) described about use of a transmission component of
a metal matrix composite (MMC) material. The transmission component is
made of metal matrix composite material for better performance of fuel
consumption, emission, vibration, noise, comfort. This paper also not deals with
fatigue analysis of the composite transmission component.

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 CHAPTER 3
BASICS OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS

From theliterature review for automotive application especially

connecting rods are made by metal matrix composite materials
Metal composite materials have found application in many areas of daily
life for quite some time. Often it is not realized that the application makes use of
composite materials. These materials are produced from the conventional
production and processing of metals. Here, the structure, which results from
welding two types of steel by repeated forging, can be mentioned. Materials like
cast iron with graphite or steel with a high carbide content, as well as tungsten
carbides, consisting of carbides and metallic binders, also belong to this group
of composite materials. For many researchers the term metal matrix composites
is often equated with the term light metal matrix composites (MMCs).
Substantial progress in the development of light metal matrix composites
has been achieved in recent decades, so that they could be introduced into the
most important applications. In traffic engineering, especially in the automotive
industry, MMC shave been used commercially in fiber reinforced pistons and
aluminum crank cases with strengthened cylinder surfaces as well as particle-
strengthened brake disks .These innovative materials open up unlimited
possibilities for modern material science and development. The characteristics
of MMCs can be designed into the material, custom-made, dependent on the
application. From this potential, metal matrix composites fulfill all the desired
conceptions of the designer. It becomes interesting for use as constructional and
functional materials, if it property profile of conventional materials either does
not reach the increased standards of specific demands, or is the solution of the
problem. However, the technology of MMCs is in competition with other
modern material technologies, for example powder metallurgy.

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 The advantages of the composite materials are only realized when there is
a reasonable cost – performance relationship in the component production. The
use of a composite material is obligatory if a special property profile can only
be achieved by application of these materials. The possibility of combining
various material systems (metal – ceramic – nonmetal) gives the opportunity for
unlimited variation.
The properties of these new materials are basically determined by the
properties of their single components. The reinforcement of metals can have
many different objectives. The reinforcement of light metals opens up the
possibility of application of these materials in areas where weight reduction has
first priority. The precondition here is the improvement of the component
properties.
The development objectives for light metal composite materials are:
 Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and
above

 while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness,

 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of

conventional alloys,

 Increase in fatigue strength, especially at higher temperatures,

 Improvement of thermal shock resistance,

 Improvement of corrosion resistance,

 Increase in Young’s modulus,

 Reduction of thermal elongation.

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To summarize, an improvement in the weight specific properties can result,
offering the possibilities of extending the application area, substitution of
common materials and optimization of component properties. With functional
materials there is another objective, the precondition of maintaining the
appropriate function of the material.

Objectives are for example:

 Increase in strength of conducting materials while maintaining the high
conductivity,
 Improvement in low temperature creep resistance (reaction less
materials),
 Improvement of burnout behavior (switching contact),
 Improvement of wear behavior (sliding contact),
 Increase in operating time of spot welding electrodes by reduction of burn
outs,

 Production of layer composite materials for electronic components,

 Production of ductile composite superconductors,

 Production of magnetic materials with special properties.

For other applications different development objectives are given, which

differ from those mentioned before. For example, in medical technology,
mechanical properties, like extreme corrosion resistance and low degradation as
well as biocompatibility are expected. Although increasing development
activities have led to system solutions using metal composite materials, the use
of especially innovative systems, particularly in the area of light metals, has not
been realized. The reason for this is insufficient process stability and reliability,

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combined with production and processing problems and inadequate economic
efficiency.
Application areas, like traffic engineering, are very cost orientated and
conservative and the industry is not willing to pay additional costs for the use of
such materials. For all these reasons metal matrix composites are only at the
beginning of the evolution of modern materials.

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 CHAPTER 4

PERSUING FACTORS AND TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS

The following two factors mainly to be considered for analysis of

conventional and MMC connecting rod

1. Buckling
2. Fatigue

4.1. BUCKLING
Buckling loads are critical loads where certain types of
structures become unstable. Each load has an associated buckled mode shape;
this is the shape that the structure assumes in a buckled condition. Figure 4.1
shows a long beam being buckled. There are two primary means to perform a
buckling analysis:

“FIGURE 4.1” Buckling

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Eigen valueBuckling: Eigen value buckling analysis predicts the theoretical
buckling strength of an ideal elastic structure. It computes the structural Eigen
values for the given system loading and constraints. This is known as classical
Euler buckling analysis. Buckling loads for several configurations are readily
available from tabulated solutions.

However, in real-life, structural imperfections and nonlinearities prevent

most real-world structures from reaching their Eigen value predicted buckling
strength; i.e. it over-predicts the expected buckling loads. This method is not
recommended for accurate, real-world buckling prediction analysis.

NonlinearBuckling; Nonlinear buckling analysis is more accurate than Eigen

value analysis because it employs non-linear, large-deflection; static analysis to
predict buckling loads. Its mode of operation is very simple: it gradually
increases the applied load until a load level is found whereby the structure
becomes unstable (i.e. suddenly a very small increase in the load will cause very
large deflections).

The true non-linear nature of this analysis thus permits the modeling of
geometric imperfections, load perturbations, material nonlinearities and gaps.
For this type of analysis, note that small off-axis loads are necessary to initiate
the desired buckling mode.

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 “FIGURE 4.2” Buckling load

4.2. FATIGUE
Fatigue fractures are the most serious and most common types of failure
in machinery. Fatigue fractures can occur under normal operating conditions
without excessive overloads. Engine parts have a wear life and they have a
fatigue life. The primary reason components fail catastrophically in service is
due to metal fatigue.
With the pursuit of lightweight vehicles, the advent of new lightweight
designs and computer stress analysis, it is possible to create structures which are
of minimum weight. As a result, more high-strength steels are used under high
stress conditions.
Unfortunately, increasing the hardness of steel decreases its ductility and
it becomes more subject to brittle fatigue failure under service stress conditions.

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High strength, high stress and low ductility create catastrophic fatigue failure
modes. As a consequence, the engineer must predict the fatigue life of the
component and the component must be inspected for fatigue or removed from
service
The term fatigue is defined as premature failure under the action of
repeated stress i.e. dynamic loading. A component subjected to repeated loading
develops a characteristic behavior, fundamentally different from the behaviour
of a metal part subjected to steady loads. Fatigue is important form of behaviour
in all materials including plastics, rubber, concrete and even in rotating parts.

The behavior of fatigue can be explained by

 Loss of strength
 Loss of ductility
 Increased uncertainty in both strength and service life

The metal properties considered for fatigue behaviour are

 Nature of loading (Repeated, Reversing)
 Magnitude of maximum load
 Number of cycles to failure
 Condition of metal in test piece
 Surface finish of test piece
 Temperature
 Atmospheric conditions
Mechanism of Fatigue
A fatigue fracture always starts as a small crack which, under repeating
loading of stress grows in size. As a crack expands, the load carrying cross-
section of the metal component is reduced, as a result stress rises.

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 Ultimately, a point is reached where the remaining cross-section is no
longer strong enough to carry the load and finally results in fracture. The cracks
start at visible discontinuities. The events that lead to fatigue include
 Crack nucleation
 Crack growth, and
 Fracture
Various theories or mechanisms proposed by different research workers
explaining the fatigue phenomenon are, viz
 Oran’s Theory
 Wood’s Theory
 Mott Theory
Endurance Limit
Endurance limit is defined as a definite stress at and below which failure
by fatigue apparently does not takes place. When a series of stress is plotted
against number of cycles to failure at each stress on a semi log scale, the curve
evidently becomes perfectly horizontal at some particular stress.
This stress is known as Endurance Limit. The relation between stress and
number of cycles to failure is given below in Figure 4.3

“FIGURE 4.3” Endurance Limit

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Variables Affecting Fatigue Life
The performance of the metal component under fatigue loading is
influenced by number of factors such as
 Surface condition
 Temperature
 Range of Stress
 Frequency of stress cycle
 Environment
 Metallurgical factors

4.3 SUPPROTING TOOLS

1. Pro-E
2. ANSYS
4.4 INTRODUCTION TO PRO-E
Pro/ENGINEER is a powerful program used to create complex designs
with a great precision. The design intent of any 3-D model or an assembly is
defined by its specification and its use. The powerful tools of Pro/ENGINEER
are to capture the design intent of any complex model by incorporating
intelligence into the design.
To make the designing process simple and quick, this software package
has divided the steps of designing into different modules. This means each step
of designing is completed in a different module. For example, generally a
design process consists of the following steps:
1. Sketching using the basic sketch entities.
2. Converting the sketch features and paths.
3. Assembling different parts and analyzing them.
4. Documentation of the parts and the assembly in terms of drawing
views.

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 5. Manufacturing the final part and assembling.
All the above steps divided into different modes of Pro/ENGINEER
namely, Sketch Mode, Part Mode, Assembly Mode, Drawing Mode and
Manufacturing Mode, composite mode.
The parametric nature of Pro/E enhances the design intent of a model
with tremendous ease. Pro/ENGINEER as solid modeler powered by feature –
based, associative and parametric based. It also allows to work in a 3-D
environment and calculates the mass properties directly from created geometry
and to switch on to different display modes like wire frame, shaded ,hidden and
no hidden at any time with ease as it only changes the appearance of the model.
Feature Based Nature of Pro/Engineer
Pro/ENGINEER is a feature-based solid modeling tool. A feature is
defined as the smallest building block and any solid model created in
Pro/ENGINEER is an integration of number of these building blocks. Each
feature can be edited individually to bring in any change in the solid model.
Bidirectional Associative Nature of Pro/Engineer
There is bidirectional associatively between all modes of
Pro/ENGINEER. The bidirectional associative nature is defined as its ability to
ensure that if any modification in particular model in one mode, the
modification is reflected in the same model in other modes also.
Parametric Nature of Pro/Engineer
Pro/ENGINEER is parametric in nature. The parametric nature of
Pro/ENGINEER means that the features of a part become interrelated if they are
drawn by taking the reference of each. It allows redefining the dimensions or
the attributes of a feature at any time. This will develop the relationship among
them. This relationship is known as parent child relationship. Changing the
child feature will alter the reference design as per requirement.

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4.5. INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite Element Analysis is the simulation of a physical system (geometry
and loading environment) by a mathematical approximation of the real system.
Using simple, interrelated building blocks called elements; a real system with
infinite unknowns is approximated with a finite number of unknowns. A Finite
Element Analysis Model is the mathematical idealization of the real system is
shown in the Figure 4.4.

“FIGURE 4.4” Finite Element Analysis

Objectives of Engineering Analysis:

 During the design and development of a product, the analyst is quite often
required to calculate the displacement at certain points.
 To determine the stress distribution and hence predict strength.
 To determine the natural frequencies and vibrations.
 To predict temperature distribution and thermal stress distribution.
 To determine the strain of the member under a load.

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History of FEA
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R.
Courant, who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization
of variation calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration systems.
Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by Turner, Clough, Martin,
and Top established a broader definition of numerical analysis. This paper
centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers
generally owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear
industries, and the scope of analyses were considerably limited. Such people as
Sienkiewicz and Cheung further enhanced finite Element technology during the
70’s, when they applied the technology to general problems described by
Laplace and Poisson's equations.

Mathematicians were developing better solution algorithms, the Galerkin,

Ritz and Rayleigh-Ritz methods emerged as the optimum solutions for certain
categories of general type problems. Later, considerable research was carried
out into the modeling and solution of non-linear problems, Hinton and Crisfield
being major contributors.
While considerable strides were made in the development of the
finite element method, other areas did not remain static. Very powerful mesh
generation algorithms have been developed. Commercial generators have the
capability of meshing all but the most difficult geometry. Superior CAE
concepts have also emerged; it is not unusual to have a single CAD model for
producing engineering drawings, carrying out kinematics and assembly
analysis, as well as being used for finite element modeling. Due to the rapid
decline in the cost of computers and the phenomenal increase in computing
power, present day desktop computers are capable of producing accurate results

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for all kinds of parameters (standard Computers are over 10 times more
powerful than the best supercomputers of the early 90's).
The finite element method now has its roots in many disciplines, the end
result is a technology that is so advanced that it is almost indistinguishable from
magic. The vast catalog of capability that comprises FEA will no doubt grow
considerably larger in the future. CAE is here to stay, but in order to harness its
true power; the user must be familiar with many concepts, including the
mechanics of the problem being modeled. All analyses require time, experience
and most importantly, careful planning.

The finite element method is being used in virtually every engineering

discipline. Aerospace, automotive, biomedical, geotechnical, electrical,
hydraulic, and nuclear engineering applications have become standard objects
for finite element analysis. In addition, it is not only used for analyzing classical
static structural problems, but also for such diverse areas as mass transport, heat
transfer, dynamics, stability, and radiation problems.
Like any other approximate numerical method, the solution produced by
finite element analysis contains a certain amount of error. The magnitude of the
error is highly dependent on the type, size, and fineness of the model used for
the analysis.
That's why not all finite element models are created equal. Indeed, the
educational and industrial experiences of the analyst as well as the
sophistication of the software are the most critical factors in obtaining reliable
results.

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General Considerations before Starting a Finite Element Analysis
 Analysis discipline
 Analysis objective
 Linear or nonlinear problem
 Static or dynamic problem
 Details to be included
 Symmetry of geometry
 Singularities
 Element types
 Mesh density
 Units
 Material properties
 Loading
A Typical Analysis Procedure
In the real world, no analysis is typical, as there are usually facets that
cause it to differ from others. There is however a main procedure those most
Finite Element investigations take.
Planning the Analysis
This is arguably the most important part of any analysis, as it helps ensure
the success of the simulation. Oddly enough, it is usually the one analysts leave
out. The purpose of a Finite Element analysis is to model the behavior of a
structure under a system of loads.
In order to do so, all influencing factors must be considered and
determined whether their effects are considerable or negligible on the final
result. The degree of accuracy to which any system can be modeled is very
much dependent on the level of planning that has been carried out. Answer to
many questions need to be found.

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Pre-Processor
The preprocessor stage in general Finite Element packages involves the
following:
Specifying the title, that is the name of the problem. This is optional but
very useful, especially if a number of design iterations are to be completed on
the same base model. Setting the type of analysis to be used, e.g. structural,
fluid, thermal or electromagnetic, etc. (sometimes this can only be done by
selecting a particular element type)
Creating the Model
The model is drawn in 1D, 2D or 3D space in the appropriate units
(m, mm, in, etc.). The model may be created in the pre-processor, or it can be
imported from another CAD drafting package via a neutral file format. If a
model is drawn in mm for example and the material properties are defined in SI
units, then the results will be out of scale by factors of 10 6. The same units
should be applied in all directions, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret,
or in extreme cases the results will not show up mistakes made during the
loading and restraining of the model.
Defining the element type, this may be 1D, 2D or 3D and specific to the
analysis type being carried out (you need thermal elements to do thermal
analysis).
Nodes and Elements
Node is a coordinate location in space where degrees of freedom
and actions of the physical system exist.
Element is mathematical, matrix representation (called stiffness or
coefficient matrix) of the interaction among the degrees of freedom of a set of
nodes. Elements may be line, area, or solid and two or three-dimensional.
The Finite Element Analysis model consists of a number of simply
shaped elements, connected to nodes, subjected to loads. The behavior of each
element is represented by several linear equations. As a group, the elements

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form a mathematical model of the total structure. Information is passed from
element to element only at common nodes.

Element Shape Function

Finite Element Analysis solves for Degree Of Freedom values only at
nodes. An element shape function is a mathematical function that allows values
of a Degree Of Freedom from the nodes to be mapped to points within the
element. Thus, element shape function gives the shape of the results within the
element. It represents assumed behavior for a given element. The accuracy of
the solution depends on how well the assumed shape function matches the true
behavior. Degree Of Freedom values may or may not accurately match the true
solution at the nodes, but typically match it in an average sense across an
element. Typical solution data are usually derived from the Degree Of Freedom
(eg. Structural stresses, Thermal gradients etc.).
Element shape functions that do not accurately capture Degree Of
Freedom within an element may not be adequate for these derived data because
derived data is calculated from derivatives of the element shape function. When
we choose an element type, we are implicitly choosing and accepting the
element shape function assumed for that element type.
Thus we have to make sure to have a sufficient number of nodes and
elements to adequately capture the behavior of the problem given the assumed
shape function of the element type we have chosen.
Creating a Mesh
Mesh generation is the process of dividing the analysis continuum into a
number of discrete parts or finite elements. Finer the mesh, better the result, but
longer the analysis time. Therefore, a compromise between accuracy and
solution speed is usually made. The mesh may be created manually, such as the
one on the right, or generated automatically like the one below.

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 In the manually created mesh, you will notice that the elements are
smaller at the joint. This is known as mesh refinement, and it enables the
stresses to be captured at the geometric discontinuity (the junction).Manual
meshing is a long and tedious process for models with any degree of geometric
complication, but with useful tools emerging in pre-processors, the task is
becoming easier. Automatic mesh generators are very useful and popular. A
mesh engine creates the mesh automatically; the only requirement is to define
the mesh density along the model's edges..

Assigning Properties
Material properties (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, the density, and if
applicable, coefficients of expansion, friction, thermal conductivity, damping
effect, specific heat etc.) will have to be defined. In addition element properties
may need to be set. If 2D elements are being used, the thickness property is
required. One Dimensional beam elements require area, Ixx, Iyy, J a direction
cosine property, which defines the direction of the beam axis in 3D space. Shell
elements, which are 2½D in nature (2D elements in 3D space), require
orientation neutral surface offset parameters to be defined. Special elements
(mass, contact, spring, gap, coupling, damper etc.) require properties (specific to
the element type) to be defined for their use.

Apply Loads
Some type of load is usually applied to the analysis model. The loading
may be in the form of a point load, a pressure or a displacement in a stress
(displacement) analysis, a temperature or a heat flux in a thermal analysis and a
fluid pressure or velocity in a fluid analysis. The loads may be applied to a
point, an edge, a surface or a even a complete body. The loads should be in the
same units as the model geometry and material properties specified. In the cases

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of modal (vibration) and buckling analyses, a load does not have to be specified
for the analysis to run.

Applying Boundary Conditions

If you apply a load to the model, then in order to stop it accelerating
infinitely through the computer's virtual ether (mathematically known as a zero
pivot), at least one constraint or boundary condition must be applied. Structural
boundary conditions are usually in the form of zero displacements, thermal
Boundary Condition are usually specified temperatures, fluid Boundary
Condition are usually specified pressures. A boundary condition may be
specified to act in all directions (x, y, z), or in certain directions only.
They can be placed on nodes, key points, and areas or on lines. Boundary
Conditions on lines can be in the form of symmetric or anti-symmetric type
boundary conditions, one allowing in plane rotations and out of plane
translations, the other allowing in plane translations and out of plane rotations
for a given line.
The applications of correct boundary conditions are a critical to the
accurate solution of the design problem. At least one Boundary Condition has to
be applied to every model, even modal and buckling analysis with no loads
applied.

Solution
The Finite Element Analysis solver can be logically divided into three
main parts, the pre-solver, the mathematical-engine and the post-solver. The
pre-solver reads in the model created by the pre-processor and formulates the
mathematical representation of the model.
All parameters defined in the pre-processing stage are used to do this, so
if you left something out, chances are the pre-solver will complain and cancel
the call to the mathematical-engine. If the model is correct the solver proceeds

50
to form the element-stiffness matrix for the problem and calls the mathematical-
engine, which calculates the result (displacement, temperatures, pressures, etc.).
The results are returned to the solver and the post-solver is used to calculate
strains, stresses, heat fluxes, velocities, etc.) for each node within the
component or continuum. All these results are sent to a results file, which may
be read by the post-processor.
Post-Processor
Here the results of the analysis are read and interpreted. They can be
presented in the form of a table, a contour plot, deformed shape of the
component or the mode shapes and natural frequencies
If frequency analysis is involved,results are available for fluids, thermal
and electrical analysis types. Most post-processors provide an animation
service, which produces an animation and brings your model to life. Contour
plots are usually the most effective way of viewing results for structural type
problems. Slices can be made through 3D models to facilitate the viewing of
internal stress patterns.
All post-processors now include the calculation of stress and
strains in any of the x, y or z directions, or indeed in a direction at an angle to
the coordinate axes. The principal stresses and strains may also be plotted, or if
required the yield stresses and strains according to the main theories of failure
(Von misses, St.Venant, Tresca etc.). Other information such as the strain
energy, plastic strain and creep strain may be obtained for certain types of
analysis.

50
Advantages of Finite Element Methods
 In initiating the prediction of displacements, stresses, vibration
frequencies, buckling loads, etc. for a given product or its parts, the
analyst must first derive the governing equations.
 A basic promise of the finite element method is that a system of matrix
equation. Governing the behaviour can be formed automatically and
solved efficiently, irrespective of the complexities of practical design
conditions
 Finite Element Method brings a number of special advantages to coupled
thermal structural analysis.
 A subtler attribute of Finite Element Method is its ability to deal with
complex material models

4.6. INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

Analysis using Ansys
It is a Finite Element Analysis software enables to perform the tasks:
1. Build models or Transfer CAD models of structures products
components or system.
2. Apply operating loads or design performance conditions.
3. Study the physical responses, such as stress levels, temperature
distribution, or the impact of Electromagnetic fields.
4. Optimize a design in the development process to reduce production
cost.
5. To prototype testing in environments where it otherwise could be
undesirable or impossible.

The ANSYS program a comprehensive Graphical User Interface (GUI)

that gives user an easy interactive access to program functions, commands, and

50
documentation and reference material. A utility menu system helps user to
navigate through the ANSYS program

History of Ansys
In 1971 ANSYS was released for the first time. It is comprehensive
general purpose finite element program that contains over 100000 lines of code.
It is capable of performing Static, Dynamic, Heat Transfer, Fluid Flow and
electromagnetic analysis. It has been a leading program over two Decades.
Current version incorporates a completely new Graphical User Interface
(GUI), pull down menus, dialog boxes and tool bar. Today ANSYS used in
many engineering fields including Aerospace, automatic electronics medical
and nuclear.
ANSYS is powerful and impressive engineering tool that may be used to
solve a variety of problems. ANSYS can perform Finite Element Analysis in
many areas covering many applications. The following list contains the 6 main
areas of analysis as well as brief description of each.
Structural Analysis
This type of analysis is the most common application of Finite Element
Analysis and is used primarily for mechanical and civil engineering
applications. Structural analysis is possible in the following areas.

Static Analysis - used to determine displacements and stresses in static

loading situations.
Modal Analysis - used to calculate natural frequencies and mode shapes
of a structure.
Harmonic Analysis - used to determine the harmonic response of a structure to
time-varying loads.

50
 Transient Dynamic Analysis - used to determine the response of a
structure to random time-varying loads.
Spectrum Analysis - used to calculate stresses and strains of a structure
due to a response spectrum or a random vibration input.
Buckling Analysis - used to calculate buckling loads and determines the
buckling load shape.

50
 CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS OF CONVENATIONAL CONNECTING ROD

5.1 SOILD MODEL

The connecting rod is modeled by using Pro-E and the part option is used
to model this connecting rod. It is exported as IGES (.iges) file format to import
into ANSYS software. The solid model generated in Pro-E as shown below in
figure 5.1

50
 “FIGURE 5.1” Isometric view

5.2DIMENSION

“FIGURE 5.2”Front View

50
“FIGURE 5.3”Left Side View “FIGURE
5.4”Top View

5.3 STATIC ANALYSIS

The IGES(.iges) format of connecting rod model is imported into ANSYS
by using import/export command. The connecting rod has various cured areas
,so that were not modeled in ANSYS. The component used for this project is
four stroke S.I engine(Yamaha crux)’s connecting rod. The material property of
conventional connecting rod is shown in below.

50
Material Property conventional
Material type : C 40
% Carbon : 0.35-0.45
% Manganese : 0.60-0.90
Young’s Modulus : 380 N/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio : 0.3
Density : 8000 kg / m3
Ultimate Tensile Strength : 750 N/mm2
Refer design data book page no 1.12

5.4 ELEMENT DESCRIPTION FOR ANALYSIS

SOLID187 is used for the 3-D modeling of solid structures. The

element is defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node:
translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions.

The element has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large

deflection, and large strain capabilities. A reduced integration option with
hourglass control is available. A similar element with anisotropic properties is
SOLID64. A higher-order version of the SOLID187 element is SOLID95.

The geometry, node locations, and the coordinate system for this
element are shown in Figure 5.2. The element is defined by eight nodes and the
orthotropic material properties.

Orthotropic material directions correspond to the element coordinate

directions. The element coordinate system orientation is as described in
Coordinate Systems.

Element loads are described in Node and Element Loads. Pressures

may be input as surface loads on the element faces as shown by the circled

50
numbers on Figure 5.2. Positive pressures act into the element. Temperatures
and fluencies may be input as element body loads at the nodes.

The node I temperature T (I) defaults to TUNIF. If all other

temperatures are unspecified, they default to T (I). For any other input
temperature pattern, unspecified temperatures default to TUNIF. Similar
defaults occurs for fluencies except that zero is used instead of TUNIF.
KEYOPT (1) is used to include or suppress the extra displacement shapes.
KEYOPT (5) and KEYOPT (6) provide various element printout options. This
element also supports uniform reduced (1 point) integration with hourglass
control when KEYOPT (2) = 1. Using uniform reduced integration provides the
following advantages when running a nonlinear analysis:

“Figure 5.5” SOLID187 Geometry

50
5.5 SPECIFICATIONS:
1. B.H.P = 7.5
2. Bore = 51 mm
3. Stroke = 48.8 mm
4. Crank Radius = 48.8/2 = 24.4 mm
5. Piston Diameter = 49.5mm
6. Piston weight = 65g (0.065kg)
7. RPM = 7500
8. Torque = 0.81 kg – m
9. Crank shaft weight = 2.350 Kg
10.Connecting rod weight = 0.15 Kg
11.Fly wheel weight = 0.8Kg

5.6 CALCULATIONS
Load calculation:
B.H.Px 60
Pm = LxAxN'
N 7500
N’ =  = 3750 rpm
2 2
7.5 x 60
= 
48.8 x x 49.5 2 x3750
4

Pm = 1.175 x N / mm2
FL = Pm x Area

FL = 1.175 x x (48.5)2
4

FL = 2170 N
 Cos 2 
FI = MRx W2 x r  Cos  
 n 

l 100
n = = 28
= 3.571
r

 = 00

50
 2x 7500 1  0.028
FI = 0.065 x 60
x 0.028 0.100

FI = 1437 N
Assumption: Engine is mounted Vertically
FP = F L  F I + WR
Assumption piston moves from TDC to BDC
Fp = F L – F I + WR
= 2170 – 1437 + (0.065 x 9.81)
= 2170 – 1437 + 0.6377
FP = 733.64 N
Assumption: Moves from BDC to TDC
FP = FL + 1437 + 0.6377
= 2170 + 1437 + 0.6377
= 3607.64 N
For all practical purposes, the forces in the Connecting Rod (FC) is taken
equal to the maximum force on the piston due to pressure of gas (F L) neglecting
inertia effects.
Maximum force on Connecting Rod
FC = FL = 2170 N (Neglecting Forces)
 C .A
2
N
WB =  l 
1  a
(or)

 Kxx 

WB = FC x Factor of safety
Factor of safety = 6
WB = FC x 6
= 2170 x 6
WB = 13020 N

50
Max force on the connecting rod due to the fly wheel arrangement Wc

Wc = (Csw + Crw + Flw) x 9.81

= (2.350+ 0.15 + 0.8) x 9.81

= 3.300 x 9.81

Wc = 32.373 N

Max force on the connecting rod due to the fly wheel arrangement (return Time)
Wr

Wr = (Csw + Crw + Flw + Mg) x 9.81

= (2.350 + 0.15 + 0.8 + 0.065) x 9.81

= 3.365 x 9.81

Wr = 33.01 N

Max force on the piston due to induced pressure of gas (Fip)

F IP = (n x Pmi x L x A x N x K x 10) / 6

= (1 x 0.9 x 0.0488 x 0.001847 x 7500 x 0.5 x 10) / 6

F IP = 50.7 N

5.7 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF CONNECTING ROD

50
 Static analysis is performed on the steel leaf spring. SOLID 187
element is used for the static analysis. The steps involved in static analysis are
Preprocessor, Solution and Postprocessor

In Preprocessor stage the steps involved are as follows

1. Specify title
2. Set preferences as structural

3. Define the element type SOLID 187 and options.

4. Define the real constant

5. Define material properties of Steel

6. Define the required key points

7. Create the arc using that key points.

8. Save the model

9. glue the surfaces using glue option

10. Mesh the Volume

50
 11. Save the database

In the solution stage the step involved are as follows

50
 1. Apply boundary condition
2. The load is applied

3. Solve the problem

In the Postprocessor stage the step involved are as follows

1. Enter the post processor and read the results

2. Plot the Von mises equivalent stress

3. Plot the fatigue result

Tensile analysis
Boundary condition:
Engine mounted vertically
Bottom end (Big end) - Fixed
Top end (Small end) - Application of load
FY - +13020 N
UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY - Fixed
ROTZ - Free
Load application:
Axial load applied on the inner diameter of the small end
Post processing/Result output:
“TABLE 5.1” Tension
Displacement (mm) .05506

Maximum stress (Vonmisses .624

stress - MPa)
Weight (grams) 115.48

Fatigue analysis

50
 Taking number of cycles of failure N along x-axis and stress in y-axis.
Considering number of failure 10,000cycles and stress ranging from 0 to1250
MPa. The results is shown in figure 5.7

“Figure 5.7” Deformation result on conventional connecting rod

“Figure 5.8” Stress analysis on conventional connecting rod

50
Units: Days
“Figure 5.9” Fatigue analysis on conventional connecting rod

CHAPTER 6

50
 PREPARATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL
6.1 STIR CASTING:
Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication,
in which a dispersed phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a
molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring.
Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state
fabrication.
The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and
may also be processed by conventional Metal forming technologies.
Stir Casting is characterized by the following features:
 Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%).
 Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly
homogeneous:
1. There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers);
2. There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference
in the densities of the dispersed and matrix phase.
 The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid
condition.
The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is called
Rheocasting.
High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the
dispersed phase.

CHAPTER 7

50
 ANALSIS OF COMPOSITE CONNECTING ROD
7.1 SOILD MODEL
The metal matrix composite connecting rod is modeled in Pro-E.The
MMC properties are added in the modeling itself by using composite mode in
the Pro-E software. The model is exported as same as conventional connecting
rod model and By using same FEA method the composite connecting rod is
analyzed

7.2 MATERIAL PROPERTY COMPOSITE

1. Material type : composite
2. Aluminum : 85%
3. Boron carbide : 15%
4. Young’s Modulus : 48 Mpa
5. Poisson’s Ratio : 0.3
6. Density : 7200 kg / m3
7. Ultimate Tensile Strength: 900 - 1050 N/mm2

7.3 STATIC ANALYSIS

The IGES (.iges) format of connecting rod model is imported into
ANSYS by using import/export command. The connecting rod has various
cured areas, so that were not modeled in ANSYS. The component used for this
project is four stroke S.I engine (Yamaha crux)’s connecting rod. The material
property of conventional connecting rod is shown in below

Tensile analysis

50
 Boundary condition:
Engine mounted vertically
Bottom end (Big end) - Fixed
Top end (Small end) - Application of load
FY - +13020 N
UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY - Fixed
ROTZ - Free
Load application:
Axial load applied on the inner diameter of the small end
Post processing/Result output:
“TABLE 7.1”Tension (CMM)
Displacement (mm) .0373

Maximum stress (Vonmisses .423

stress - MPa)
Weight (grams) 72.17

Fatigue analysis: Taking number of cycles of failure N along x-axis and stress
in y-axis. Considering the failure at 10,000cycles and stress ranging from 0 to
850 MPa. The results is shown in figure 6.3

50
“Figure 7.1” Deformation result on composite connecting rod

“Figure 7.2” Stress result on composite connecting rod

50
Units: Days
“Figure 7.3” Fatigue analysis on composite connecting rod

50
 CHAPTER 8
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
8.1 STRESS ANALYSIS COMPARISION
The FEM value of conventional and MMC connecting rod is obtained and is
shown in table .from the result it is clear that the conventional connecting rod
stress are greater than the MMC connecting rod .The comparisons of stress in
composite connecting rod.
“Table 8.1”comparisons of stress

Composite connecting
stroke Conventional connecting rod
rod

Tensile stress(MPa) 0.423 0.624

Life - (Days) 76.71 302.69

8.2 FATIGUE ANALYSIS OF CONVENATIONAL CONNECTING ROD

The Figure 5.5 and Table 8.2 clearly indicates the crack nucleation starts
from the cycle 10000 cycles at the stress value of 0.250MPa, this is because the
crack nucleation starts only after certain value or stress which high enough to
generate a crack and to propagate it. Then at 20000 cycle stress value decreases
to 160MPa this is because due to the discontinuities,
Whereas at 30000 cycles the stress value slightly rises as a result of
fatigue propagation. After which the sudden down fall to 0.125MPa at 40000
cycles indicating inclusions and variations in cross-sectional area. At 50000
cycles the stress value reaches the highest stress value of 1.175 MPa which is

50
well above the working stress limit of 0.793. At this value the Connecting Rod
gets failed.
After then at 60000 cycles the stress values gradually decreases and
reaches a low stress value remains even during the next cycle of loading till
100000 cycles of loading. Analysis up to 100000 cycles are tabulated below and
the maximum stress observed as 1.175MPa which exceeds the allowable
ultimate strength 0.793MP the failure occurs at 50000 cycles

“Table 8.2”Cyclic loading vs. Stress value

Serial Number CYCLIC LOAD in X-axis STRESS VALUE in Y-

axis
1. 0 0
2. 5000 0
3. 10000 0.325
4. 15000 0.250
5. 20000 0.200
6. 25000 0.315
7. 30000 0.440
8. 35000 0.250
9. 40000 0.100
10. 45000 0.625
11. 50000 1.175*
12. 55000 0.625
13. 60000 0.075
14. 65000 0.050
15. 70000 0.025
16. 75000 0.025
17. 80000 0.010
18. 85000 0.010
19. 90000 0.010
20. 95000 0.010
21. 100000 0.010

50
* Peak value exceeds the ultimate tensile strength, which implies 0.793MPa. At
this Peak value 1.175MPa connecting rod fails at 50000 cycles

8.3 FATIGUE ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE CONNECTING ROD

Taking number of cycles to failure N along x-axis and stress (MPa) along
y-axis. Considering number of cycles up to 100000 cycles to failure and stress
ranging 0 to 0.800 MPa.
The Figure 7.3 and table 8.3 clearly indicates the crack nucleation starts
from the cycle 10000 cycles at the stress value of 0.250MPa, this is because the
crack nucleation starts only after certain value or stress which high enough to
generate a crack and to propagate it.
Then at 20000 cycle stress value decreases to 0.320MPa this is because
due to the discontinuities, whereas at 30000 cycle the stress value slightly rises
as a result of fatigue propagation. After which the sudden down fall to 160MPa
at 50000 cycles indicating inclusions and variations in cross-sectional area.
At 65000 cycles the stress value reaches the highest stress value of
0.650MPa which is well above the working stress limit of 0.436 at this value the
Connecting Rod gets failed.
After then at 80000 cycles the stress values gradually decreases and
reaches a low stress value remains even during the next cycle of loading till
100000 cycles of loading.
Analysis up to 100000 cycles are tabulated below and the maximum
stress observed as 0.650MPa which exceeds the allowable ultimate strength
0.436MP the failure occurs at 65000 cycles
“Table 8.3” Cyclic loading Vs. Stress value
Serial Number CYCLIC LOAD in STRESS VALUE in Y-
X-axis axis
1. 0 0

50
 2. 5000 0
3. 10000 0.250
4. 15000 0.200
5. 20000 0.125
6. 25000 0.300
7. 30000 0.320
8. 35000 0.290
9. 40000 0.240
10. 45000 0.200
11. 50000 0.160
12. 55000 0.400
13. 60000 0.480
14. 65000 0.650*
15. 70000 0.450
16. 75000 0.300
17. 80000 0.080
18. 85000 0.010
19. 90000 0.010
20. 95000 0.010
21. 100000 0.010

* Peak value exceeds the ultimate tensile strength, which implies 0.436
MPa. At this Peak value 0.650 MPa the connecting rod fails at 65000
cycles.

8.4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS COMPARISION

After the fatigue life analysis made between the conventional Connecting
Rod and composite connecting rod, to infer the solution in various viewpoints.
Initially the conventional Connecting Rod subjected to analyzing without
the material replacement gives us the result as it has the fatigue life up to 50000
cycles reaching a maximum stress of 1.175MPa which is higher than the
working stress, 0.795MPa.
Subjecting the composite Connecting Rod to the fatigue analysis the
result obtained is satisfactory. During 65000 cycle Connecting Rod reaches

50
maximum stress of 0.650MPa where it fails and the stress value decreases. This
clearly confers that the composite connecting rod as its fatigue life up to 65000
cycles, during the next cycle of loading the stress value reaches 0.450MPa and
for further cycles of loading it remains in the low range of stress value. Apart
from stress and fatigue analysis, there is weight reduction during the material
replacement.

8.5 WEIGHT REDUCTION

The strength to weight ratio of composite connecting rod is greater than

that of the conventional connecting rod and more over the density of composite
connecting rod is less than that of the composite connecting rod. The mass of
composite connecting rod is found to be 72.17 grams than the conventional rod
of mass 115.48 grams. So by replacing the material of conventional connecting
rod by composite 37.5% of weight is reduced.
Percentage Reduction in Weight by Material Replacement


115 .48  72.17   37.5%
115 .48

50
 CHAPTER9

CONCLUSIONS

The conventional connecting rod used in the engines was replaced with a
composite connecting rod.

The conventional connecting rod and the Composite connecting rod were
analyzed by finite element methods. From the results, it is clear that the stress
induced in the composite connecting rod is found to be lower than that of the
conventional connecting rod.

Number of working days for composite connecting rod is high

Composite connecting rod material is replaced for good fatigue strength,

minimizing weight and without violating the limiting constraint formed by

50
induced stress. A reduction of 31.5% weight is achieved when a conventional
connecting rod is replaced with composite connecting rod under identical
conditions of design parameters.

10 REFERENCES

[1] Roger rsbb,1996, “fatigue failure of a connecting rod “,engineering failure

analysis, vol.3, pp.no. 13-28.

[2]Fantino,2002,”connecting rod made composite connecting rod”, patent

no.us5154096.

[3]Jean-perre maumas,1992,”connecting rod made of composite

materials”,patent no.us154,098.

[4]Person et al,2005,”use of a transmission component of metal matrix

composite(MMC) material”, patent no .us0214134.

50
[5]Janas rasback,” metal matrix composite in engines”,MX composites
AB,www.mxcomposites.com

[6]Folger,1987 “design, fabrication and performance of fiber FP/metal matrix

composite connecting rods”,SAE.Inc. pp.no.870406.

[7] Berthed ,1998,“optimized connecting rod to enable higher engine

performance and cost reduction”,SAE.Inc,pp.no.980882.

[8] Karl kainer,2006,”basics of metal matrix composites”,cutom-made materials

for automotive and aerospace engineering, ISBN 3-527-31360-5.

[9] Erol Sancaktar, Mathieu Gratton,1999, ‘Design, Analysis and Optimization

of
Composite Leaf Spring for Light Vehicle Applications’. Composite Structures.
44.
195-204.

[10] autar k.kaw,1997,”mechanics of composites materials”,CRC Press.

[11] j.n reddy,2003,”an introduction to the finite element methed”, TATA

McGRAW HILL.

[12] L.J. segerlind,1984,”appiled finite element analysis”,,john wiles.

[13] s.s roa,1989,”finite element methed in engineering”, pergamon press.

50
[14] chandrapatta and belagundu,1997,”finite element in engineering”,prevate
lid.

[15] cook,1999,”davis etal,1999,”concept and application of finite element

analysis”,wiley,john and sons.

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