TECHNICAL BULLETIN

REACTION SOLVENT
DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE (DMSO)
O

S
H3C CH3

CAS Name: Methane, sulfinylbis

CAS Registry Number: 67- 68- 5

Dimethyl sulfoxide as manufactured by Gaylord Chemical, is a water-white almost odorless liquid, boiling at
189°C. and melting at above 18.2° C. It is relatively stable and easy to recover, miscible in all proportions with
water and most common organic solvents and has a low order of toxicity.

Gaylord Chemical Company, L.L.C.

P.O. Box 1209
Slidell, LA 70459-1209
(985) 649-5464

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION 5
PART I. PROPERTIES OF DMSO 6
Physical Properties 6
Thermal and Chemical Stability 6
Recovery from Aqueous Solutions 12

PART II. SOLVENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF DMSO 12

Solubility of Salts 13
Solubility of Resins and Polymers 14
Solubility of Miscellaneous Materials 15
Solubility of Gases 16

PART III. REACTIONS OF DMSO 17

1. Oxidation of DMSO 17
2. Reduction of DMSO 17
3. Reaction with Metals 17
4. Reaction with Strong Bases-Dimsyl Ion 17
5. Reaction with Acid Halides 18
6. Reaction with Acid Anhydrides 18
7. Halogenation of DMSO 19
8. Reaction with Phenols and Aniline 19
9. Alcohol Oxidation with DMSO 20
a) Acetic Anhydride 21
b) Trifluoroacetic Anhydride 21
c) Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide 21
d) Phosphorus Pentoxide 22
e) Sulfur Trioxide-Pyridine 22
f) Oxalyl Chloride 23
10. Kornblum Reaction 23
11. Mehoxydimethylsulfonium Salts and 23
Trimethyloxosulfonium Salts

PART IV. DMSO AS A REACTION SOLVENT 24

A. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS IN DMSO 24
Anions-Nucleophiles (Bases):
1. Acetylide Ion 24
2. Alkoxide Ion 24
3. Amides 26
4. Amines 28
5. Ammonia 30
6. Azide Ion 30
7. Carbanions 32
8. Carboxylate Ion 34
9. Cyanate Ion 35
10.Cyanide Ion 35
11.Halogen Ion 39
12.Hydroxide ion 40
13.Mercaptide (or Thiopenoxide) Ion 42
14.Nitrite Ion 43
15.Phenoxide Ion 44
16.Sulfide (or Hydrosulfide) and Thiosulfate Ions 46
17.Thiocyanate Ion 47
B. BASES AND BASE CATALYZED REACTIONS IN DMSO 48
Bacities in DMSO 48
Proton Removal 48

ELIMINATION REACTIONS 51
1. Cope Elimination 51
2. Decarboxylatoin and Decarbalkoxylation 51
3. Dehalogenation 52
4. Dehydrohalogenation 54
5. Nitrogen Elimination 57

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 Page

6. Sulfenate Elimination 59
7. Sulfonate Elimination 59
8. Water Elimination-dehydration 60

ISOMERIZATION REACTIONS 62
1. Acetylene Isomerization 62
2. Allyl Group Isomerization 63
3. Diene, Triene Isomerization 63
4. Olefin Isomerization 64
5. Racemization 65

C. OTHER REACTIONS IN DMSO

ADDITION REACTIONS 66
a) Additions to acetylenes 66
b) Additions to olefins 67
c) Additions to nitriles 69
d) Additions to isocyanates 69
CONDENSATION REACTIONS 69
a) Aldol-type condensations 69
b) Ester condensations 70
c) Dieckmann condensation-cyclization 71
d) Mannich reaction 72
e) Michael condensation 72
f) Reformatsky reaction 73
g) Thorpe-Ziegler condensation 73
h) Ullmann-type condensations 73
i) Wittig reaction 73
OXIDATION REACTIONS 74
a) Autoxidation 74
b) Chemiluminescence 76
c) Other oxidations involving oxygen 77
d) Dehydrogenation 77
e) Hypohalite oxidations 78
f) Lead tetraacetate oxidations 78
g) Silver compound oxidations 79
h) Superoxide and peroxide oxidations 80
REDUCTION REACTIONS 80
1. Reduction of Alkyl Halides and Sulfonates 81
a) Reductions with sodium borohydride 81
b) Reductions with chromous ion 82
c) Reductions with dimsyl ion 82
d) Reductions with hydrazine 82
e) Reductions by electrolysis 82
2. Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds 82
a) Reductions with borohydrides 82
b) Catalytic reduction 83
c) Electrochemical reduction 83
d) Wolff-Kishner reduction 83
3. Reduction of Nitroaromatics 83
4. Reduction of C=C Systems 84
SOLVOLYTIC REACTIONS 85
1. Hydrolysis 85
a) Aliphatic halide hydrolysis 85
b) Aromatic halide hydrolysis 85
c) Amide hydrolysis 86
d) Epoxide hydrolysis 86
e) Ether hydrolysis 86
f) Nitrile hydrolysis 86
g) Saponification 87
2. Alcoholysis, Aminolysis 87
3. Transesterification (Ester Interchange) 88

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 Page
PART V. USES OF DMSO 88
1. Polymerization and Spinning Solvent 88
Polymerization Solvent for Heat-Resistant Polymers 88
2. Extraction Solvent 89
3. Solvent for Electrolytic Reactions 89
4. Cellulose Solvent 89
5. Pesticide Solvent 90
6. Cleanup Solvent 90
7. Sulfiding Agent 90
8. Integrated Circuits 90
PART VI. TOXICITY, HANDLING, HAZARDS, ANALYSIS 90
1. Toxicity and Handling Precautions 90
2. Comparative Toxicity of Commercial Solvents 91
3. Chemical Reactions to be Avoided with DMSO 91
4. Analytical Procedures 92
a) Gas chromatographic analysis of DMSO 92
b) DMSO freezing point 92
c) Water by Karl Fischer titration 92
PART VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 93

TABLES AND FIGURES

Page
Table I Physical Properties of DMSO 6
Table II Results of Reflux of DMSO for 24 Hours with Various Compounds 9
Table III Refluxing of DMSO and Mixtures for Shorter Periods 9
Table IV Effect of Heating DMSO with Concentrated Acids 10
Table V Solubility of Salts in DMSO 13
Table VI Solubility of Resins and Polymers in DMSO 14
Table VII Solubility of Miscellaneous Materials in DMSO 15
Table VIII Solubility of Gases in DMSO 16
Table IX Solubility of Various Bases in DMSO 24
Table X Solubility of Sodium Azide in Four Solvents 31
Table XI Acidities in DMSO 50
Table XII Single-Dose Toxicity (Rats) of Some Common Solvents 91
Table XIII Single-Dose Toxicities to Mice of 4M Solvents 91

Figure 1 Vapor Pressure-Temperature DMSO 7

Figure 2a Freezing Point Curve for DMSO-Water Solutions (Wt % water) 8
Figure 2b Freezing Point Curve for DMSO-Water Solution (Wt % water) 8
Figure 3 Viscosity of DMSO 8
Figure 4 Viscosity of DMSO-Water Solutions 8
Figure 5 Thermal Stability of DMSO 11
Figure 6 DMSO Recovery from Aqueous Solutions 12
Figure 7 Solubility of NaCN in DMSO 36
Figure 8 Solubility of NaCl in DMSO-H2O Mixtures 36
Figure 9 Solubility of Hydroxides in Aqueous DMSO 41
Figure 10 Acidity Functions of Bases in DMSO 49

4
 INTRODUCTION

Dimethyl sulfoxide or DMSO is a highly polar, high boiling, aprotic, water miscible, hygroscopic organic liquid. It is essentially odorless,
water white and has a low order of toxicity.
Chemically, DMSO is stable above 100° C in alkaline, acidic or neutral conditions. Prolonged refluxing at atmospheric pressure will
cause slow decomposition of DMSO. If this occurs, it can be readily detected by the odor of trace amounts of methyl mercaptan and
bis(methylthio)methane. The rate of decomposition is a timetemperature function that can be accelerated by the addition of acids and
retarded by some bases.
DMSO is a versatile and powerful solvent that will dissolve most aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons, organic nitrogen
compounds, organo-sulfur compounds and many inorganic salts. It is miscible with most of the common organic solvents such as
alcohols, esters, ketones, lower ethers, chlorinated solvents and aromatics. However, saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are virtually
insoluble in DMSO.
As a reaction solvent, DMSO is valuable for displacement, elimination, and condensation reactions involving anions. In DMSO, the
rates of these reactions are often increased by several orders of magnitude. In free radical polymerizations, higher average molecular
weights have been reported when DMSO was used as the reaction solvent.
The dominant characteristics of DMSO most important in its usefulness as a reaction solvent are its high polarity, its essentially
aprotic nature, and its solvating ability toward cations. The high dipole moment of the sulfur-oxygen bond (4.3) and the high dielectric
constant (approx. 48) for bulk DMSO suggest the solvating properties and ability to disperse charged solutes. DMSO is not a
hydrogen donor in hydrogen bonding and poorly solvates anions except by dipolar association to polarizable anions. The hydrogen
atoms of DMSO are quite inert, although they are replaceable under sufficiently severe conditions (bulk pKa = 35.1). The oxygen of
DMSO is somewhat basic and participates strongly as a hydrogen bond acceptor. DMSO forms isolatable salts with several strong
acids.
Owing to its chemical and physical properties, DMSO can be efficiently recovered from aqueous solutions. Commercial users of
DMSO employ a variety of processing schemes in their recovery systems. All of these are based on evaporation or fractional
distillation because of simplicity of design and operation. Unlike some other solvents, DMSO can be easily separated from water by
distillation in substantially pure form. For example, DMSO containing less that 500 ppm water can be recovered from a solution
containing 50 weight percent water with only 15 column plates at a reflux ratio of 1:1.
Dimethyl sulfoxide occurs widely in nature at levels of 3 ppm or less. It has been found in spearmint oil, corn, barley, malt, alfalfa,
beets, cabbage, cucumber, oats, onions, swiss chard, tomatoes, raspberries, beer, coffee, milk and tea. DMSO is a common
constituent of natural waters. It has been identified in seawater in the zone of light penetration where it may represent an end product
of algal metabolism. Its occurrence in rainwater may result from oxidation of atmospheric dimethyl sulfide which in turn occurs as part
of the natural transfer of sulfur of biological origin.
No attempt has been made in this bulletin to present a complete literature survey of all the uses of DMSO as a reaction solvent,
solvent, or reactant. A few carefully chosen references have been selected to illustrate the most important areas of DMSO chemistry.
For persons wishing to learn more about DMSO as a reaction solvent, ir any other information in this bulletin, please write or call:

P.O. Box 1209

Slidell, LA 70459-1201
(985) 649-5464

5
 PART I. PROPERTIES OF DMSO
TABLE I. Physical Properties of DMSO

Reference
Molecular Weight 78.13
Boiling Point at 760 mm Hg 189 °C (372°F) (342)
Freezing point 18.45°C (65.4°F) (342)
Molal freezing point constant, °C/(mol)(kg) 4.07 (2151)
Refractive index nD25 1.4768 (581)
Surface tension at 20°C 43.53 dynes/cm (2223)
Vapor pressure, at 25°C 0.600 mmHg (372)
Density, g/cm3, at 25°C 1.099 (581)
Viscosity, cP, at 25°C 2.0 (see Figs. 3 & 4) (581)
Specific heat at 29.5°C 0.47+/- 0.015 cal/g/°C (3215)
Heat capacity (liq.), 25°C 0.47 cal/g/°C (2900)
Heat capacity (ideal gas) Cp(T°K)=6.94+5.6x10 ±2T-0.227x10-4T2 (353)
Heat of fusion 41.3 cal/g (232)
Heat of vaporization at 70°C 11.3 kcal/mol (260 BTU/lb)
Heat of solution in water at 25°C -54 cal/g, @ f dilution (3215)
Heat of combustion 6054 cal/g; (473 kcal/mole) (342)
Flash point (open cup) 95°C (203°F)
Auto ignition temperature in air 300-302°C (572-575°F)
Flammability limits in air
lower (100°C) 3-3.5% by volume

upper 42-63% by volume

Coefficient of expansion 0.00088/°C (342)
Dielectric constant, 10MHz 48.9 (20°C) (342)
45.5 (40°C)
Solubility parameter Dispersion 9.0 (8070)
Polar 8.0
H-bonding 5.0
Dipole moment, D 4.3 (342)
Conductivity, 20°C 3x108(ohm ±1cm-1) (342)
80°C 7x108(ohm ±1cm-1)
PKa 35.1 (10411)

Thermal and Chemical Stability of DMSO

As shown in Figure 5, DMSO is highly stable at temperatures below 150° C. For example, holding DMSO at 150° C for 24 hours, one
could expect a loss of between 0.1 and 1.0%. Retention times even in batch stills are usually considerably less than this, and
therefore, losses would be correspondingly less.. It has been reported that only 3.7% of volatile materials are produced during 72
hours at the boiling point (189° C) of DMSO (1). Slightly more decomposition, however, can be expected with the industrial grade
material. Thus, about 5% DMSO decomposes at reflux after 24 hours (3921). Almost half of the weight of the volatile materials is
paraformaldehyde. Dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, bis(methylthio)methane and water are other volatile products. A small amount
of dimethyl sulfone can also be found. The following sequence of reactions explains the formation of these decomposition
products (1):

H3CSOCH3 H3CSH + HCHO (HCHO)x

2H3CSH + HCHO (H3CS)2CH2 + H2O
2H3CSH + CH3SOCH3 H3CSSCH 3 + H3CSCH3 + H2O
2H3CSOCH3 H3CSO 2CH3 + H2CSCH3
DMSO is remarkably stable in the presence of most neutral or
basic salts and bases (3922). When samples of DMSO (300g) are

6
refluxed for 24 hours with 100g each of sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium cyanide, sodium acetate and
sodium sulfate, little or no decomposition takes place in most cases. The results are shown in Table II below (3922):

FREEZING POINT CURVES FOR DMSO-WATER SOLUTIONS

7
8
 TABLE II
Results of Reflux of DMSO for 24 Hours with Various Compounds
(a)
Compound (1008) Reflux DMSO Recovered DMS % of Decomposition Products, M Md
in 300 g DMSO Temp.,° C. % of Original DMDS
(b)
BMTM
(c)
HCHO
NaOH 185-140e 93.7 63 31
Na2CO3 190 96.3 14
NaCI 190 98.7 15
NaCN 148-164f 100.0
NaOAc 182-187 97.0 22 33 8 20
Na2SO4 181-148g 85.4 66 11
DMSO only 189 98.0 15 30 30

(a) Dimethyl sulfide

(b) Dimethyl disulfide
(c) Bis(methylthio)methane
(d) Methyl mercaptan
(e) Reflux temp. decreased from 185°C to 140°C over the first 16 hours.
(f) Reflux temp. was 148°C for 20 hours; increased to 164° C during the last 4 hours.
(g) Reflux temp. decreased gradually from 181°C to 148° C.
DMSO does not seem to be hydrolyzed by water and very little decomposition of DMSO takes place when it is heated under reflux for
periods of 5 to 16 hours. The following tests, shown in Table III, have been performed: 1)10 parts DMSO + 1 part water, 2) 60 parts DMSO
+ 5 parts water + 1 part sodium hydroxide, 3) 60 parts DMSO + 12 parts water + 1 part sodium bicarbonate, 4) DMSO alone (3922):

TABLE III
Refluxing of DMSO and Mixtures For Shorter Periods
Composition of Sample, Reflux Time DMSO Organic Product Composition, BMTM
Parts Time,°C. Hr. 100 DMS DMDS 0
10 DMSO:1 H2O 152 5 0 0
15 99.7 0.15 0 0.15
60 DMSO:5 H2O:1 NaOH 155 5 99.8 0.1 0.1 0
8 99.3 0.6 0.1 0
60 DMSO:12 H2O:1 NaHCO3 131 6 99.9 0.1 0 0
12 99.8 0.2 0 0
DMSO only 191 5 99.8 0.1 0.1 0
9 99.1 0.2 0.2 0.5
16 99.0 0.2 0.2 0.6

DMSO is also stable in the presence of concentrated sulfuric or hydrochloric acid at 100° C for up to 120 minutes of heating at atmospheric
9
pressure. Phosphoric acid causes more rapid decomposition of DMSO than does sulfuric or hydrochloric acid. Detected decomposition
products are dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and, in smaller quantity, formaldehyde. The results are shown in Table IV (3920):

TABLE IV
Effect of Heating DMSO with Concentrated Acids - (200g DMSO with 20g of concn. acid)

Acid Conc. Temp., Time, DMSO Left, % of

° C. Min. % Decomposition Products
(a) (b)
H2SO4 36N 100 15 99 DMS DMDS HCHO
100
30 99 100
120 98 100
H2SO4 36N 125 - 15 86 7 93
150 86 7 93
210 80 10 90
H3 P04 85% 100 15 92 25 75
30 89 45 55
45 89 45 55
60 87 46 54
120 87 46 54
150 86 50 50 some
H3 P04 85% 125 15 84 25 75
60 82 33 67
150 82 33 67
HCI 12N 95 15 99 100
30 99 100
60 99 100
120 98 100
HCI 12N 115 15 93 100
30 92 100
45 87 100
60 87 100
120 87 100 some
(a) Dimethyl Sulfide
(b) Dimethyl Disulfide

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11
 FIGURE 6

Recovery from Aqueous Solutions

Many chemical processes using DMSO require the addition of water to stop the reaction or to separate the product from the solvent
(DMSO). DMSO can be separated efficiently and cleanly from this water and other impurities by distillation. DMSO distillations are not
complicated by any known azeotropes.
A typical feed to a recovery operation is relatively weak in DMSO - 10 to 20%. There would usually be two vacuum distillation steps in
the recovery:
1) Evaporation of the DMSO-water solution overhead to eliminate less volatile impurities, if any are present, and
2) Fractional distillation of the DMSO-water solution to recover pure DMSO.
Recovery may be done batchwise or continuously, employing moderate conditions. An operating pressure of about
100 mm Hg abs. would allow the use of 85 psig steam and normally available cooling water.

PART II
SOLVENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF DMSO
The solvent characteristics of DMSO derive mainly from its being highly polar and aprotic. Because of its high polarity it forms
association bonds with other polar and polarizable molecules, including itself. Thus, it is miscible with water and almost all types of
organic liquids except the saturated alkanes. It has a high solvency for the large organic molecules containing polar groups. DMSO has
also exhibited an ability to dissolve many inorganic salts, particularly those of the transition metals or those which have nitrates,
cyanides or dichromates as their anions.
The following tables of solubilities are offered as a guide and an easy reference.

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 Solubility of salts ----------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table V
Solubility of resins and polymers -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table V I
Solubility of miscellaneous materials --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table VII
Solubility of gases -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table VIII

The difficulty of predicting solubility characteristics suggests that each specific compound be checked for its solubility in DMSO rather
then generalizing from reported solubilities. Because of the variability of resins and polymers from one manufacturer to another,
tradenames and companies have been used to identify accurately the materials in Table VI.
The study of co-solvent possibilities utilizing DMSO has not been included as the complexity and diversity of this field are too broad to
give adequate coverage. It will be noted however from Table VII that DMSO is compatible with most of the common solvents. This
compatibility and the strong solvency properties of DMSO indicate numerous possibilities for co-solvent systems to perform given tasks
efficiently and economically.

TABLE V
Solubility of Salts in DMSO (794)

Solubility Grams/100 cc DMSO Solubility Grams/100 cc DMSO

25°C. 90-100°C. 25°C. 90-100°C
Aluminum sulfate (18H2O) Insol. 5 Lithium dichromate (2 H2O) 10 -
Ammonium borate (3H2O) 10 - Lithium nitrate 10
Ammonium carbonate (H2O) 1 - Magnesium chloride (6 H2O) 1 -
Ammonium chloride Insol. 10 Magnesium nitrate (6 H2O) 40 -
Ammonium chromate 1 - Manganous chloride (4 H2O) 20 -
Ammonium dichromate 50 - Mercuric acetate 100 -
Ammonium nitrate 80 - Mercuric bromide 90 -
Ammonium thiocyanate 30 - Mercuric iodide 100 -
Barium nitrate 1 - Molybdenum bromide 1 Reacts
Beryllium nitrate (4 H2O) 10 - Nickel chloride (6 H2O) 60 -
Bismuth trichloride 1 - Nickel nitrate (6 H2O) 60 -
Cadmium chloride 20 - Potassium iodide 20 20
Cadmium iodide 30 - Potassium nitrate 10 -
Calcium chloride Insol. 1 Potassium nitrite 2 -
Calcium dichromate (3 H2O) 50 - Potassium thiocyanate 20 50
Calcium nitrate (4 H2O) 2 30 - Silver nitrate 130 180
Ceric ammonium nitrate 1 - Sodium dichromate (2 H2O) 10 -
Cobaltous chloride (6 H2O) 30 Misc. m.p. 86°C. Sodium iodide 30 -
Cupric acetate (H2O) Insol. 6 Sodium nitrate 20 -
Cupric bromide 1 20 150°C. Sodium nitrite 20 -
Cupric chloride (2 H2O) Insol. 27 Sodium thiocyanate 1 -
Cuprous iodide 1 - Stannous chloride (2 H2O) 40 -
Ferric ammonium sulfate (12 H2O) Insol. Misc. m.p. 40° C. Strontium bromide (6 H2O) 5 -
Ferric chloride (6 H2O) 30 90 Strontium chloride (2 H2O) 10 -
Ferrous chloride (4 H2O) 30 90 Tungsten hexachloride 5 -
Gold chloride 5 - Uranyl nitrate (6 H2O) 30
Lead chloride 10 - Vanadium chloride - 1
Lead nitrate 20 60 Zinc chloride 30 60
Zinc nitrate (6 H2O) 55 -

13
 TABLE VI
Solubility of Resins and Polymers in DMSO

Grams Soluble in 100 cc DMSO

Material 20-30°C 90-100°C Comments
Polyacrylics
Orlon (du Pont) - 20 Viscous soln.
Acrilan (Monsanto) >25 -
Verel (Eastman) >5 25 at 130°C with some
decompostion
Creslan (Am. Cyanamid) 5 25 at 130°C
Zefran (DOW) - Insol.
Polyamides
Nylon 6 - Insol. 40 at 150°C
Nylon 6/6 - Insol. 25 at 150°C
Nylon 6/10 - Insol. 40 at 150°C
Cellulose
Cellulose triacetate 10 20
Viscose rayon - <1
Cellophane - Insol.
Carboxymethyl cellulose - Insol.
Epoxies
Epon 1001 (Shell) 50 -
Epon 1004 (Shell) 50 -
Epon 1007 (Shell) 50 -
Methacrylates
Lucite 41, 45 (du Pont) - <1
Plexiglass (Rohm & Haas) - <1
Polycarbonates
Lexan (General Electric) - >5
Merlon (Mobay) - Insol.
Polyesters
Dacron (du Pont) - >1 Dissolves at 160°C ppts.
CX 1037 (Goodyear) - 7 130°C
Atlac (ICI-America) - 50
Silicones
Dow Corning 803 soln. Miscible -
Dow Corning 805 soln. Miscible -
'RZ&RUQLQJ³6\ON\G´ Miscible -
Dow Corning Z6018 (flake) 70 -
Urethanes
Vithan (Goodyear) - 100
Vinyls ± Polymers & Co-polymers
Butvar B-76 (Monsanto) - 20 Very viscous
Formvar 7/70 E (Montsanto) - 42 Very viscous
Elvanol 51-05 (du Pont) - 90 Viscous
Elvanol 52-22 (du Pont) - 15 Viscous
Elvanol 71-24 (du Pont) - 30 Viscous
Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (GAF) 30 >100
Geon 101 (PVC Goodrich) - 10
Vinylite VYHH (Union Carbide) 2 30
Teslar (du Pont) - - Partially sol. at 160-170°C

14
Vinylidenes
Darvan (Goodrich) 5 - Soln. Cloudy and viscous
Saran film (Dow) - 30
Geon 200 x 20 (Goodrich) - 20
DNA (Goodrich) >5 - 25 at 130°C
Other Resinous Materials
Melmac 405 (Am. Cyanamid) 70 -
Neoprene Insol. Insol.
Polyethylene Insol. Insol.
Polystyrene - - Sol. At 150°C ppts at 130°C
Rosin (Hercules) >100 -
Penton (chlorinated polyether)
(Hercules) - 5
Teflon (du Pont) Insol. Insol.
Vinsol (Hercules) 50 >100

TABLE VII
Solubility of Miscellaneous Materials in DMSO

Solubility Solubility
Grams/100 cc DMSO Grams/100 cc DMSO
Material 20-30°C 90-100°C Material 20-30°C 90-100°C
Acetic acid Miscible - Glycerine Miscible -
Acetone Miscible - Glycine <0.05 0.1
Acrawax <1 >1 Hexane 2.9 -
Acrawax B Insol. 4 Hy-wax 120 - <1
Aniline Miscible - Iodine Soluble -
Beeswax - <1 Isoprene Miscible -
Benzene Miscible - Kerosene 0.05 (0.5% DMSO soluble in 11 (gets cold)
Benzidine Soluble - Lanolin, hydrated (Lanette O)
Benzidine methane sulfonate Insol. - Lauryl amide (Amid 12) 10 >20
Bromine Reacts - Lorol 5 Miscible -
Lubricating oil 0.4 -
Butenes 2.1 - Methionine 0.1 0.3
Clacium methyl sulfonate Soluble - Methyl borate Miscible -
Camphor Soluble Soluble Methyl caprate - Miscible
Candelilla wax - <1 Methyl iodide Miscible Reacts
Carbon Insol. - Methyl laurate 7 Miscible
Carbon disulfide 90 - Methyl mercaptan 40 -
Carbon tetrachloride Miscible - N-methyl morpholine Miscible -
Carbowax 600 Miscible - Methyl palmitate Immiscible Misc. 130-180°
Carbowax 6000 Insol. 8 Methyl salicylate Miscible -
Carnauba wax - <1 Methyl sulfonic acid Miscible -
Castor oil Miscible - Methylene chloride Miscible -
Ceresin wax - <1 Microcrystalline wax - <1
Chlorine Reacts - Morpholine Miscible Miscible-
Chloroform Miscible - Naphthalene 40 Insol.
Chlorosulfonic acid Reacts - Neoprene Insol. -
Citric acid >70 - Nitrobenzene Miscible -
Coconut oil 0.3 1.3 Oleic acid Miscible -
Misc.-160°C Ouricuri wax - 1
Cork Softens Softens Oxalic acid 38 -
Cresylic acid Miscible - Paint (dried) Softens & dissolves
Cumene Miscible - Palmitic acid 100
Cyclohexane 4.67 - Paraffin Insoluble -
Cyclohexylamine Miscible - Paraformaldehyde Insoluble Slightly soluble
Decalin 4.5 - Pentaerythritol 5-10 30
n-Decane 0.7 - n-Pentane 0.35 -
Di-n-butylamine 11 - Pentene 1 & 2 7.1 -
o-Dichlorobenzene Miscible - Perchloric acid Reacts violently -
p-Dichlorobenzene Very Soluble - Petroleum ether 3 (DMSO soluble 0.3-0.5% in petroleum
Dicholorodiphenyltrichloroethane 4 100 ether)
Dicyandiamide 40 - Phenol Soluble -
Dicyclohexylamine 4.5 - Phosphoric acid Miscible -
Diethylamine Miscible - Phosphorus trichloride Reacts vigorously -
Diethyl ether Miscible - Phthalic acid 90 -
bis-(2-ethylhexyl)amine Miscible - Isophthalic acid 68 76
Diethyl sulfide 0.7 - Terephthalic acid 26 33
Di-isobutyl carbinol Miscible Picric acid Soluble -
15
Di-isobutylene 3.3 (0.6% DMSO soluble in Pyridine Miscible -
di-isobutylene)
- Pyrogallol 50 -
Dimethyl ether 4.4 - Rosin >100 -
Dimethyl formamide Miscible - Rosin soap Slightly soluble 0.9
Dimethyl sulfide Miscible - (Hercules Dresinate X)
Dimethyl sulfone 33.9 Miscible Sevin 50 -
Dioxane Miscible - Shellac, white, dried - 80
Diphenyl Very Soluble - Silicon tetrachloride Reacts vigorously
Dipentene 10 - Sodium - Reacts
n-Dodecane 0.38 - Sorbitan sesquioleate 2.5 -
Dodecylbenzene (Neolene 400) 3.5 - Sorbitan trioleate - Miscible
Dyes - Sorbitol 60 >180
Burnt Sugar Soluble - Soybean oil 0.6 -
FD&C Blue Soluble - Starch, soluble >2 -
Pistachio Green B Soluble - Stearic acid 2 Miscible
Ethyl benzoate Miscible - Succinic acid 30 -
Ethyl alcohol Miscible - Sugar (sucrose) 30 100
Ethyl bromide Miscible Reacts Sulfamic acid 40 -
Ethyl ether Miscible - Sulfur - <1
Ethylene dichloride Miscible - Sulfuric acid Miscible -
Formalin (37%) Miscible - Tallow Insol. 1.9
Formamide Miscible - Tallow amide, hydrogenated Insol. >40
Formic Acid Miscible - (Armour Armide HT)
Tetrahydrophthalic anhydride 50 -
Thiourea 40 85
Toluene Miscible -
Toluene di-isocyanate Miscible -
Tributylamine 0.9 -
Tricresyl phosphate Miscible -
Triethanolamine laurylsulfate Soluble -
Triethanolamine Miscible -
Triethylamine 10 -
Trinitrotoluene Soluble -
Turpentine 10 -
Urea 40 110
Water Miscible -
Xylene Miscible -

TABLE VIII
Solubility of Gases in DMSO at Atmospheric Pressure and 20°C
(from pure gases in each case)

Grams Gas per

100 Grams Solution Gas Volume per
Volume of DMSO
Acetylene 2.99 28.1
Ammonia 2.6 40.0
Butadiene 4.35 -
Mixed butylenes 2.05 -
Carbon dioxide 0.5 3.0
Carbon monoxide 0.01
Ethylene 0.32 2.8
Ethylene oxide 60.0 306.0
Freon 12 1.8 3.7
Helium Insol.
Hydrogen 0.00
Hydrogen sulfide 0.5 (reacts)
Isobutylene 2.5-3.0 -
Methane 0.00
Nitric oxide (NO) 0.00
Nitrogen 0.00 -
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2, N2O4) Miscible (possible reaction) 0.06
Oxygen 0.01
Ozone Reacts
Sulfur dioxide 57.4 (reacts)

16
 PART III
REACTIONS OF DMSO
1. Oxidation of DMSO
DMSO reacts with strong oxidizing agents to give dimethyl sulfone, CH 3SO2CH . Ozone gives a good yield of the sulfone (825)(8923).
Both dichromate oxidation (321) and permanganate oxidation (9222) have been used for quantitative determination of DMSO (1612).
Aqueous chlorine under acidic conditions gives dimethyl sulfone and
methanesulfonyl chloride (1273)(8548), but under alkaline conditions the oxidation is accompanied by chlorination to give an 80% yield
of hexachlorodimethyl sulfone (905):
CH3SOCH3 + NaOCl CCl3SO2CCl3
Sodium hypobromite similarly gives a 75% yield of hexabromodimethyl sulfone (229). DMSO reacts with hydrogen peroxide (10224),
organic peroxides (1515), or hydroperoxides (8105), particularly in the presence of catalysts (4136), to give the sulfone. It has been
reported that the persulfate ion can remove an electron from the sulfur of DMSO to give a radical cation, which is a suitable
polymerization catalyst for acrylonitrile (1271). DMSO is also oxidized by peroxydiphosphate (9563) and chloramine-T (9678).

2. Reduction of DMSO
DMSO is reduced to dimethyl sulfide, CH SCH , by a number of strong reducing agents, including aluminum hydrides (1024)(1022)
and boranes (1138)(3429)(3816)(8885). Mercaptans reduce acidified DMSO and are oxidized to the disulfides
(428)(1373)(2532)(2779)(8054)(8095)(8405)(9949):
acid
2RSH + CH 3SOCH 3 RSSR + CH 3SCH 3 + H 2O
3. Reaction with Metals
The reaction of DMSO with sodium and potassium metals does not lead to simple removal of a hydrogen, but occurs by cleaving the
carbon-sulfur bond (206):
CH3SOCH3 + 2M CH3SO -M+ + CH3-M+
CH3SOCH3 + CH3-M+ CH3SOCH2-M+ + CH4
The electrolytic reduction of sodium chloride or sodium iodide in DMSO similarly leads to a mixture of hydrogen and methane gases at the
cathode (1508).

4. Reaction with Strong Bases - Dimsyl Ion

Methylsulfinyl carbanion, dimsyl ion, H2CSOCH3.
The activating influence of the sulfinyl group on Į-hydrogens is considerably less than that of a carbonyl group but
still sufficient to give a pKa of 35.1 for DMSO (10411). Consequently, strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium amide react with
DMSO to produce solutions of sodium methylsulfinyl carbanion (dimsyl ion) which have proved to be synthetically useful (634):
+ -
CH3SOCH3 + NaH NaCH2SOCH3 + H2
As the base, the dimsyl sodium solution can be employed to remove protons from carbohydrates, amines, amides, acetylenes, weakly
acidic hydrocarbons and many other compounds. The dimsyl ion has also been used to prepare salts of carbonyl compounds, and for
eliminations producing olefins, aromatics and cyclopropane derivatives. There are numerous applications of the dimsyl ion in the
isomerization of alkynes and formation of phosphorus ylides in preparing Wittig reagents.
The dimsyl ion solutions provide a strongly basic reagent for generating other carbanions. The dimsyl ion shows the expected
nucleophilicity of carbanions and serves as a source of methylsulfinylmethyl groups (634).
Thus, with alkyl halides or sulfonate esters, sulfoxides are obtained; carbonyl compounds yield ȕ-hydroxysulfoxides and esters give ȕ-
ketosulfoxides (624):
-
n-C4H9Br + :CH2SOCH3 n-C4H9CH2SOCH3
-
(C6H5)2CO + :CH2SOCH3 (C6H5)2C(OH)CH2SOCH3
-
C6H5COOEt + :CH2SOCH3 C6H5C(O)CH2SOCH3
Zinc and sulfuric acid have been used to reduce DMSO (86). Quantitative procedures for determining DMSO have been based on its
reduction using stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid (982), or titanium trichloride in dilute hydrochloric acid (272). DMSO is
reduced only very slowly with hypophosphorus acid unless catalyzed by dialkyl selenides (1005). Hydroiodic acid reduces DMSO
(7073), and the kinetics of the reaction have been examined (84)(85)(1687)(1544). Hydrogen bromide, on the other hand, reduces
DMSO only at temperatures about 80° C (1579). DMSO has also been reduced with iodine-sulfur dioxide or bromine-sulfur dioxide
complexes (9464), cyclic phosphoranes derived from catechol (9944), silanes (10085)(10127), thiophosphoryl bromide (10139) and
other reagents. Quantitative or almost quantitative yields of dimethyl sulfide are claimed in some of these reductions.
The dimsyl ion also adds to carbon-carbon double bonds, and if the mixture is heated for several hours, the initial adduct eliminates
methanesulfenic acid. The overall result is methylation and with compounds such as quinoline or isoquinoline, yields are nearly
quantitative (202):

17
 H2CSOCH3
N N N

isoquinoline H CH2SOCH3 CH3

Care is required in running these reactions because the decomposition of the intermediate sulfoxide anion (and also dimsyl sodium)
during the heating in the strongly alkaline system is exothermic and also produces a precipitate which can interfere with heat removal.
Explosions have been observed which were not detonations but were due to a pressure build-up by an uncontrolled exotherm (8).

5. Reaction with Acid Halides

DMSO has long been known to react with chlorine or acid chlorides, such as sulfur monochloride, S2Cl2, to give chloromethyl methyl
sulfide, whereas with sulfuryl chloride, SO2Cl2, only 13% of the chloromethyl methyl sulfide is obtained (720). Aromatic sulfonyl chlorides
(463), thionyl chloride (595), and organic acid chlorides also give chloromethyl methyl sulfide (467)(8601). With thionyl chloride, it has
been suggested that the reaction, in a simplified form, can be represented as follows:
CH3SOCH3 + SOCl2 CH3SCH2Cl + SO 2 + HCl

The reaction in many cases proceeds by way of initial attack of the chlorinating agent upon the oxygen of DMSO, followed by removal of
a proton to give an ylide which is finally attacked by chlorine (459):
CH SOCH + Z-M-X [(CH3)2 SOMZ] +X-
3 3

X-(e.g. Cl -)

-
OMZ + CH3SCH2 X [CH2SOCH2:] M-Z +HX
M= an atom (such as S) to which the halogen atom X is attached
Z=the remaining portion of the molecule

The kinetics of the reaction between DMSO and acetyl chloride has been studied using NMR spectroscopy. The decay of DMSO and
acetyl chloride follows mainly 2nd order kinetics. The growth of the main products, acetic acid and chloromethyl methyl sulfide is mainly
second order. The overall reaction is complicated by several side reactions, which generate acetoxymethyl methyl sulfide, acetic
anhydride and chlorodimethylsulfonium chloride (9773):
OCH3CCl
CH3SOCH3 CH3SCH2Cl + CH3CO2H + (CH3CO)2O +CIS(CH3)2 +Cl-

This displacement of a reactive chloride by the DMSO oxygen has been used to introduce hydroxyl groups into compounds that are
sensitive toward water (459)(294)(1016)(1383)(3152). Thus, DMSO reacts with cyanuric chloride to give cyanuric acid and with benzoyl
chloride to give benzoic acid, (1383):

N3C3Cl + 3CH3SOCH3 N3C3O3H3 + 3CH3SCH2Cl

PhCOCl + CH3SOCH3 PhCO2H + CH3SCH2Cl
The ability of suIfoxides to react with acid chlorides can be used for the quantitative determination of DMSO. When DMSO is reacted with
acetyl chloride in the presence of iodide the following reaction, involving formation of the acyloxysulfonium salt, can be represented as
follows:
CH3SOCH3 + CH3COCl [(CH3)2SOCOCH3]+ + Cl-
[(CH3)2SOCOCH3]+ + 2l- CH3SCH3 + l2 + CH3CO2-

The iodine is then titrated with sodium thiosulfate (1805).

The reaction of DMSO with reactive acid chlorides is vigorous and exothermic and should be conducted with care (669)(8601)(10470).

6. Reaction with Acid Anhydrides

Carboxylic acid anhydrides react with DMSO in a manner similar to that of acid halides. With acetic anhydride, the final product is
acetoxymethyl methyl sulfide, CH3CO2CH2SCH3 (290)(291). Several mechanisms of the reaction, the Pummerer rearrangement, have
been proposed. There seems to be little doubt that the first step in the reaction of DMSO with acetic anhydride is the formation of the
acetoxysulfonium salt (2643)(2896). Various possible pathways of the rearrangement from the sulfonium salt have been proposed, but
18
 the one going through the ylide seems likely (2643)(4820). The Pummerer rearrangement can then be represented by the following
reactions
O
O

O CH 3 O
O CH 3
CH3SOCH3 + (CH3CO)2O S
CH 3 S +CH3CO 2H
H3C O CH 3 CH 2
H3C
O
O

H3CS CH 2 O CH 3
H3CSH2CO CH 3

DMSO also reacts with trifluoroacetic anhydride to give the acetoxysulfonium salt. When this intermediate is reacted with aromatic
amines, amides or sulfonamides the corresponding iminosulfuranes are obtained (7044). When aliphatic carboxylic acids are treated
with DMSO activated by tert-butylbromide in the presence of NaHCO3 the corresponding methylthiomethyl esters are obtained in a
Pummerer like reaction (10032). A Pummerer type rearrangement is also suggested in the reaction of diphenylphosphinic anhydride-
DMSO reaction (4128):
O
[Ph2PO]2O + CH3SOCH3 P + Ph2PO2H
Ph OCH 2SCH3
Ph

Inorganic anhydrides also attack the DMSO oxygen. The sulfur trioxide-DMSO complex reacts easily with cellulose to give cellulose
sulfate esters with a high degree of substitution (1474).
Reactions of DMSO wlth some acid anhydrides, both organic and lnorganic, can be vigorous and should be conducted with care. Thus,
acetic anhydride and benzoic anhydride react with DMSO even at room temperature (290), although higher temperatures, e.g. 85-90° C,
are needed for faster reactions (7613).

Complex formation between DMSO and sulfur trioxide is an exothermic reaction. To avoid overheating with consequent darkening and
violent boiling of the mixture, sulfur trioxide should be added slowly to a cool well stirred and cooled DMSO (1474).
DMSO cannot be dried with phosphorus pentoxide because this may lead to an explosive mixture (354).

7. Halogenation of DMSO
DMSO can be halogenated with chlorine or bromine in the presence of a base. Thus, stirring a solution of DMSO, pyridine, and
bromine in chloroform results in the formation of bromomethyl methyl sulfoxide (3148):
Br2, pyridine, CCl4
CH3SOCH3 CH3SOCH2Br
0oC 48%
3 hr.
Similarly, bubbling chlorine into a DMSO, pyridine and methylene chloride solution at 0° C for over 30 minutes produces chloromethyl
methyl sulfoxide in a 77% yield (6268).
Chlorination of DMSO in the presence of triethylamine yields chloromethyl methyl sulfoxide. Further chlorination in the presence of
pyridine yields methyl trichloromethyl sulfoxide (4802):
Cl2, Et 3N, CCl4 Cl2, pyridine, CHCl3
CH3SOCH3 CH3SOCH2Cl CH3SOCCl3
o
-5 to 5 C 60% 30%
below 5oC
3 hrs.
Bromination of DMSO with elemental bromine leads to the formation of trimethylsulfonium bromide. Methanesulfonic acid,
paraformaldehyde, dimethyl disulfide, and hydrogen bromide are formed as by-products (4802):
Br2
CH3SOCH3 (CH3)3S+Br-
o
20-50 C 75%

A small amount of hydrogen halides or halogens, especially bromine or hydrogen bromide, catalyze the decomposition of DMSO in the
absence of a base. This catalytic decomposition takes place sluggishly. The reaction of bromine proceeds via the initial Į-bromination to
afford Į-bromethyl methyl sulfoxide which is oxidized (Kornblum reaction) to afford the products listed above [(4802)]. These consecutive
reactions form an oxidation-reduction cycle between Br2-HBr and DMSO-dimethyl sulfide (8400).

8. Reaction with Phenols and Aniline

19
a) Acid chloride or hydrogen chloride catalysis.
When a solution of phenol in DMSO is treated with an acid chloride, such as thionyl chloride, or saturated with hydrogen chloride, the
initially formed adduct of DMSO reacts by electrophilic attack on the phenol to form the sulfonium salt. The sulfonium salt can be
decomposed by heating to give hydroxyaryl methylthioethers (2075)(302)(296):

OH
+ Phenol
CH3SOCH3 + HCl CH3SCH3 Cl

+
heat
OH S(CH3)2 Cl-
OH SCH3 + CH3Cl
+

R
4-(methylthio)phenol

Up to 60% yields are obtained, depending on the structure of the phenol. p-Hydroxyaryl methylthioethers are also obtained when phenols
are suspended in 70% perchloric acid and DMSO is added, followed by heating of sulfonium salts in hot, saturated potassium chloride
solution (1268):

-
HClO4 ClO4H2O, KCl- OH SCH3
+ CH3SOCH3 OH S(CH3)2
OH
+ reflux
15-20oC 4-5 hrs.
2-3 hours R
65-68%
R R
Similarly, hydroxyaryl thioethers can be prepared by reacting phenols with DMSO in sulfuric acid, and heating the crude reaction mixture
with aqueous sodium chloride (6335) (6674)(6613).
N,N-dimethylaniline can be reacted with DMSO using phosphoryl chloride catalysis. However, the yield of the aryl thioether is lower in
this case (348). Other aromatic amines and hydrazine derivatives also react with DMSO and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (4651).

b) Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide or acid anhydride catalysis

The reaction of phenols with DMSO and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in the presence of phosphoric acid or pyridinium trifluoroacetate
affords a mixture of the products consisting mainly of 2-methylthiomethyl phenol and 2,6-bis(methylthiomethyl)phenol
(540)(1234)(4898)(4891). It has been suggested that the mechanism proceeds according to the following steps (540)(1234)(4898):
H +

CH 2SOCH 3 + H+ + C6H11-N=C=N-C6H11 C6H11-N-C=N-C6H5

S(CH3)2
phenol
O
+

O (CH3)2SO H C H
base + N N
CH 3 S
- CH C6H11 C6H11
2

O OH

H
Ch2SCH3 H3CSCh 2
2-thiomethoxymethyl phenol
A similar reaction takes place when acetic anhydride (849)(1055) or the pyridine-sulfur trioxide complex (4636) is used to polarize
the DMSO molecule instead of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide.
Finally, it has been found that phenols can be methylthiomethylated by boiling with excess DMSO. A mixture of isomeric
methylthiomethylation products are obtained, but o-methylthiomethylation is preferred (4636)(4772).

9. Alcohol Oxidation with DMSO

A breakthrough in the preparation of carbonyl compounds from alcohols has been achieved with the development of reagents based on

20
DMSO (8551)(1503)(4820)(16359).
Several procedures have been developed which permit the selective oxidation of structurally diverse primary are secondary alcohols to
the corresponding carbonyl compounds, i.e. aldehydes and ketones, respectively. Most of these reactions take place at room
temperature or above. Nucleophilic attack occurs on the DMSO sulfur atom. Most reactions in which the nucleophilic attack takes place
on sulfur are aided by prior electrophilic attack on the oxygen atom (10720):

O O E

CH3SCH3 + E CH3SCH3
+ +
The electrophilic reagents which activate DMSO include acetic anhydride, trifluoroacetic anhydride, and other acid anhydrides, the sulfur
trioxide-pyridine complex, thionyl chloride, oxalyl chloride, acetyl chloride, and other, acid chlorides, bromine, chlorine, t-butyl
hypochlorite, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, and others.
The labile intermediate, the DMSO-electrophile complex, can now be attacked by a nucleophile, such as an alcohol, to perform a
displacement on sulfur with oxygen as the departing group:
E
O Nu
+ Nu + OE-
S S
H3C CH3 H3C CH3

Several of the above-mentioned activating agents and their use in the oxidation of alcohols are described below.

a) Acetic anhydride
In this procedure an alcohol is treated with a mixture of acetic anhydride and DMSO at room temperature (1127) (9926). DMSO first
reacts with acetic anhydride to form the acyloxysulfonium salt which in turn reacts with the alcohol to give the alkoxydimethylsulfonium
intermediate which decomposes to the carbonyl compound and dimethyl sulfide (DMS)(1127):
CH 3SCH3 + (CH3CO) 2O [(CH3)2S-O-COCH3]+CH 3COO -
acyloxysulfonium salt

CH 3SCH3 + RR'C=O [(CH3)2S-O-CHRR'] ++CH3COO -

A number of side reactions take place when using the acetic anhydride-DMSO procedure. The usual side products are acetates and
methylthiomethyl ethers, RR'CHOCH2SCH3. The advantage of the acetic anhydride-DMSO method is the fact that highly hindered
alcohols, which would be inert to other DMSO-activator systems, are oxidized (4820).

b) Trifluoroacetic anhydride
Trifluoroacetic anhydride and DMSO react exothermally at -60° C. in methylene chloride to produce a white precipitate, presumably an
ion pair, trifluoroacetoxydimethylsulfonium trifluoroacetate.
+
[(CH3)2S-O-COCF3]-OCOCF3
This reacts rapidly with alcohols, even sterically hindered ones (e.g. 2-adamantol and neopentyl-type alcohols) to give the
corresponding carbonyls (7943)(8455). Trifluoroacetic anhydride is an excellent activator for DMSO because of short reaction times and
high yields of carbonyl compounds with minimal by-product formation. The major drawback is the need to work at very low temperatures
(-30 to -60° C) (10720).

c) Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide
This method of oxidation is generally referred to as the "Pfitzner-Moffatt" technique, after its originators (1503). The reaction involves
addition of an alcohol substrate to a solution of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) in DMSO with an acid, such as phosphoric acid or
pyridinium trifluoroacetate (172), present as a proton source. This results in reaction conditions near neutrality at room temperature. The
oxidation technique is applicable to primary or secondary alcohol groups in an almost unlimited variety of compounds, including
alkaloids, steroids (173), and carbohydrates (4349). Steric effects are not important except in highly hindered systems (1503). In the
reaction, the DMSO molecule is first converted to a labile intermediate which is susceptible to attack at the sulfur by an alcohol group to
produce an alkoxysulfonium salt which undergoes base-catalyzed decomposition to the carbonyl compound (3049):

21
 HOHCRR'
C6H11 -N=C=N-C6H11 + H+OS(CH3)2 C6H11HN C N C6H11

CH3SCH3
H O

+ C6H11 C6H11
(CH3)2S-O-CRR' N N
H H
alkoxysulfonium salt

H R' O
-H+ O
CH3
+ SH + CH3SCH3
(CH3)2S-O-CRR'
R H R R'
:CH2

Protecting groups such as isopropylidene, benzylidene, acetate, benzoate, and sulfonate esters and ethers are stable in the conditions
used for oxidation (3602)(175).

d) Phosphorus pentoxide
It has been found that DMSO containing phosphorus pentoxide rapidly oxidizes the alcoholic groups of carbohydrates and other
compounds at room or elevated temperatures to the corresponding aldehydes or ketones (208). In general, oxidations proceed most
efficiently in the presence of 3-4 molar equivalents of DMSO and 1.2-2.0 molar equivalents of phosphorus pentoxide (2327). The
carbohydrate oxidation with DMSO-P4O10 should be run at about 60-65°C. This system catalyzes carbohydrate polymerization at
temperatures below 35° C (5296) (6079). DMSO, DMF and pyridine seem to be the best solvents for this reaction (3602)(2327)(6691).

e) Sulfur trioxide-pyridine
The combination of DMSO with S03-pyridine complex in the presence of triethylamine yields a reagent that rapidly oxidizes primary and
secondary alcohols in good yield at room temperature to aldehydes and ketones, respectively (9926)(10720). An attractive feature of this
reagent is its property of effecting oxidation of allylic alcohols to the corresponding Į , ȕ-unsaturated carbonyl compounds (1752).
The S03-pyridine complex in DMSO can be used to oxidize acid-labile trans-diols (4037) or cis-diols (8033) to quinones. This reagent has
also been used to oxidize alkaloid hydroxyl groups to ketone groups (2749)(8017). Application of the DMSO-S03-pyridine reagent to
partially acetylated carbohydrates leads to oxidation as well as elimination of the elements of acetic acid, thus providing a high yield to
novel unsaturated carbohydrates (2652):
OHC

O
R3 = H
OAc OR1

OR2
SO3, DMSO R1=H
R3OH2C R3OH2C
O O
1
OAc OR O

OAc OAc
2
OR

CH2
O

R2=H OR

OAc O

22
 f) Oxalyl chloride
Oxalyl chloride is an efficient and useful activator, superior to trifluoroacetic anhydride, for the conversion of alcohols to their
alkoxysulfonium salts which, upon basification, result in generally higher and frequently quantitative yields of the corresponding carbonyl
compounds (9786)(9926). The unstable intermediate formed at low temperatures (usually-60° C) instantaneously loses carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide. The new intermediate is the same as that proposed for the dimethyl sulfide-chlorine reagent. This product has been
reacted with a wide variety of alcohols to convert them to the carbonyl compounds (10084):
O O
CH2Cl2-60o -CO2, -CO
CH3SOCH3 + (COCl)2 [(CH3)2S O C C Cl] Cl

+ RR'CHOH (Et)3N
-
[(CH3)2S-Cl] Cl - [(CH3)2SOCHRR'] Cl

RR'C=O + CH2SCH3

10. Kornblum Reaction

Kornblum and co-workers have demonstrated that in DMSO Į -bromoketones at room temperature and primary alkyl tosylates on heating
afford the corresponding carbonyl compounds, presumably through an oxysulfonium intermediate (273)(8551):
+ B:
CH3SOCH3 + XCHRR' [(CH3)2S-O-CHRR']X- RR'C=O + BH+
Some reactive alkyl halides, such as methyl iodide, also react with DMSO to form the oxosulfonium intermediate (the O-alkyl derivative).
However, this intermediate rearranges readily to the more stable oxosulfonium salt, i.e. (CH3)3S+Ol-, and no oxidation takes place (324).
Some reactive halides, such as benzyl, can also be oxidized to the corresponding carbonyl compounds but higher reaction temperatures
are necessary. An acid acceptor, e.g. sodium hydrogen carbonate, is frequently used (105).
The relatively unreactive alkyl halides, such as 1 -chloroheptane, can be oxidized by DMSO if the chloride is first converted to the tosylate
(106).
The DMSO oxidation of the primary allylic chloride, 4-chloro-3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol acetate, does not proceed well when sodium hydrogen
carbonate is used as the acid acceptor. However, this reaction runs well when a dibasic metal phosphate, Na2HPO4 or K2HPO4, is used
(9960):
CH3 CH3
DMSO
H2CCl C CHCH 2OCOCH3 OHC C CHCH2OCOCH3
M2HPO4, 80oC
This particular reaction is catalyzed by sodium bromide (9960)(10066).

11. Methoxydimethylsulfonium Salts and Trimethyloxosulfonium Salts

Alkylating agents, such as methyl iodide, react initially with DMSO at the oxygen to give methoxydimethylsulfonium iodide (see the
previous section, Kornblum Reaction). These alkoxysulfonium salts are quite reactive and with continued heating either decompose to
give the carbonyl compounds or rearrange to the more stable trimethyloxosulfonium salts. In the case of methyl iodide
trimethylsoxosulfonium iodide is produced (324):
(CH3)2SO + CH 3I [(CH3)2SOCH3]+I- [(CH3)3SO]+I -
methoxydimethylsulfonium trimethyloxosulfonium
iodide iodide
Trimethyloxosulfonium iodide is of interest because treatment with sodium hydride or dimsyl sodium produces dimethyloxosulfonium
methylide which is an excellent reagent for introducing a methylene group into a variety of structures (632)(2463)(4820):
O
+-
[(CH3)3SO] I + NaH (CH 3)2S CH2 + NaI + H2

dimethyloxosulfonium
methylide

Many aldehydes and ketones react with the ylide to give better than 75% yields of epoxides (632):
H
C
O

(CH3)2S CH2 +C6H5CH=CHC(O)C 6H5 (C6H5)2C CH2 + (CH3)2SO

90 % yield
In a similar case, the dimethyloxosulfonium methylide reacts with carbon-carbon double bonds that are conjugated with carbonyl groups to
give cyclopropane derivatives (4820)(7361):

23
 H2
O C

(CH 3)2S CH2 +C6H5CH=CHC(O)C 6H5 C6H5CH CHC(O)C 6H5

PART IV. DMSO AS A REACTION SOLVENT

A. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS IN DMSO
These are reactions in which reactive groups are replaced by nucleophilic ions or molecules.
The largest category of reactions in which DMSO has been used as a solvent is that in which labile groups are replaced by nucleophilic
ions or molecules. The reason for the particular utility of DMSO in these reactions has not always been established and derives from a
number of factors. DMSO as one of the most polar of the common aprotic solvents. It is a favored solvent for displacement reactions
because of its high dielectric constant and because anions are less solvated in it (9488). The high dielectric constant of a solvent insures
that dissolving species or a solute bearing opposite charges do not come together to agglomerate. E.g. when sodium hydroxide is
dissolved in DMSO, the interaction between Na' and OH- is minimized. Due to the polarity of the sulfoxide bond and the electron density at
the oxygen, cations are much more solvated by DMSO than the anions. Conversely, the aprotic nature of DMSO precludes the solvation of
anions by hydrogen bonding so that these are solvated only by dipolar attraction and thereby are more reactive. In other cases, the
controlling influence is suggested to the ability of highly polar DMSO molecules to stabilize transition state structures and thereby lower the
activation energy (22) (471)(399). This latter effect is evident in the cases where comparatively minor additions of DMSO cause significant
enhancement of reaction rates (1262).

A great variety of displacement reactions can be run in DMSO and suitable nucleophiles include:
1. Acetylide ion 10. Cyanide ion
2. Alkoxide ion 11. Halogen ion
3. Amides 12. Hydroxide ion
4. Amines 13. Mercaptide (or Thiophenoxide) ion
5. Ammonia 14. Nitrite ion
6. Azide ion 15. Phenoxide ion
7. Carbanions 16. Sulfide (or Hydrosulfide) and Thiosulfate ions
8. Carboxylate ion 17. Thiocyanate ion
9. Cyanate ion

1. Acetylide Ion
The usual reactions of sodium acetylide may be accomplished in good yield by stirring a slurry of sodium acetylide in DMSO slightly below
room temperature with reagents such as alkyl halides, epoxides or carbonyl compounds (544). Displacement of halides with the ethylene-
diamine complex of lithium acetylide is also easily effected in DMSO (3178)(4175). Thus, the reaction of 1-bromo-5-chloropentane with
lithium acetylide-ethylene diamine complex in DMSO gives 7-chloro-1 -heptyne (1826):
- DMSO
Cl(CH2)5Br + HC CLi+ Cl(CH2)5C CH
The use of lithium acetylide-ethylene diamine in DMSO has given higher yields of the desired products than sodium acetylide in liquid
ammonia (4175).
The addition of lithium acetylide as the ethylene-diamine complex to 7-bromoheptanol tetrahydropyranyl ether in DMSO gives non-8-yn-1-
ol tetrahydropyranyl ether in higher than 90% yield (4333).

2. Alkoxide Ion
The high activity of alkoxide ions in DMSO shows up in their enhanced basicity. The basicity of alkoxides reaches a maximum in DMSO
when the mixture is substantially free of hydroxylic material. In this case, the acidity of the alcohols in dilute solutions is about 103 times
that of DMSO so that only a minor equilibrium quantity of the DMSO anion is present (734). The reactivity of the alkoxide ion in DMSO is
influenced by the cation and is greater with cesium and with lithium less (606)(1162). The vastly enhanced activity of alkoxide ions in
DMSO over their activity in alcohols is attributed to the absence of alkoxide-solvent hydrogen bonds in DMSO which are present in the
hydroxylic solvents (434).
The basicity of alkoxides in DMSO is conveniently expressed n terms of acidity functions, and a number of these are plotted in Figure 10
for bases n DMSO-water and DMSO-methanol systems.
Alkoxides differ in their solubilities n DMSO. Thus, potassium t-butoxide is more soluble than some lower alkoxides (17). The solubilities
of these hydroxylic bases are also shown in Table IX for comparative purposes.

A review article on potassium t-butoxide and its use in nucleophilic displacements has been published (6815).

TABLE IX Solubilities of Various Bases in DMSO

Substance moles/liter Reference

24
 NaOH 7.6 x 10'° (725)

KOH 1 x 10'3 (17)

(CH ) NOH 1 x 10' (17)

NaOCH3 1.6 x 10'3 (725)

NaOEt 2 x 10'2 (17)

iso-PrONa 7 x 10'3 (17)

n-BuONa 5 x 10'3 (17)

t-BuOK 1 x 10'2 (17)

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

The rate of reaction of alkoxide ions with alkyl halides in alcohol-DMSO mixtures to form ethers increases with the increasing amount of
DMSO. This is illustrated in the reaction of methyl iodide with methoxide ion or with ethoxide ion to make dimethyl- or methyl ethyl ethers,
respectively (329), and in the reaction between benzyl chlorides and methoxide ion to make the corresponding benzyl methyl ethers
(433). The rate increase at high DMSO concentrations is attributed to an increased activity of the methoxide ion caused by reduced
solvation, but other factors are probably more important at low DMSO concentrations. The activation energy decreases continuously as
the DMSO concentration increases (433). The Williamson ether synthesis from alcohols and alkyl halides (chlorides) with sodium
hydroxide as the base can be considerably improved by using DMSO as the solvent in place of the excess alcohol (2924):
NaOH, DM SO
ROH + CIR' ROR'
100oC
6-14 hrs.
Secondary alkyl chlorides and primary alkyl bromides give little etherification, elimination being the major reaction.
The use of alkoxides in DMSO in some cases involves elimination n addition to displacement, followed by the addition of the alkoxide to
the double bond in alicyclic compounds (1798).

b) Aromatic halide displacement

As with alkyl halides, the use of alkoxides in DMSO can involve both the displacement and elimination reactions with aromatic halogen
compounds. Thus, when a solution of 3-bromo-tropolone in DMSO is heated with sodium methoxide, an almost 1:1 mixture of 3-
methoxytropolone and 4-methoxytropolone is obtained in 96% yield (3572):
Br OCH3

H3CO
O O O
O

NaOCH 3, DMSO NaOCH 3, DMSO +

O- OH OH
OH

3-methoxy 4-methoxy
benzyne-type tropolone
intermediate tropolone

Aromatic halogens in nitroaryl halides can be displaced by the methoxide ion in DMSO-methanol. The reaction rate increases some
1000-fold when the DMSO concentration is increased to 80% (399):
DMSO DMSO
k1 O-
+ OR k2
NO2 F + -OR N NO2 OR
F
O
R = C2H5 or t-Bu
p-Nitrochlorobenzene also reacts with alkoxides. When 2-alkylamino-ethanol is first treated with dimsyl sodium to make the oxyanion
base followed by the addition of p-nitrochlorobenzene, the preferential nucleophilic attack by oxygen (rather than the amino group) is
insured (8399): +
Cl NaH2CSOCH3, DMSO
RHN(CH2)2OH + RHN(H2C)2O NO2
NO2

The reaction of monoiodo-, monobromo-, monochloro- and monofluoro-naphthalenes with potassium butoxide in butyl alcohol-DMSO
has been examined (4058)(4059). The major products observed in the bromo-, iodo- and chloronaphthalene reactions are 1- and 2-butyl
naphthyl ethers, 1- and 2-naphthols and 1-methylmercapto-2naphthol. This suggests that 1,2-dehydrohaphthalene is an intermediate in
each of these reactions, and 1-methyl-mercapto-2-naphthol is probably the benzyne intermediate-DMSO reaction product (4059). The
25
 fluoronaphthalenes undergo only direct nucleophilic substitution with no formation of 1,2-dehydronaphthalene, i.e. no benzyne-type
intermediate (4058)(5244):

O OH
F
t-BuOK-DMSO

+ t-BuOK
+
70oC
14 hours 27%
38%

(degradation
product of the ether)

2,3-Dichloranisole can be prepared by reacting 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene with sodium methoxide in DMSOmethanol (9107).
The kinetics of the reaction of 2-bromo-, 2-bromo-3-methyl-, and 2-bromo-5-methylpyridine and methoxide ion in DMSO containing small
amounts of methanol have been determined (2125). The ortho:para ratio is higher at lower temperatures (2.5 at 40° C vs 1.44 at 110* C):
OCH3

R' R R' R
R' R
DMSO

+ -OCH3 +

40-110oC
N OCH3 N
N Br
2-Bromopyridine reacts with potassium methoxide in DMSO containing 1 % of methanol 3000 times faster than it does with the same
reagent in pure methanol at 110°C.
A number of 4-alkoxypyridines is prepared by reacting 4-chloropyridine with sodium alkoxides in DMSO in moderate to high yields
(5038).
5-Bromo-3-methyl-4-nitroisothiazole reacts smoothly with sodium alkoxides in alcohols-DMSO to give the appropriate 5-alkoxy-3-methyl-
4-nitroisothiazoles (4098):
CH3 NO2 CH3 NO2
DM SO
+ NaOR
N 60-100oC N
S Br S OR
c) Nitro group displacement
When sodium methoxide or sodium ethoxide is added to p-nitro- or p,p'-dinitrobenzophenone in DMSO, almost quantitative yields of p-
alkoxy- or p,p'-dialkoxybenzophenone are obtained (470):
O O
ROH-DMSO
NO2 +NaOR OR C OR
NO2 C
20oC
24 hrs.

Sulfonamides are also alkylated in DMSO.4,6-Dichloropyrimidine reacts with the sodium salt of p-nitrobenzenesulfonamide in DMSO to
give 4-chloro-6-(p-nitrobenzenesulfonamido)pyrimidine (42):
With 2,2'-dibromo-4,4'-dinitrobenzophenone, there is no displacement of bromide ion, and 2,2'-dibromo-4,4'dimethoxybenzophenone
(90%) is obtained. No reaction occurs in any instance when dioxane is used instead of DMSO (470).

d) Sulfinate displacement
When ȕ-styrylsulfones are treated with one molar equivalent of sodium alkoxides in DMSO, ȕ-alkoxystyrenes are formed by
nucleophilic substitution (9761):
iv
CH=C SO Ph CH=C OR
2
iv DMSO R'"
R'"
NaOR
R R" room temp. R R"

R' R'
10-68%
e) Sulfonate displacement
Benzene sulfonates of common primary and secondary alcohols react rapidly with sodium methoxide in DMSO to give high yields of alkyl
methyl ethers and/or alkenes. The ether-alkene ratio is significantly higher in reactions with sodium methoxide than with potassium t-
butoxidesulfonyl ester groups from carbohydrate derivatives, the conversion to the ether with sodium methoxide or sodium e. More olefins
are formed from secondary sulfonate esters than from primary esters (580)(592). In the displacement of methane thoxide in DMSO occurs
by the attack on the sulfur, leading to the retention of configuration, rather than by the usual attack on carbon with inversion (1119)(653).

3. Amides
26
The N-alkylation of amides can take place in DMSO. The reaction of various Ȧ-haloamides with the dimsyl ion in DMSO can be used to
obtain good to high yields of 4-, 5- and 6-membered lactams. However, the reaction with dimsyl ion fails to produce the seven-membered
heterocyclic ring (888):
H O -
H2CSOCH 3, DMSO
N C (CH2)nBr N (CH2)n
X X
O
X = Br, Cl, F, I;
N = 2, 3, 4

The readily available base, dimsyl ion, could be more convenient to work with than sodium in liquid ammonia (888). The alkylation of the
sodium salt of saccharin with a benzyl chloride also proceeds well in DMSO to give a high yield of N-benzyl saccharin (947):
7-Oxo-7,8-dihydro-s-triazolo[4,3-a]pyrimidine can be alkylated as above using p-chlorobenzyl chloride in DMSO. In this case, however a
mixture of the N-benzyl- and the O-benzyl deriviatives results (3885):
H R H

O N O N O N N
N N
NaOH, DM SO
N + RCl N + N
N N N

R =CH2 Cl

It has been found that the N-alkylation of carboxylic acid amides proceeds well in DMSO by using dry potassium hydroxide as the base.
Good yields can be obtained even at room temperature (4355):
O O
KOH, DM SO
+ R"X 54-90%

R NHR' RT R NR'R"

With DMSO as the solvent, the use of stronger bases, such as sodium hydride or potassium alkoxides, is not necessary.
When the sodium salt of an acetamidonitrile in DMSO is treated with chloramine, a smooth N-amination is achieved (4382):

CN CN
DM SO
+ ClNH2
NNa NNH2
H3CO H3COC H3CO H3COC

OCH3 OCH3

Peptides and proteins can also be N-alkylated with methyl iodide and benzyl bromide using DMSO as the solvent and the dimsyl ion as
the base (4945).

A number of amides, such as acetanilide, have been N-alkylated with dialkyl sulfates using potassium hydroxide as the base and DMSO
as the solvent (8276):
O R O
KOH, DMSO
(RO)2SO2
NHCCH 3 + N CCH 3
20oC

The sodium salt of an amide can displace a methoxy group from a benzene nucleus. Thus, the treatment of 2-acetamido-2'-
methoxybenzophenone with sodium hydride in DMSO gives the 9-acridone (8564):
O O

NaH, DM SO

room temp N
NH OCH3

COCH3 COCH3

68%
27
 4. Amines
In most displacement reactions, the nucleophiles are negatively charged. However, displacements can also take place involving
uncharged nucleophiles, namely, amines (3433). Amines, like ammonia, do not hydrolyze DMSO. The presence of DMSO in the
displacement reaction involving amines allows the reagents to surmount the energy barrier easier than in hydroxylic solvents, irrespective
of the charge type of the reagents. The effect of DMSO, then, must be the decrease in- the energy of the transition state. It could also be
said that DMSO polarizes a substrate (399). For a reaction involving neutral reactants, such as amines, and going through a charged
transition state, it appears that DMSO can solvate the cationic part of the reacting system at the point of attack of the amine reagent
(1240). Thus, displacement reactions by amines in DMSO generally proceed at a good rate. A catalytic effect is seen by adding DMSO to
an alcohol system containing amines and aryl halides (399)(1262).
a) Aliphatic halide displacement-primary amines
Alkylation of weak aromatic amines with alkyl bromides (e.g. 2-aminofluorenone with ethyl bromide) in DMSO gives ring brominated N-
alkyl derivatives (211). However, aralkylation of 2-aminofluorenone with aralkyl bromide, such as benzyl- and para-substituted benzyl
bromides in DMSO leads to azomethines as the main products (264):

Br
+ BrH 2C X DMSO HC X
100oC
N
1.5 hrs
O

NH2
O

DMSO also catalyzes the reaction between 2-substituted carboxylic acids and amines. Thus, ethylenediamine reacts with chloroacetic
acid to give ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (4910):
DMSO
H2NCH2CH2NH2 + 4ClCH2CO2H (HO2CCH2)2NCH2CH2N(CH2CO2H)2
o
80 C
b) Aliphatic halide displacement-secondary amines
Ȧ -Bromoalkylbenzofuranones react with morpholine in DMSO to give high yields of the N-alkylation products (613):
O O

O DM SO O
N- O
(CH2)nBr +NH O (CH2)n

Ph Ph
n=1,2,3,4 yield almost quantitive if n=1 or 2
The morpholinoethylbenzofuranone is formed by direct halogen displacement and no rearrangement reactions take place.

c) Aliphatic halide displacement-tertiary amines

The reaction between triethylamine and ethyl iodine has been investigated in benzene, DMSO and various benzene-DMSO mixtures.
The reaction rate increases with increasing DMSO concentration in the solvent. Although DMSO reacts slowly with alkylating agents,
quaternizations, such as the reaction of triethylamine and ethyl iodide, proceed much more rapidly to give a high yield of
tetraethylammonium iodide (585):
DMSO
(C2H5)3N + C2H5I (C2H5)4N+I-
20-50oC
Similarly, when p-nitrocumyl chloride is treated with quinuclidine in DMSO, a 90% yield of pure quaternary ammonium chloride can be
isolated (3433):

(CH3)2 Cl Cl-
C +
(CH3)2 C N

+ DM SO

room temperature
N N 10 hours
O2 N
O2
90% 28
d) Aromatic halide displacement - primary amines
A series of primary amines has been reacted with 4-nitrofluorobenzene in DMSO to determine the rate constants. DMSO was selected as
the solvent because of its relatively high boiling point and the fact that most nucleophilic reactions in DMSO proceed at a fast rate (1638).
These reactions are run in the presence of an excess of amines:
DMSO +
NO2 F + 2RHN2 NO2 NHR + RNH3F-

Similarly, benzylamine reacts with 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (399):

DMSO
C6H5CH2NH2 + CIC 6H3(NO2)2 C6H5CH2NHC6H3(NO2)2
e) Aromatic halide displacement - secondary amines
The displacement of aromatic halides by secondary amines in DMSO has been studied rather extensively. The fluoro compounds undergo
substitution by various nucleophiles, such as secondary aliphatic and alicyclic amines, at rates 100 to 1000 times faster than their chloro
analogs. The rate of displacement of fluorine is further enhanced by the order of 103 to 105 in dipolar aprotic solvents, such as DMSO, as
compared with reactions in aprotic solvents (471). Thus, 4-fluoroacetophenone undergoes a very rapid displacement of the halogen by
amines, such as morpholine, in DMSO and affords in high yields the corresponding 4-amino derivatives, which are otherwise difficult to
prepare (398):
DM SO
OCCH3 X + NH OCCH3 N

X = F, Cl, Br
The yields of products obtained in DMSO are higher than those obtained with DMF under comparable conditions.

The reaction of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene with piperidine, which is known to be insensitive to base catalysis, is nevertheless accelerated by
DMSO (538).

The rate constants for the reaction of 4-nitrofluorobenzene in DMSO with 19 secondary amines have also been determined. This reaction
is the fastest with pyrrolidine, azacyclobutane and dimethylamine, and slowest with methylanisidine, diisobutylamine and diethanolamine
(1639).

The dechlorination of 2- and 4-chloroquinolines, as well as 6- and 8-alkyl-substituted 4-chloroquinolines with piperidine in DMSO and
other solvents has been studied (1240)(1239)(1238).

f) Nitro group displacement

In some cases, activated nitro groups can be displaced by amines. Thus, 2,5-dinitro-1 -methylpyrrole undergoes nucleophilic aromatic
substitution by piperidine (7756):

+ DM SO
NO2 O2N N
O2N NH
N N

CH3 CH3
The reaction with the amine is favored by the accelerating effect of DMSO in aromatic substitutions by neutral nucleophiles.

g) Alkoxide and phenoxide displacement

The reaction of n-butylamine or t-butylamine with 2,4-dinitro-1 -naphthyl ethyl ether gives the corresponding 2,4-dinitro-1 -
naphthylamines in high yields (3445):

OC2H5 NHR
NO2 NO2
DM SO
+ RNH2
room temp

NO2
NO2

1-Piperidino-2,4-dinitronaphthalene can be prepared by reacting 1-methoxy-2,4-dinitronaphthalene with piperidine in DMSO. 1 -

Dimethylamino-2,4-dinitronaphthalene is prepared similarly (8408). The kinetics of the reaction of piperidine, n-butylamine, morpholine
and benzylamine with 2,4-dinitrophenyl phenyl ether in DMSO has been studied as a function of amine concentration. The reactions of
29
the secondary amines are base catalyzed; those of the primary amines are not (9138).

5. Ammonia
DMSO is stable to ammonia. Displacement reactions with ammonia and amines are examples where the nucleophile is uncharged
(3433). The solubility of ammonia is 40 liters per liter of DMSO at 1 atmosphere or 2.6% by weight (5033).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

Reaction of methyl 2-bromo-3-phenyl-3-butenoate with ammonia in DMSO gives the desired Į-amino ester (10134):
DMSO
Ph C CHCO 2CH3 + NH3 Ph C CHCO 2CH3
room temp.
CH2 Br 1.5 hrs. CH2 NH2
88%
Secondary amine by-products are not found in any significant amounts in the above reaction. Somewhat similarly, isopropyl 2,3-dibromo-
2,3-dihydrocinnamate reacts with ammonia to give isopropyl 2-phenyl 3-aziridine-carboxylate (10143):

DMSO
PhCHCHCO2CH(CH3)2 + NH3 PhCHCHCO2CH(CH3)2
room temp.
Br Br 3 hours N
H
High yields of nitrilotriacetic acid are claimed when ammonia is reacted with chloroacetic acid in DMSO (4910):
4NH3 + 3ClCH2CO2H N(CH2CO2H)3 + 3NH4Cl
b) Aromatic halide displacement
2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene reacts with ammonia to give 2,4-dinitroaniline (402):

Cl NH2

NO2 NO2
DMSO
+ NH3 (aq.)
room temp.
several hrs.

NO2 NO2 93%

Similarly, p-aminotrifluoroacetophenone reacts with ammonia in DMSO (3399):

O O
DMSO
F + NH3 NH2
135oC.
F3CC F3CC
24 hrs.
42%
When DMF is used as the solvent in the above
reaction, p-dimethylaminotrifluoroacetophenone results, apparently due to the hydrolysis of DMF to dimethylamine:
O O
F + NH3+(H3C)2NCHO (NCH3)2
F3CC F3CC

c) Alkoxide displacement
Displacement of an -OMe group by ammonia produces 3-amino-2-heteroarylpropenenitriles (10458):

Ar C CHOCH 3 + NH3 Ar C CH-NH 2

DMSO
CN CN
84-95%
6. Azide Ion
Rate constants for displacement reactions by the azide ion in DMSO are up to about 10,000 times greater than for the same reaction in
protic solvents, such as methanol (471). Reactions are frequently run with an excess solid sodium azide, making it a pseudo first-order

30
 process. Under these conditions, the rate is also a function of the solubility of the reagent. Measurements of solubility show that sodium
azide is much more soluble in DMSO than in some other solvents, and the solubility increases slightly with the addition of water (7527).

TABLE X
__________________________________Solubility of Sodium Azide in Four Solvents______________________
Solubility, mol/l.
Dry 1% H2O 5% H2O 10% H2O
______________ (110°) (110°) (110°)_________
2-Methoxyethanol 0.31 (124°)
DMF 0.10-0.12 0.17 0.28 0.48 (25-150°)
DMSO 1.5-1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 (95-150°)
HMPA 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.51 (110-150°)
a) Aliphatic halide displacement
Some aliphatic halides are easily displaced by the azide ion in DMSO (4815). Thus, the reaction of 2-(2nitrophenyl)ethyl bromide with a
3-fold excess of sodium azide gives a 95% yield of 2-(2-nitrophenyl)ethyl azide (4360):
CH2CH2Br DMSO CH2CH2N3

+ NaN3

NO2 NO2
b) Aromatic halide displacement
Treatment of 4-fluoro- or 4-iodonitrobenzene with sodium azide in DMSO produces a quantitative yield of 4-nitrophenyl azide (471):
DMSO

NO2 X + NaN3 NO2 N3

100oC.

100 %
X = F or I
When 4-chloro-3-nitrobenzoic acid is treated with sodium azide in DMSO, the 5-carboxybenzofuroxan results (1007):

CO2H CO2H

DM SO

+ NaN3

O-
NO2 N+

Cl N O

Reaction of 2-chloroquinoxzline 1-oxide with sodium azide in DMSO at room temperature gives 2-azidoquinoxaline (9767):
N N
DMSO
+ NaN3

N Cl N N3
O O
52%

c) Nitro group displacement

The aromatic nitro group can also be displaced by dry sodium azide in DMSO (6572). Thus, 2,3-dinitroacetanilide with sodium azide
gives the monoazido-derivative (4600):
HNOAc HNOAc

NO2 N3
DMSO
+ NaN3
NO2 90oC NO2
d) Sulfonate displacement 87%
Sulfonates, such as toluenesuIfonates and methanesuIfonates are also readily displaced by the azide ion in DMSO (4920)(8339). A high
yield of the 2,3-diazidobutane is obtained when meso-1,4-di-0-acetyl-2,3-di-0-(methylsulfonyl)erythrol is reacted with a slight excess of
sodium azide (7692):

OMes OMes DMSO N3 N3

+ 2 NaN3
31
60-100oC
OAc OAc OAc OAc
96%
The above described displacements are frequently used to prepare amino sugar derivatives by reducing the azido to the corresponding
amino group (5481)(7071).

e) Other displacements
Treatment of fumaronitrile with sodium azide in DMSO with subsequent acidification leads to 1,2,3-triazole-4-carbonitrile (4249):

CN C CH
DMSO
NC CN + N3 [NC CH CH N3] N N
N
7. Carbanions H
The majority of carbanions which are usually prepared as reaction intermediates or as transistory species in chemical reactions are
readily obtained in DMSO.

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

The alkylations of 2,4-pentanedione with alkyl iodides and sodium hydride as the base may be more conveniently and rapidly achieved
when DMSO is used in place of the usual alcohols or non-polar solvents (4261):
O O R O
NaH, DM SO
H2
CH3 C C CCH3 + 2RX C C CCH3

CH3 R X= I or Br

Similar results are obtained with malononitrile (599).

Alkylation of malonic esters in DMSO can be faster than in DMF, dimethoxyethane, THF and benzene. This alkylation is strongly
accelerated by comparatively minor additions of DMSO to benzene. This could mean that DMSO disperses the ion aggregates
(611)(612).

With ambient anions where either carbon or oxygen alkylation is possible, DMSO favors oxygen alkylation (690):
O
O Ph
+ PhCH2Br DM SO
O
95%
This is also demonstrated in the alkylation of ȕ -ketoesters, where a proper choice of alkylating agent, temperature, and alkali metal can
lead to significant amounts of O-alkylation (773)(1114)(1229).
Interaction of the potassium salt of 2-carbethoxy-cyclopentanone with an alkyl halide in DMSO at room temperature provides good yields
of alkylated keto esters and probably constitutes the best method of alkylating this ȕ-ketoester (1823):

O O
DMSO CO 2C2H5
CO 2C2H5+ room temperature
Br 78%
K+ 6 hrs.

b) Aromatic halide displacement

Substituted o-nitrohalobenzenes reaction DMSO in the presence of powdered KOH with deoxybenzoin to form the corresponding
nitroarylated deoxybenzoins (9439):
Cl O
NO2 O Ph
KOH, DMSO Ph
R + Ph
NO2
Ph
R

32
c) Nitro and sulfinate group displacement
,WKDVEHHQGLVFRYHUHGWKDWDOLSKDWLFQLWURDQGVXOIRQHJURXSVFDQEHGLVSODFHGDWWHUWLDU\FDUERQ7KXVWKHWUHDWPHQWRIĮ,-p-
dinitrocumene with the lithium salt of 2-nitropropane in DMSO gives the alkylation product (1237):

NO2
NO2
+
Li CH3 DM SO
+ H C 71%
3 NO2 25oC
NO2 NO2
Nitrobenzenes substituted by an electron withdrawing group, such as p-dinitrobenzene, readily undergo displacement by the lithium salt of
2-nitropropane in DMSO (8436):
NO2 NO2
CH3 DMSO
+ Li+
H3C 25oC
NO2 75%
NO2
NO2
7KHVXOIRQHJURXSRIĮ-nitrosulfones is also easily displaced by carbanions, e.g. the lithium salt of 2-nitropropane or the lithium salt of
nitrocyclohexane (7108):
R'
R' Li+ R" DM SO R"
NO2 +
R SO 2Ar "R NO room temperature R R"
2 O2N NO2
d) Other displacement reactions
Treatment of 2-cyanomethyl-¶¶-dimethoxybenzophenone with sodium methoxide in DMSO gives 9-cyano-2-methoxyanthracen-10-ol
(3112):
NC CN
H3CO
OCH 3
OCH 3
NaOCH3, D MSO

140oC, 10 min.
95%

O
OH
When p-nitrobenzylidene diacetate is reacted with the lithium salt of 2-nitropropane in DMSO, a compound in which one of the acetate
groups is replaced by the C(CH3)2,NO2, group is obtained (7657):
DMSO (CH3)2
+ (CH3)2CNO2 + O2N CH(OCOCH3)2
O2N CH(OCOCH3)2 Li
room temp NO2
3 hrs.
Treatment of (p-cyanobenzyl)trimethylammonium chloride with the lithium salt of 2-nitroprprane gives the carbon alkylate (10399):
+
CH2N(CH3)3Cl-

DMSO NO2
+ [(CH3)2CNO2}Li+ O2N
25oC
NC 82%
e) Use of aqueous sodium hydroxide as the base
It has been found that nitriles containing sufficiently activated methylene groups, such as phenylacetonitrile, can be conveniently alkylated
in excellent yields and selectivities by using aqueous sodium hydroxide as the base and DMSO as the reaction solvent (3951):
NaOH(aq), DMSO R R'X Ph R
PhCH2CN + RX CN CN
Ph R'
Previously, these reactions have usually been carried out by treating the nitrile with a strongly basic reagent, such as a metal amide,
hydride, or alcoholate, followed by addition of the appropriate alkyl- or aryl hydride. These latter methods are generally cumbersome and

33
the selectivities are poor (3951).
Similarly, 50% aqueous sodium hydroxide in DMSO can be used as a base to induce an essentially quantitative cyclization of 5-chloro-2-
pentanone to give cyclopropyl methyl ketone (3398):
O NaOH (aq), DMSO O
96%
Cl(H2C)3 CH3 30oC, 15 min CH3
O- and C-alkylation of benzoins is also easily achieved by the reaction of alkyl halides in aqueous sodium hydroxide in DMSO at ambient
temperatures (4699):
O O O
RX + Ph Ph Ph RX Ph
Ph Ph R
OH NaOH (aq), DMSO R
OH OR

f) Use of calcium oxide as the base

In some cases, calcium oxide has been used as a base to produce carbanions. Diethyl malonate can be alkylated with benzyl bromide to
yield diethyl benzylmalonate (3931):

!"#$%"$"!&'" $-%.//012%
( *+,
$) $%"$"!&
$"!&%"$

The use of lime in the dimethylation of 2,4-pentanedione gives a 73% yield of 3,3-dimethyl-2, 4-pentanedione (3931).

8. Carboxylate Ion
Alkylation of carboxylate ions with alkyl halides in DMSO or DMSO-water is an efficient method of esterification (7950)(365)(8809).
Carboxylate ions have also been used to displace sulfonates (8254). In aqueous DMSO systems, the reaction rate increases as the
concentration of DMSO increases both for intramolecular and intermolecular displacment (407).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

Simple alkyl halides, such as n-decylbromide, react with disodiurn phthalate in DMSO tog ive, e.g. didecylphthalate in 91 % yield
(2597). Carboxylic acid esters are prepared by reacting an organic halide and potassium or sodium acetate in DMSO (574)(6847).
Carboxylic acid esters are also prepared by reacting an acid with an organic halide in the presence of an alkali metal hydroxide in
DMSO or DMSO-water, e.g. to obtain benzyl acetate (2969):

NaOH
CO 2CH 3
+ CH3CO2H
Cl DMSO

70-81%

Potassium and sodium methacrylates react in DMSO with xylylene dichlorides in DMSO to give unsaturated, polymerizable
compounds (487):
CH3 O CH3 O
CO2Na CH2
Cl DMSO
+ 2H2C o
CH3 140-145 C
H3C H3C O nearly quantitative
CH2
Cl

A convenient procedure for preparing pyruvic acid esters utilizes an organic halide as the starting material rather than the
corresponding alcohol (9657). Thus, the reaction of sodium pyruvate with n-octyl iodide or phenacyl bromide in DMSO yields the esters:
O DMSO O 95%
+I(CH2)7CH3
CO2Na 50oC, 3.5 hrs CO2(CH2)7CH3

34
 O Ph DMSO O O 85%
+
Br 50oC, 3.5 hrs O
CO2Na O Ph
O

A ring opening and displacement reaction takes place when E and Z 2-phenylcyclopropyl bromides react with potassium acetate in
DMSO in the presence of a crown ether (1 8-crown-6) (10465):

R + CH3CO2K DMSO
R
85oC
Br CHCH2OCOCH3
b) Sulfonate displacement
When the sodium or potassium 2-methanesulfonoxybicyclo[3.3.1 ]nonane-1 -carboxylate is heated in DMSO, the corresponding ȕ-
lactone is produced (6347):

9. Cyanate Ion
Sodium and potassium cyanates in DMSO can displace reactive halogens (26). When alkyl halides are reacted with cyanates, either
isocyanates or isocyanurates result, depending on the reaction conditions and the solvent (440). DMSO plays a superior role in the
displacement reaction and also in the subsequent trimerization of isocyanates. These reactions may be written as follows (386):
DMSO RNCO + KX
RX +KCNO
70-80oC an isocyanate.
3 hrs.
O
DMSO R R
3RNCO N N
100-150o C
1-2 hours O N O
an isocyanurate
X = Br, I; R = ethyl, n-propyl R
If an organic dihalogen compound is reacted with either potassium cyanate or sodium cyanate, the following reactions take place (9408):

DMSO
XRX + MNCO XR NCO + MX
70 - 200o C

X-R-NCO + MCO R
OCN NCO + MX
M= sodium or potassium

Under conditions causing trimerization, the products can be converted to the corresponding cyanurates:
O O
R R R R
X N N X OCN N N NCO
or
O N O O N O
R R
X OCN
10. Cyanide Ion
Perhaps the most widely used of the displaycement reactions in DMSO are those involving the cyanide ion. Halogen atoms and sulfonate
(tosyl) groups are displaced rapidly by cyanide ion. Often the yields of the desired products are higher and side reactions are minimized in
DMSO. Many products are more easily isolated from reaction mixtures containing DMSO.
Certain inorganic cyanides are more soluble in DMSO than in other organic solvents. Thus, DMSO can be used advantageously in
systems where water is undesirable. At 95°C, about 10 g of sodium cyanide and/or 2 g of potassium cyanide will dissolve in 100 cc of
DMSO. At 25°C, 1 g of either is soluble (964)(1924).
The solubility of sodium cyanide in DMSO at various temperatures is shown in Figure 7 below. The solubility of sodium chloride, the usual
inorganic by-product when reacting sodium cyanide with organic chlorine compounds, is illustrated in the phase diagram, Figure 8.
Also soluble in DMSO are mercury cyanide, cadmium cyanide, and mixtures of potassium cyanide with copper, nickel, zinc, cobalt, or
silver cyanides. These mixtures appear to be complex salts (801).
In many cases it is not necessary to have a complete solubility of sodium cyanide in DMSO. Reactions can be run using an agitated,
stirred slurry of sodium cyanide with DMSO. Yields are commonly good with primary aliphatic halides, but somewhat lower with
secondary ones due to dehydrohalogenation (475)(577)(8843).

35
36
 a) Aliphatic halide displacement
The reaction of sodium cyanide with ethyl 6-chlorohexanoate in DMSO gives a high yield of 6-cyanohexanoate (474):

DMSO CN(CH2)5CO2C2H5 + NaCl

Cl(CH2)5CO2C2H5 + NaCN o
95-100 C, 1hr. 90%
Similarly, ethylene dichloride reacts with sodium cyanide to give acrylonitrile (473):
DMSO H C CHCN + HCN + 2NaCl
ClCH2CH2Cl + 2 NaCN 2
100oC
In the above case, both the displacement and elimination reactions take place.
The use of DMSO allows the cyanide ion to displace halides from neophyl and neopentyl compounds without rearrangement
(475)(7547):
CH2Cl
DMSO
+NaCN 26%
120oC, 24hrs
neophyl chloride

The displacement reactions of alkyl chlorides and bromides with potassium cyanide occur much more slowly when compared with
sodium cyanide (475). This could be due to the lower solubility of potassium cyanide in DMSO. The yields are also lower and longer
reaction times are required with DMF, sulfolane and dimethyl sulfolane as solvents (475). It has also been established that both primary
and secondary alkyl chlorides react with sodium cyanide in DMSO to give high yields of the corresponding nitriles in shorter reaction
times than have been obtained with bromides or iodides in aqueous alcohol solvent (577).
When 1-chloro-17-fluoro-8-heptadecyne is reacted with sodium cyanide in DMSO, 1-cyano-17-fluoro-8heptadecyne is produced in high
yield (2189):
DMSO
F(H 2C)8C C(CH2)7Cl + NaCN F(H 2C)8C C(CH2)7CN + NaCl
o o
135 -140 C 93.5%
50 min.
The difference in the reactivity of halogens is also illustrated in the reaction of 1,1-dichloro-2-(bromomethyl)-2methylbutane with
potassium cyanide (2769):
Cl2 Cl2

Br+ KCN DMSO CN

50%
The use of sodium cyanide in the above reaction gives some undesirable by-products.
The enolate salt of ethyl 4-bromo-3-oxobutyrate reacts with the cyanide ion in DMSO (9135):

Br CO2C2H5+ CN- DMSO NC CO2C2H5

O O 81%
Ȧ-Cyano N,N-disubstituted amides are conveniently prepared from halogenated amides by treatment with alkaline cyanides (9985):
R O R O
Cl CH3 + NaCN NC CH3
n
N DMSO, 80oC n
N
CH3 CH3

Poly[3,3-bis(chloromethyl)oxocyclobutane] reacts with sodium cyanide in DMSO to give the bis(cyanomethyl) derivative (6847):

CH2Cl CH2CN
DMSO
O n + 2nNaCN O n
120-130oC
CH2Cl CH2CN

b) Aromatic halide displacement

Aromatic halides, particularly those not activated by electron withdrawing groups, are best displaced by using cuprous cyanide
(1593)(1774)(1946). Thus, p-halophenol reacts with cuprous cyanide in DMSO to give p-hydroxybenzonitrile (1946):

37
 OH OH
DMSO
+ CuCN
reflux 2-5 hrs.
X CN
X = Cl, Br, I
Cuprous cyanide and 9-bromoanthracene in DMSO give 9-cyanoanthracene in 91% yield (3247).
A procedure for the separation of isomers of dihalonitrobenzene consists of treating them with an alkali metal cyanide or cuprous cyanide
in DMSO. When a mixture of 2,3- and 3,4-dichloronitrobenzene is thus treated, only the 2,3-isomer reacts, whereas the 3,4-isomer is
recovered unchanged (1455):
NO2 NO2
Cl CN
DMSO
+ NaCN
Cl Cl
Sodium cyanide and o-fluoronitrobenzene in DMSO form 2-hydroxy-isophthalonitrile (8065):
F OH
NO2 NC CN
+ NaCN DMSO
120oC, 2hrs.
60%
c) Hydrogen displacement
When o-nitrobenzonitrile is heated with sodium cyanide in DMSO hydroxy-isophthalonitrile is produced (8065).
NO2 OH
CN DMSO CN CN
+ NaCN
120oC
1 hour 55%
d) Quarternary ammonium salt displacement
When 2-pyrrolylmethylammonium salts are reacted with sodium cyanide both pyrrole-2-DFHWRQLWULOHDQG³DEQRUPDO´QLWULOHDUHSURduced
(8759):
CH2N+(CH3)3X- CN CN
N + Na CN DMSO +
80-85o C N NC N
CH3
CH3 CH3
e) Sulfinate displacement
1-Chloro-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene (I0 and cuprous cyanide fail to react to give the desired 1-cyano-4-(methylsulfonyl)benzene when
refluxed for 24 hours in DMF. However, when equimolar amounts of I and potassium cyanide are allowed to react in DMSO for 30
minutes, a 1:1 mixture of 1,4-bis(methylsulfonyl)benzene (II) and terephthalonitrile (III) is obtained in about 80% yield (1711):
DMSO +
Cl SO2CH3+KCN H3CO2S SO2CH3 NC CN
reflux
I. II. III.

When 4- (methylsulfonyl)cinnoline and potassium cyanide are reacted in DMSO, 4-cinnolinecarbonitrile is produced quantitatively (1721):
SO2CH3 CN
DMSO
+ KCN 100%
N 20oC N
N N

f) Sulfonate displacement
Sulfonates (e.g. tosylates) or disulfonates are converted in high yields to the corresponding nitriles or dinitriles with cyanides
in DMSO (477)(2525)(10044). Thus, azulene-1,3-bis(hexanenitrile) and azulene-1, 3-bis-(pentanenitrile) are prepared
by treating the corresponding tosylates (or chlorides) with sodium cyanide (2783).
A neopentyl substitution product can be obtained by treating the corresponding tosylate with potassium cyanide in DMSO
(8255):
38
 O O

DMSO
CH 2OTs + KCN CH 2CN
70o C
3 hrs. 61%
g) Other displacement reactions
Reacting a chloromethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-2-one or4-(1-chlorethyl)- 4-dihydropyridine with sodium cyanide gives the ring-
expansion products (4739)(9986). Thus, the above-mentioned pyrimidine produces a 7 membered ring compound (4739):
O O

DMSO
CH 2OTs + KCN CH 2CN
70o C
3 hrs. 61%
Displacement of primary or secondary hydroxyl groups by nitrile groups is accomplished by a short refluxing of the alcohol and
triphenylphosphine in carbon tetrachloride, followed by the addition of DMSO and sodium cyanide to obtain 70-85% yields of the
corresponding nitriles (872).

11. Halogen Ion

Displacement of halogen or other groups by halide ions is frequently easy in DMSO. Exchange reactions between halogens often
require high temperatures and because of its boiling point of 189° C, DMSO is the solvent of choice.
a) Aliphatic halide displacement
The kinetics of homogeneous isotope exchange between 36Cl in cyclic compounds (e.g. cyclopentyl chloride, cyclohexyl chloride,
cycloheptyl chloride, cyclooctyl chloride) and lithium chloride has been studied in DMSO. This exchange is a bimolecular SN2 reaction
(109)(651):
36 - 36 -
RCl + Cl RCl + Cl
Similar exchange reactions between n-hexyl chlorides (containing36CI) and n-hexyl bromides (containing "Br) and lithium chloride and
bromide have also been studied in DMSO (650).
By exchanging two bromine atoms in the 1,4-positions with lithium chloride in DMSO, 1,4-di-p-tolyl-1,4-dichloro2,3-dibromo-2-butene
can be obtained (2760):
OTs Br
DMSO OTs Br
Br + LiCl
OTs Cl
Br OTs
Br Br
Ts=tosyl Cl
Nucleophilic reactions between halogeno(phenyl)acetylenes and halide ions have also been examined in DMSO (10394), eg.
dry DMSO
CPh CBr + (C2H5)4N+Cl- o
PhC CCl
95 C, 125 hrs. 15%
b) Aromatic halide displacement
The chloride ion in chloro nitrobenzenes can be replaced by fluoride with potassium fluoride in DMSO (438):
Cl F

+ KF DMSO
190oC 72%
14 hrs
NO2 NO2

39
Quantitative studies are reported for substitution of the type ArHal + CuX Æ ArX + CuHal in DMSO and other polar solvents
(541)(1593)(1214). Ease of replacement follows the order: H a I= I, Br, CI, F; X =CI,Br,I. The reaction rates are the highest in DMSO
among the solvents examined. Thus [1-36Cl]chloronaphthalene can be prepared from 1 - bromonaphthalene and radioactive cuprous
chloride (1593):

Br
Cl36
+ CuCl36 DMSO
reflux 1 hr.
c) Sulfonate displacement
nearly quantitative
Sulfonates (e.g. tosylates, nosylates = p-O2N-Ph-S03) can be displaced by halogens by reacting them with lithium chloride, lithium
iodide (4066)(5836), lithium bromide (4066) or sodium bromide (1027) in DMSO. Pure secondary alcohols can be converted to bromides
without rearrangement by first preparing the tosylates and then reacting them with sodium bromide in DMSO at room temperature
(1027).
Treatment of endo-5,6-bis(p-toluenesulfonyloxy-methyl)-2-norbornene with cesium chloride in DMSO gives the endo-5,6-
bis(chloromethyl)-2-norbornene (10002):

+ 2CsCl DMSO
CH2OTs 100o C, 12 hrs CH2Cl
CH2OTs CH2Cl
d) Displacement of diazonium ion 50%
p-Nitrobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate in DMSO reacts with iodides, bromides and chlorides to give the corresponding p-
halonitrobenzene (99), e.g.:
N2+BF4- Br
DMSO
room temp
NO2 NO2
70%
12. Hydroxide Ion
The basicity of hydroxides in DMSO closely parallels that obtainable with alkoxides, as shown in Figure 10 in which acidity functions up to
26 are obtained with 0.01 tetramethylammonium hydroxide in DMSO (1172). The solubility of the hydroxides is generally low, ranging
from 7 x 103 mol/liter for sodium hydroxide (725) to 0.12 for tetramethylammonium hydroxide at room temperature (1172) (see Table IX).
Additions of water increase the solubility of alkali metal hydroxides, but the increased solubility is accompanied by a decrease in the
activity of the dissolved hydroxide ion. Figure 9 is a phase diagram of the water-DMSO-metal hydroxide systems for NaOH and KOH.
Potassium hydroxide is consistently more soluble than sodium hydroxide at a given water content. In spite of the low solubility of alkali
metal hydroxides in DMSO, satisfactory use of the strong basicity of the hydroxide ion is sometimes achieved by using a slurry of the
powdered base in the reaction.

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

When the alkaline hydrolysis of methyl iodide is studied in the presence of hydroxyl ion in DMSO-water, the rate of hydrolysis increases
with increasing DMSO content (329):
DMSO-H2O
CH3I + NaOH CH3OH + NaI
Similar results are obtained with other primary alkyl halides (iodides, bromides, chlorides)(913).
The rate constants for the reaction of hydroxide ion with ring substituted benzyl chlorides in acetone-water and DMSO-water mixtures are
reported as a function of both solvent composition and temperature. The reaction rate increases with increasing DMSO concentration but
decreases with increasing acetone concentration (432).

b) Aromatic halide displacement

The reaction of 2,4-dinitrofluorbenzene and 4-nitrofluorobenzene with hydroxide ion in DMSO-water are strongly accelerated by DMSO
(328).

40
Hydrolysis of o- and p-nitrochlorobenzenes with caustic soda in DMSO produces o- and p-nitrophenols (3925):
Cl OH
NO2 DMSO, air NO2
+ NaOH (aq)
80-115oC
3 hours
Nucleophilic substitution reactions have also been carried out on a variety of mono- and dihalogen-1,2,3Denzothiadiazoles, e.g. 6-
chloro-4-fluoro-1,2,3-benzothiadiazole, with potassium hydroxide in aqueous DMSO to give the corresponding phenol (4425):

F OH
N DMSO (aq), KOH N
N N
reflux 2 hrs.
Cl S S
Cl
92%

41
c) Nitro group displacement
The nitro group in 4-nitropyridine N-oxide, p-nitrobenzophenone and 1-nitroxanthone can be replaced with aqueous sodium hydroxide to
give the corresponding phenols or 1-hydroxyxanthone, resp. (409)(470).
When p-dinitrobenzene is reacted with hydroxide ion in aqueous DMSO, one nitro group is displaced (6937).

13. Mercaptide (or Thiophenoxide) Ion

The mercaptide or thiophenoxide ions are known as good nucleophiles, and significant rate increases have been observed in DMSO when
compared to the same reaction in alcohols (399).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

A number of alkyl halide displacements with mercaptides or thiophenoxides have been studied in DMSO (680) (712)(8779). Thus, the
Į
reaction of Į, Į' - dibromo- Į, Į, Į', Į'-tetrafluoro-p-xylene with sodium ethyl mercaptide gives the corresponding , Į'-bis(ethylthio)xylene
(3386):
CF2Br CF2SC2H5

+ 2 C2H5SNa NaOCHo3, DMSO

50-60 C
CF2Br 2hrs.
CF2SC2H5
Methyl perfluoroalkyl sulfides may be prepared by reaction of the perfluoroalkyl iodides with sodium methyl mercaptide and dimethyl
disulfide in DMSO (4792), e.g.:

CH3SSCH3, DMSO
n-C6F13I + CH3SNa n-C8H13SCH3
o
105 C
88%
20-40 hrs.
A derivative of poly-3,3-bis(chloromethyl)oxacyclobutane is prepared by reacting it with sodium benzyl mercaptide in DMSO (6847):

Cl SCH2Ph
H2 H2 H2 H2
DMSO
C C O NaSH2C o C C O
n 110-120 C
n
Cl 5 hrs. PhH2CS
b) Aromatic halide displacement
Aromatic halogens are replaced by mercaptide or thiophenoxide ions in DMSO (541), particularly when the aromatic ring contains
electron withdrawing groups in the ortho- or para-positions to the halogen (8344)(399). Thus, potassium benzyl mercaptide reacts with
p-fluoronitrobenzene in DMSO-methanol under mild conditions (399):
H2
C NO2
DMSO
S
SK 26-40oC
O2N few min.
The reaction rate of the above reaction increases significantly with increasing DMSO concentration.
The reactions of 4-methyithiophenoxide with 3- or4-halo-substituted phthalimide derivatives have been studied in DMSO (9771):

O CH3
DMSO O
NR +
H3C NR
X
O NaS O
Nucleophilic substitution reactions have been carried out with mercaptide or thiophenoxide ions on a variety of mono- and dihalogen-
1,2,3-benzothiadiazoles (4425).

c) Nitro group displacement

The nitro group at certain tertiary carbon atoms can be displaced by thiophenoxide in DMSO-methanol (1237) or
42
methyl mercaptide ions in DMSO (10008). The yields of the tertiary sulfides are very high in both cases, e.g. (10008):
(H 3C)2C NO2 (H 3C)2C SCH3

+ NaSCH3 DMSO
15 min.
SO2 SO2
Ph Ph
The nitro group in substituted nitrobenzenes is displaced by the thiophenoxide ion (9771) or mercaptide ion (4068) (9771) to give the
diaryl or alkyl aryl sulfides, respectively, e.g. (4068):

NO2 SR'
+ NaSR' DMSO
R R

d) Sulfonate group displacement

The reactions of the tosylate of 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol with the sodium salts of methyl, ethyl or 2-hydroxyethyl mercaptides in DMSO
give the expected thio ethers (589):

CF3CH2OTs + RSNa DMSO

CF3CH2SR
14. Nitrite Ion
Sodium nitrite has good solubility in DMSO. Thus, in a few minutes, 100 cc of DMSO dissolves 19.2 g of sodium nitrite, whereas only
1.88 g dissolves in 100 cc of DMF at room temperature after 24 hours. In DMSO it is not necessary to add urea to increase the
solubility of sodium nitrite, as is the case with DMF (685). Displacement reactions involving the nitrite ion have been studied rather
extensively in DMSO.
a) Aliphatic halide displacement
The displacement of aliphatic iodide, bromide or chloride to give the corresponding nitro compound is readily accomplished in DMSO
with yields ranging from 50-91 %, depending on the structures involved (684)(3686) (4562). Primary and secondary alkyl bromides and
iodides react with sodium nitrite to produce the corresponding nitro compounds (486), e.g. 1 -bromooctane gives 1 -nitrooctane (685):

CH3(CH2)7Br + NaNO2 CH3(CH2)7NO2

66%
Lower nitroparaffins are prepared by treating the corresponding C1-3 alkyl chlorides with alkali metal nitrites in DMSO (10286):

CH3Cl + NaNO2 DMSO CH3NO2

85%
When Į -haloesters are reacted with sodium nitrite in DMSO, the nitro ester initially formed is quickly converted to the Į-nitrite ester
(684):
R DMSO R R
CO2C2H5 +NaNO2 CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5
Br O2N ONO
room temperature D-nitroester D-nitrite ester

However, by adding phloroglucinol to the reaction mixture, the formation of nitrite ester is prevented and pure - nitroesters are produced
in excellent yields (682)(684)(691).
When 1,3-dihalogen compounds, such as 3-bromo-l-chloropropane, are reacted with sodium nitrite, a heterocyclic compound is
obtained, e.g. 3-nitro-2-isoxazole (366)(988):

Br(CH2)3Cl + 2NaNO2 DMSO O

0-30oC N
53%
18 hrs O2N
Other substitutions at tertiary carbon atoms involving the nitrite ion have been studied (2565)(2566)(3490). The reaction of 1 -iodo-
4-heptyne with sodium nitrite in DMSO produces 1 -nitro-4-heptyne (4384)(6692):
43
 CH3CH2C C(CH2)3I + NaNO2 DMSO H3CH2CC C(CH2)3NO2
room temp.
1hr 45%
b) Aromatic halide displacement
Aromatic halides can also be displaced by the nitrite ion (8063). When 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene is reacted with sodium nitrite in DMSO,
2,4-dinitrophenol is formed (402)(4562):

Cl OH
NO2 NO2
+ NaNO2 DMSO
room temp.
several minutes.
NO2 NO2 80%
c) Sulfonate displacement
The reaction of the tosylate of the secondary alcohol (in the steroid or prostaglandin series) with potassium nitrite in DMSO affords the
inverted alcohol as the main product together with the corresponding nitroalkane, ketone, and alkene (10454):
R OTs DMSO R R H O
H + + + alkene
+ KNO2
R' H R' OH R' NO2 R R'
15. Phenoxide Ion
DMSO enhances the rate at which halides are displaced by phenoxides (phenol, catechol, hydroquinone) almost as much as it does for
alkoxides or mercaptides (399). With ions such as naphthoxide, where a choice exists between carbon and oxygen alkylation, the reaction
in DMSO gives almost exclusively oxygen alkylation (690). DMSO is a good solvent for phenoxide ions. Thus, the polymerizations of the
dipotassium salt of bisphenol A with dihaloaromatic compounds proceeds best in DMSO when compared to other dipolar aprotic solvents
(6026). The alkylation of phenoxide is enhanced more than the alkylation of amino groups in DMSO. The phenoxide group in tyrosine can
be selectively etherified without blocking the amino group (442). DMSO is also a good solvent in the nucleophilic displacement of activated
aromatic nitro groups by phenoxides for the synthesis of aromatic ethers (10434).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

DMSO can be used as the solvent in alkylation of sterically hindered phenols (884)(3631)(3830)(4573). When 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-
methylphenoxide is reacted with ethyl iodide, the major product is the corresponding ether (517):
C2H5O
OH O O

NaH, DMSO C2H5

room temp., 10 min.
CH3 CH3 C2H5 CH3 CH3
77% 23% 0%
With tert-butyl alcohol as the solvent, the corresponding product distribution is 19%, 73%, 8%, and the reaction takes several days instead
of 10 minutes, as in DMSO.
When 2-t- butyl-5-methyl phenol is alkylated with allyl bromide in DMSO with sodium methoxide as a base, a 97% yield of allyl-t-butyl-5-
methylphenyl ether is obtained (885).
Reaction of polychloroethanes with sodium phenoxide in DMSO gives phenoxychloroethylenes (8410):

Cl
ONa
O Cl
Cl2CHCHCl2 DMSO, 70oC
+
5 hrs.

44
 Sodium methyl salicylate and diiodomethane in DMSO give formaldehyde disalicyl acetal (6460):

2 o
+ CH2I2 DMSO, 145 C
ONa 24 hrs.
O O
CO2CH3 CO2CH3 CO2CH3
Alkylation reactions of the bifunctional Ȧ -bromo-1,2-epoxyalkanes have been found to be markedly dependent upon the solvent. In
alcoholic media, phenoxides react by opening the epoxide ring to give ȕ-hydroxy- Ȧ- bromoalkyl derivatives. In DMSO, these same
compounds react by displacement of bromide ion to give epoxylalkyl derivatives (3395). Polyhydroxyethers can be synthesized from
mono-alkali metal salts of bisphenols, such as 4,4'sulfonyldiphenol, and 1-halo-2,3-epoxyalkanes in a one-step reaction in DMSO
(10437):

Ar O R
-
n ( O-Ar-OH) + n O DMSO
Cl 130-140oC OH O
R n
2.5 hrs.
A number of catechol ethers have been prepared by using DMSO as the solvent (9145). Catechol reacts with methylene chloride in
DMSO with sodium hydroxide as the base to give 1,2-methylenedioxybenzene (2887):
OH O
NaOH, DMSO
+ CH2Cl2
OH O
91%

b) Aromatic halide displacement

The phenoxide ions in DMSO have been used in many aromatic halide displacement reactions (399)(690). Activated fluorobenzenes
react with alkali metal salts of divalent phenols to give aryloxy compositions (8683):

HO S CN NaOH, DMSO CN OH
+ o O
100 C, 18hrs
F
S
OH
Phenoxides also react with halo-substituted phthalimide derivatives in DMSO to produce high yields of ether imides (9096):
O
O
DMSO N R
N R + NaO
O
X O
O

The dipotassium salt of 3-hydroxybenzoic acid reacts with 3,4-dichlorobenzotrifluoride in DMSO to yield 3-(2-chloro-4-
trifluoromethylphenoxy)-benzoic acid (10320):

Cl
Cl O
OK K2CO3, DMSO
+
Cl CF3 138-144 o C, 22 hrs
KO2C CF3
CO2H
The ability of phenoxide ions in DMSO to displace aromatic halogens and the solubility of the phenoxide ions in DMSO are used in
polycondensation reactions to obtain linear, high molecular weight aromatic polyethers (6026)(6830)(7699). Thus, bisphenol A can be
polymerized with 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone in DMSO to prepare a polyether sulfone (6831):

45
 Cl SO2 O O
HO S KOH , DMSO S
+
n
O O
OH Cl
The dipotassium or disodium salt of catechol in DMSO reacts smoothly with some polyhalogenated benzenes (or heterocycles) to
give good yields of the corresponding dibenzo-p-dioxins (7553)(8311 ), e.g. (7047):

OH Cl Cl O Cl
+ KOH, DMSO
81%
OH Cl Cl reflux O Cl

c) Nitro group displacement

Some activated nitro groups are displaced with ease by phenoxide ions (8984)(8350)(8685):

ONa O N O
HC O
2 DMSO 3 O
+ N
H3C CH3 room temp. N
O CH3
O
Nucleophilic displacement of activated aromatic nitro groups with aryloxy anions in DMSO is a versatile and useful reaction for the
synthesis of aromatic ethers (10434). This reaction has also found applications in polymers, particularly in the preparation of polyimides
(7710)(8287).

d) Phenoxide displacement
Polyetherimides can be made by effecting an interchange reaction, in the presence of an alkali phenoxide, between aryloxy-substituted
bisphthalimide and disodium salt of, e.g., bisphenol A in DMSO (8714):
O
O O
PhO N R' O R'
NaOPh, DMSO
N + HOArOH O N N O Ar
O 160oC, 1 hr Ar
O OO n
OPh
e) Sulfonate displacement
The monotosylate of 2-t-butyl-1,3-propane can be transformed to phenoxyalcohol with sodium phenoxide in DMSO 6315):
HOH2C HOH2C
ONa O
CH2OTs + DMSO
50-60oC, 3 hrs
83%
16. Sulfide (or Hydrosulfide) and Thiosulfate Ions
The sulfide and hydrosulfide ions act as nucleophiles and both these ions can be alkylated and/or arylated in DMSO. Water seems to be
a necessary component for thiosulfate solubility. The rate constant for the reaction of thiosulfate in aqueous DMSO is at least an order
of magnitude larger than in other solvents (656).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

Polymercaptans can be produced by reacting polyhalo compounds with sodium sulfhydrate (sodium hydrogen sulfide) in DMSO, e.g.,
1,2,3-trichlorpropane and sodium sulfhydrate give the corresponding trimercaptan (6192):

46
 DMSO HSH2C
CH2ClCHClCH2Cl + 3 NaHS SH
50oC , 50 min. SH
A mixture of either an aryl isothiocyanate or an aryl isocyanide dichloride, methylene bromide, and a sulfide source, such as ammonium
sulfide or sodium sulfide, can be reacted in DMSO to provide a one-step synthesis of aromatic 2-imino-1,3-dithietanes (7528):

DMSO S
N=CCl 2 + CH2Br 2+2 (NH4)2S
40oC N C CH 2
1 hour 77% S

The ȕ-activated diethyl sulfides can be prepared by reacting the appropriate chloride with sodium sulfide in DMSO (6398):
DMSO
2H3CO2CCH2CH2Cl + Na2S.9H2O H3CO2CCH2Ch2CO2CH3
o 62%
10 C
2 hrs.
Sodium thiosulfate and benzyl chloride react to yield sodium benzylthiosulfate which forms dibenzyl disulfide
(472):
DMSO (aq.)
2 CH2Cl + 2Na2S2O3 CH2S2O3Na CH2S 2
30oC
2 days

b) Aromatic halide displacement

Sodium sulfhydrate can also displace aromatic halogens from activated nuclei, as in the reaction with chloro-4-nitro-3-
trifluorotoluene in DMSO. The major product is a disulfide (4123):

DMSO
NO2 2 Cl + NaSH NO2 S S NO2
20-25oC
8 hours
F3C CF3
F3C 45%
c) Sulfonate displacement
Sulfonates (tosylates) can be displaced by using either sodium sulfydrate or sodium sulfide in DMSO. Thus, 1,1-dihydrotrifluoroethyl p-
toluene sulfonate reacts with sodium sulfide to give bis(1,1-dihydrotrifluoroethyl) sulfide (489):
S, H2O, DMSO
CF3CH2OTs + Na2S.9H2O CF3CH2SCH2CF3 + CF3CH2S-S-CH2CF3
70-80oC
29% 43%
2 hours
17. Thiocyanate Ion
Sodium and potassium thiocyanates are very soluble in DMSO, and in most cases, the rate constants in displacement reactions are
considerably greater than for reactions in protic solvents, e.g. methanol (471).

a) Aliphatic halide displacement

The reaction of 2-bromooctane with potassium thiocyanate yields 2-octyl thiocyanate (472):
DMSO
H3C CH(CH2)5CH3 + KSCN H3C CH(CH2)5CH3
74oC SCN
Br 50%
2 hrs.
3-Bromocyclohexene reacts with potassium thiocyanate in DMSO to form 3-thiocyanocyclohexene which is labile and rearranges to 3-
isothiocyanocyclohexene (390):
DMSO, 5% H2O distill
+ KSCN
0oC
Br SCN NCS

Ammonium thiocyanate and 2-chloromethylbenzimidazole in DMSO react to form thiocyanic acid (2benzimidozolyl)methyl ester (7173):

47
 N DMSO N
CCH2Cl + NH4SCN CCH2SCN
room temp
N 15 minutes N
H 41% H
b) Aromatic halide displacement
Nitrotrifluoromethylchlorobenzenes react with sodium thiocyanate in DMSO to yield the corresponding phenylthiocyanates
(4123)(7158):
Cl
NO2 DMSO NO2
+ NaSCN
45-50oC (22 hrs.) 70%
CF3 120oC (3 hrs.) CF3

c) Sulfonate displacement
Potassium thiocyanate in DMSO displaces the sulfonate groups from 2,4-pentane di-p-bromobenzenesulfonate to
give 2,4-dithiocyanopentane (515):
OBs DMSO SCN
+ KCN o
70-75 C, 50 hr 68%
OBs SCN

Similarly, 2-methylbutyl p-toluenesulfonate and potassium thiocyanate in DMSO yield (62.5%) 2-methylbutyl thiocyanate (5435).

B. BASES AND BASE-CATALYZED REACTIONS IN DMSO

Basicities in DMSO
The reactivity of nucleophiles in DMSO mixtures with water or alcohols consistently increases as the content of DMSO in the mixture
increases. When the nucleophile is the hydroxide ion in the aqueous system, or the alkoxide ion in the alcoholic system, the activities of
the bases can be presented in terms of acidity function, shown in Figure 10. Since the acidity function is a logarithmic scale measuring
14
the ability of the system to remove a proton from the reference indicator, the data show the basicity to be enhanced some 10 fold
upon going from water or alcohol to 99% DMSO. Such a protic-aprotic system offers a means of adjusting the basicity of a reaction
medium over a wide range.
In the highly basic systems, obtained when the concentration of water or alcohol is low, an equilibrium amount of the DMSO anion will
be present. The simple aliphatic alcohols are about 1,000 times as acidic as DMSO and they have about the same acidity as
triphenylmethane (734)(1558). One chemical consequence of this effect shows up in the alkoxide-catalyzed autoxidation of fluorene
where the oxidation rate is controlled by the rate of carbanion formation (1728). The reaction rate increases 220-fold upon changing the
solvent from t-butanol to an 80:20 DMSO-t-butyl alcohol mixture. However, in the 80:20 mixture the concentration of DMSO anion is
sufficient to react with the product so that instead of a 91 % yield of fluorenone a 78% yield of the DMSO adduct of fluorenone is
obtained.
Although the equilibrium amount of DMSO anion produced by alkoxide ion in this system is small, the rate at which the protons transfer
is fast (1758)(1759) so that a steady pool of DMSO anion is available for reaction.
Proton Removal
A number of different reactions require the removal of protons from carbon with the resultant formation of carbanions. The proton removal
can be either an initial or the rate-determining step. Carbanions are formed in racemizations, in isomerizations and in a wide variety of
elimination reactions. Just as the equilibrium basicity of alkoxides and hydroxides is enormously enhanced in DMSO versus in hydroxylic
solvents, so also is the rate at which proton removal or hydrogen exchange reactions occur in DMSO. The rate of potassium t-butoxide-
6
catalyzed hydrogen-deuterium exchange at a benzyllic carbon atom is 10 times greater in DMSO than in t-butanol (606).
6 7
A similar rate enhancement is observed in racemizations using ammonia as the base, with the reaction being 10 -10 times faster in
DMSO than in t-butanol (622)(524). The influence of the cation is greater in DMSO than in t-butanol. For example, in t-butanol, sodium
and potassium t-butoxides are about equally effective in prompting hydrogen exchange, whereas in DMSO the potassium salt gives a
reaction rate one hundred times that of the sodium salt (606).

48
49
The table below (Table XI) lists the acidities (pKa) values of 132 organic compounds in DMSO, starting with the most acidic-
protonated pyridine, and ending with the least acidic-propionitrile (10569). The pKa of DMSO is 35 (10411).
TABLE XI
Acidities in DMSO
COMPOUND pKa COMPOUND pKa
Protonated pyridine 3.5 Nitromethane 17.2,16.5
2,6-Dinitro-4-chlorophenol 3.6 Diphenylacetonitrile 17.5
Protonated analine 3.7 Į, Į, Į', Į'-Tetraphenylacetone 17.6
Protonated 2-methylpyridine 4.0 Phenyl benzyl ketone 17.7
Protonated 2,4-dimethylpyridine 4.5 Bis(2-nitrophenyl)amine 17.7
Protonated o-phenylenediamine 4.8 Nitrocyclobutane 17.8
Thiosalicylic acid 5.2 9-Phenylfluorene 17.9
Phthalic acid I 6.2 Nitrocyclohexane 17.9
Oxalic acid I 6.2 Nitroneopentane 18.1
Sulfamic acid 6.5 Į, Į-Diphenylacetophenone 18.7
Salicylic acid 6.8,6.6 Į-Thiophenylaceton 18.7
Thioacetic acid 6.7 Methyl trifluoromethyl sulfone 18.8
Thiocyanuric acid 6.7 4-Chloro-2-nitroanaline 18.9
Bromocresol green 7.0 4-Nitroanaline 19.2
2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid 7.1 a, a-Diphenylacetone 19.4
Phenylsulfonylnitromethane 7.2 Methyl benzyl ketone 19.8
3,5-Dinitrobenzoic acid 7.3 2-Bromofluorene 20.0
2,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid 7.5 Ethyl trifluoromethyl sulfone 20.4
Rhodanine 7.7 Thiourea 20.5
Nitromethyl phenyl ketone 7.7 Thiophenylacetonitrile 20.8
9-Cyanofluorene 8.3 Bis(n-chlorophenyl)amine 21.4
2,5-Dihydrophthalic acid 8.3 Phenylacetonitrile 21.9
Protonated tributylamine 8.3 9-Methylfluorene 22.3
Protonated diphenylguanidine 8.6 Phenylacetylene 22.6,28.8
Chloroacetic acid 8.9 2,6-Dichloroanaline 22.6
p-Nitrobenzoic acid 9.0 Fluorene 22.6
Ethyl nitroacetate 9.2 Trithiophenylmethane 22.8
Thiophenol 9.8 Phenyldithiophenylmethane 23.0
Protonated dibutylamine 10.0 1 -Phenyl-1 -cyanoethane 23.0
Bromo thymol blue 10.2 3-Methylfluorene 23.1
p-Chlorobenzoic acid 10.2 2,4 Dichloroanaline 23.4
9-Carboxymethylfluorene 10.2' 3-Methoxy-1 -propyne 23.5
9-Phenylsulfonylfluorene 10.3 Formamide (N-H) 23.5
Protonated piperidine 10.6 Diphenylamine 23.5,23.6
Protonated pyrrolidone 10.8 Dibenzyl sulfone 23.9
Benzoic acid 10.8,10.9 N,N-Dimethylprop-2-ynylamine 24.2
o-Toluic acid 11.0 9-tert-Butyl-fluorene 24.3
m-Toluic acid 11.0 Ethyl phenyl ketone 24.4
Malononitrile 11.1 Diphenylmethylphenyl sulfone 24.5
p-Toluic acid 11.2 2,5-Dichloroanaline 24.6
3-Nitro-l-propene 11.2 Acetophenone 24.7
Phenylacetic acid 11.6 Urea 25.1
Thiophenylnitromethane 11.8,11.9 2,4-Dichloroanaline 25.3
Phenylnitromethane 12.2 Acetamide (N-H) 25.5
Methylmalononitrile 12.4 Methyl benzyl sulfone 25.6
Acetic acid 12.6 1,3,3-Triphenylpropene 25.6
2-Thiohydantoin I 12.8 Isopropyl phenyl ketone 26.3
Acetylacetone 13.6 Acetone 26.5
Hydrogen cyanide 13.7 9-(3-Chlorophenyl)xanthene 26.6
Bis(ethylsulfonyl)methane 14.4 3-Chloroanaline 26.7
2,4-Dinitroanaline 14.8 Diphenylthiophenylmethane 26.7
Oxalic acid II 14.9 Nitrocyclopropane 26.9
Resorcinol 15.3 Diethyl ketone 27.1
9-Phenylthiofluorene 15.4 9-Phenylxanthene 27.9
2,5-Dihydrophthalic acid II 15.6 Water 28.0
Nitrocycloheptane 15.8 Benzyl methyl sulfoxide 29.0
Nitrocyclopentane 16.0 Methyl phenyl sulfone 29.0
p-Chlorophenol 16.1 Diphenylyldiphenylmethane 29.4
2,5-Dichloro-4-nitroanaline 16.2 Triphenylmethane 30.0,30.6
Nitromethylcyclopropane 16.5 Phenylthiophenylmethane 30.8
Nitroethane 16.7 Ethyl phenyl sulfone 31.0
1,1 Bis(ethylsulfonyl)ethane 16.7 Dimethyl sulfone 31.1
1 -Nitropropane 16.8 Acetonitrile 31.3
2-Nitropropane 16.9 Diphenylmethane 32.3
Phenol 16.9 Propionitrile 32.5
m-Cresol 17.0 DMSO 35

50
 ELIMINATION REACTIONS
These are base-catalyzed reactions in which two atoms or groups are removed or eliminated, usually from one or two carbon atoms. A
double bond is frequently formed as the result of this elimination.
1. Cope Elimination
The pyrolysis oft-amine oxides (Cope elimination) in dry DMSO proceeds at a convenient rate at 25°C to give 80-90% yields of olefins.
Temperatures of 132-138° are usually required in water. In addition, the rates in DMSO are 10,000 times faster than in water (495):

O (CH3)3 Ph
N DMSO +
25oC Ph CH3
Ph
80-90%
The rate is higher in wet DMSO than in dry THF because DM SO acts as an internal drying agent and competes with amine oxide for the
water present (578).
5 Į-Stigmasta-7,22,25-trien-3 ȕ-ol, a steroid alcohol, is obtained by heating the appropriate t-amine oxide in DMSO (3481):
O (CH3)2 R
N
R DMSO
120-130oC H3C 61%
H3 C
2. Decarboxylation and Decarbalkoxylation
°
DMSO promotes the decomposition of malonic (640), oxalic (604), and oxamic (643) acids at elevated temperatures, e.g. 140-160 C.
Pyridylacetic acid hydrochloride decarboxylates in DMSO at moderate temperatures. The only product of this decarboxylation is 4-
methyl-pyridine hydrochloride (2343)(3743):

DMSO
ClHN CH2CO2H ClHN CH3
30oC
95+%
°
The decarboxylation of trichloroacetic acid also occurs as low as 25.0 C in the presence of DMSO and water. The reaction rate constant
increases by a factor of 6-7 with a change in concentration of DMSO from 50 to 86%. Dramatic rate accelerations result in the
decarboxylation of benzisoxazole-3-carboxylic acids if water is replaced by DMSO (3447):

CO 2H
X X CN
N DMSO, 30oC
+ CO 2
Y O Y OH

Some acids, such as optically pure (+)-2-benzenesulfonyl-2-methyl-octanoic acid, decarboxylate more readily in the presence of base
to give, in this case, (+)-2-octylphenylsulfone in 98% optical purity (631):

O2 CO 2H KOCH3, DMSO O2 CH3

S S
Ph 83%
H3C n-C H 90oC, 148 hrs. Ph
6 13 n-C6H13

Tetrahalophthalic acids in DMSO in the presence of alkali and alkaline earth chlorides undergo double decarboxylation to form 1,2,3,4-
tetrahalobenzenes, whereas, in the presence of other chlorides (e.g. CoCl2, NiCl2, CuCI2) or no salts at all mostly single decarboxylation
occurs to give 2,3,4,5-Cl4(or Br4)C6HCO2H (4602). Lead tetraacetate has been used in DMSO to decarboxylate dicarboxylic acids (5081).
Thus, the treatment of 3,3-dimethylcyclohex-4-ene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid yields 3,3-dimethyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene (7533):

51
 CO 2H
Pb(OAc)4, DMSO-pyridine

CO 2H

Rates of decarboxylation are reported for several phenylmalonic acids and esters in DMSO at 55.4°C. Only those compounds bearing at
least one carboxylic proton are labile, which establishes that intramolecular proton transfer is an integral part of the reaction mechanism
(7655).

Benzaldehydes can be prepared from the phenylacetic acids by electrolytic decarboxylation and oxidation in DMSO in the presence
of sodium hydride. The yields are good in most cases (8766):
CH2CO2H electrolysis CHO
R R
NaH

Decarbalkoxylation (mostly decarbethoxylation) is related to decarboxylation in that the -CO2R group, instead of CO2
(decarboxylation) is eliminated. Thus, geminal dicarboxy groups are eliminated when malonic ester derivatives are heated in DMSO
(942):
C2H5O2C NaCN, DMSO C2H5O2C

C2H5O2C 160oC, 4 hrs. H 60-80%

°
The treatment of ethyl trichloroacetate with sodium methoxide in DMSO at 0 C produces dichlorocarbene which is oxidized by
DMSO (1040).
Decarboxylation of geminal diesters, ȕ-keto esters, and Į-cyanoesters to the corresponding monoesters, ketones and nitriles can
be accomplished in excellent yields (85-95%) in wet DMSO in the presence of sodium chloride at 140-186°C (6102)(7022)(9769).
Other dipolar aprotic solvents, such as DMF, are less effective in the case of substrates with lower activity because of lower boiling
points of these solvents (6102).
The alkylative decarboxylation of N-carbalkoxypyrozoles has been shown to require a polar aprotic solvent, such a DMSO, and to
be subject to catalysis by nucleophiles, e.g. halide ions (7285):

N X-, DMSO N + CO2

N N
CO2R R

The decarbalkoxylation of methyl or ethyl isohexylmalonates in DMSO in the presence of various alkali metal salts gives methyl or
ethyl 6-methylheptanoates. The best results are obtained in the presence of 1 equivalent of salt and 2 equivalents of water (8861).
Salts such as KCN, NaCl, or LiCl dramatically enhance the decarbalkoxylation rates of geminal diesters, ȕ-keto esters, and Į-
cyanoesters by DMSO-water (9769).

3. Dehalogenation
By a proper choice of reaction conditions or nucleophile in DMSO, one can obtain elimination of either bromine or hydrogen bromide
in cases where both paths are available (454):

H2CSOCH3, DMSO H2CSOCH3, DMSO

Br
Br 71% Br 61%

In the presence of excess dimsyl sodium in DMSO at room temperature, the debrominated intermediate results, while the use of a
larger excess of dimsyl sodium and longer reaction times yield 1,2-cyclononadiene.
In the reaction of 3 ȕ-chloro-5 Į-bromo-6 ȕ-bromocholestane with excess dimsyl sodium in DMSO, bromine elimination occurs.
When this intermediate is treated with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO, HCl elimination occurs (455):
52
 H2CSOCH3, DMSO
Cl room temperature
Br Cl
Br 77%

t-BuOK, DMSO

43%

Pure olefins from their dibromides can be obtained by using sodium thiosulfate in DMSO as the debrominating agent. Thus,
stilbene dibromide yields stilbene (6496):
Br
Br
+ Na2S2O2 DMSO
60oC, 8 hrs.
99%

Treatment of 8,9-dibromodispiro[2.0.2.4]decane with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO gives spiro[2.0.2.4]dec-8

ene (7153):
Br
t-BuOK, DMSO
room temperature, 20 hrs
Br

Another dibromide can be dehalogenated by heating with zinc dust in DMSO (7184):
OAc OAc
Br
DMSO, Zn
90o, 2.5 hrs
Br 100%
OAc OAc

Heating trans- Į, ȕ-dibromo derivatives of diphenylethylene and meso-stilbene with potassium fluoride and cesium fluoride in
DMSO afford quantitative yields of diphenylacetylene and trans-stilbene, resp., via the intermediacy of dimsyl ion. These
reactions do not occur in N-methylpyrrolidone, DMF, or sulfolane (9338):
Br DMSO
Ph PhC CPh
KF or CsF
Ph
Br
Br DMSO
Ph
Ph
Br

The action of zinc-copper couples on perfluoroiodoalkanes, C 4 F 9I, C6 H33I and CsF17I, has been studied in aprotic solvents,
'
such as DMSO. A mixture of perfluoroolefins results (9928), e. g.
Zn-Cu, DMSO F3C F F3C CF3
C4F9I + + C4F9H
80oC F CF3 F F
39% 21% 20%

53
Some dehalogenation reactions using potassium t-butoxide as the base have been reviewed (6815).

4. Dehydrohalogenation
A variety of bases have been used in the dehydrohaloge nation reaction. The most frequently used base has beer potassium t-butoxide,
followed by other alkoxides. Other bases used include: sodium and potassium hydroxide the carbonate and bicarbonate ions, quaternary
ammonium hydroxide, dimsyl ion, sodium cyanide and some relatively weak organic bases, such as ammonia and amines.
The effects of base strength and size upon the orientation in base-promoted ȕ-elimination reactions have beer studied
(6234)(6378)(6818)(8582)(10011).
Ionic association in base-promoted ȕ-elimination reactions has been reviewed (8050).

a) Potassium t-butoxide in dehydrohalogenations

The enhanced basicity of potassium t-butoxide in DMSO has been suggested as the dominant factor which causes dehydrobrominations
to occur much more readily in DMSO than in t-butanol (652).

The reaction of benzhydryl chloride with potassium t-butoxide in t-butanol occurs slowly by displacement giving benzhydryl t-butyl ether,
whereas the base in DMSO causes a very rapid elimination( Į-elimination) giving nearly quantitative yields of tetraphenyl ethylene (696).
The rapid reaction is suggested to occur by an initial formation of the carbanion which eleminates chloride ion to give a carbene
intermediate, as shown below:
DMSO
[Ph2CCl]-K+ PhC: + Cl- +K+
Ph Ph
Ph2C: + Ph2C: (or [Ph2CCl-]) DMSO
Ph Ph

The rate of dehydrobromination of 2-arylethyl bromides with potassium t-butoxide in t-butanol-DMSO mixtures increases with
increasing DMSO concentration at a much faster rate than the increase of acidity function (833).
The strongly basic reaction medium obtainable with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO in the case of aromatic bromine compounds
produces aryne intermediates (434)(514) (see also Displacement reactions Alkoxide Ion, Aromatic halide displacement, p. 20).
2,7-Dichlorobicyclo[2.2.1 ]heptane on treatment with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO gives 7-chlorobicyclo[2.2.1] heptene (3360):
Cl Cl
t-BuOK, DMSO
room temperature
3.5 days
Cl 96%

Olefinic products from reactions of a series of 2-bromoaIkanes with potassium t-butoxide are produced. The transcis 2-alkene ratio is
dependent upon the alkyl group of the 2-bromoalkane (3368):
CH3 t-BuOK, DMSO
H2CR o RH2CHC CH2 + RHC CHCH3
Br 30-90 C
The trans-1 -iodocyclopropylpropene reacts at least ten times faster with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO than the cis isomer to yield 1
-cyclopropyl-2-methylacetylene (3503)(4176):

I t-BuOK, DMSO
t-BuOK, DMSO H I
fast CH3 slow
H CH3 CH3
trans
cis

Six or seven-membered trans-cycloolefins may be transformed into the corresponding 3-alkoxycycloalkynes by reaction with
potassium t-butoxide in DMSO (3707):
Br OR
t-BuOK, DMSO
OR
20oC, few seconds (CH2)n
(CH2)n
or minutes 60-74 %

n = 5 or 6
54
The reaction of 1,1 -dichloro-1 -cyclopropylethane with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO gives 1 -cyclopropylacetylene
(5594):
Cl t-BuOK, DMSO
CH3
room temperature
Cl 34%

Similarly, treatment of pinacolone dichloride with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO produces tert-butylacetylene in high yield (7608):

Cl t-BuOK, DMSO (H 3C)3C CH

(H 3C)3CC Cl below 40oC
H3C 95+%

3,3-Dimethylcyclopropene is easily produced from 1 -bromo-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane (7028):

CH3 CH3
H3C t-BuOK, DMSO H3C
H
90oC, 3hrs
Br 84%

1-Bromo-2-chloro-2,2-difluoro-l-phenylethane reacts with potassium t-butoxide to give Į-bromo- ȕ, ȕdifluorostvrene (5980):

Ph Cl t-BuOK, DMSO Ph F
F
Br F 50oC, 4 hrs. Br F

cis-3-Bromocyclodiene is easily dehydrobrominated to 1,2-cyclodecadiene (8960):

Br
t-BuOK, DMSO (CH2)7 C
o
20 C, 5 min.
78%

Dehydrofluorinations can also be accomplished with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO (5118):

F H H
F
F t-BuOK, DMSO
o
H 120 C, 24 hrs.

b) Other alkoxides in dehydrohalogenations

Other alkoxides, such as sodium and potassium methoxides or ethoxides, have been used with good results in dehydrohalogenation
reactions.
The olefinic products observed in reactions of sodium ethoxide or 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxide with 2-butyl iodide, bromide and chloride in
DMSO are reported (3853):
CH3 25oC, 10 min
H3CH2CHC CH2+ H2CHC CHCH3
X NaOC2H5 (or NaOCH2CF3), DMSO 1-butene 2-butene

X = I, Br, Cl

In all cases in the above reaction, the change from ethoxide to 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxide results in a decrease in the percent 1 -butene
(3853).
Treatment of 3-chloro-3,4-dihydro-2,2-dimethoxypyrans with an excess of sodium ethoxide in DMSO produces the corresponding Į-
pyrones (5834). (7737):

55
 R3 O OCH3 R3 O O
NaOCH3, DMSO
OCH3
2
R2 Cl room temp., few hours R
R1 R1

The addition of DMSO to the NaOCH -CH3OH medium causes a significant increase in the rate of dehydrochlorination of Ph2CHCH2Cl
(9142)(9143). Although double dehydrobromination of 2,6,6-bis-(ethylidenedioxy)-3,7-dibromobicyclo[3.3.0]octane with ethanolic
potassium hydroxide requires refluxing for several days for complete reaction, the elimination may be effected in several hours with
sodium methoxide in DMSO (9604):

O O O O
Br NaOCH 3, DMSO
Br 60-70oC, 2.5 hrs
O O O 89-92%
O

c) Dimsyl ion in dehydrohalogenations

Treatment of 1-acetylnaphth-2-yl 2'-chloroallyl ether with dimsyl ion in DMSO yields 1-acetylnaphthyl-2-yl propargyl ether which cyclizes
to 2-methyl- l,4-phenanthrenequinone (7552):
O O O
O O
DMSO O
CH2SOCH3
30% 55-60%

Reaction of 2,2-dimethyl-3-dimethyl-3-chloro-3-butenoic acid with dimsyl sodium in DMSO gives 2,2-dimethyl-3-butynoic acid (7865):

CH3 CH3
Cl CO2H CH2SOCH3
CO2H 88%
CH3 DMSO 50oC, 5 hrs CH3
In some cases, potassium t-butoxide is a better dehydrohalogenating agent than the dimsyl ion. Thus, the dimsyl ion can act as a
dehalogenating agent for vicinal dibromides (455):

CH2SOCH3,DMSO 37%
Br Br

Br Br t-BuOK, DMSO + styrene

78% 22%

d) Hydroxylic bases in dehydrohalogenations

Hydroxylic bases, such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and tetraalkylammonium hydroxide have been used for ȕ -
dehydrohalogenation reactions (8050). Tetra methylammonium hydroxide is more soluble in DMSO than either sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide (see Table IX). Thus, 1,1,1 -chlorodifluoroethane can be dehydrochlorinated to vinylidene fluoride in high
yield in heterogeneous DMSO suspensions or aqueous DMSO suspensions or solutions in the presence of sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide or tetramethylammonium hydroxide (5279), e.g.:
DMSO + H2O (5%) H2C CF2
H3CCClF2 + NaOH o
50 C 69.8 % conversion
99.5% selectivity

DMSO is a better reaction medium for the above reaction than some other solvents.
Methyl halogenated ethyl sulfides can be dehydrohalogenated with potassium hydroxide in DMSO (3142), e.g.

56
 F
F Cl DMSO
+ KOH H3CFSC CFCl
SF room temperature
H

6-Hydroxy-2-isopropenyl-5-acetylcoumaran can be obtained from the corresponding vinyl bromide by dehydrohalogenation with
potassium hydroxide and cyclization in DMSO (4892):
O O
Br KOH, DMSO
20oC
OH O OH

O
42%

Relatively high yields of alkynes can be obtained from Į, ȕ-dihalides or Į, Į-dihalides in short reaction times at moderate temperatures
in DMSO using moderately strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, without isolation of the intermediate olefin (8238), e.g.:
Cl DMSO, KOH
(H 3C)3CHC CHCl (H 3C)3C CH
Br 130-160oC 91%

e) Weak bases in dehydrohalogenations

Although potassium t-butoxide in DMSO is an extremely strong and reactive base-solvent system, sometimes undesirable reactions take
place after dehydrohalogenations. Thus, the freshly formed olefins tend to isomerize, and carbanions can be generated which can
decompose in various ways (4180)(6163).
Dehydrohalogenations without olefin isomerization can sometimes be accomplished by using weaker bases, such as carbonates,
cyanides, or amines.
Thus, the treatment of 1,3-dibromo-1,3-diphenylcyclobutane with sodium cyanide in DMSO produces 1,3diphenylcyclobut-2-enyl
cyanide (4077):
Br
Ph
Ph DMSO-CH3CN
Ph NaCN Ph
Br CN

In the above reaction, both the ȕ-elimination and displacement (substitution) reactions take place.
3,3-Dibromo-6-dibromomethyl-5-carbethoxy-2,3-dihydro-2-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one with sodium carbonate in DMSO yields 3-bromo-6-
dibromomethyl-5-carbethoxy-2-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (6215):
O O
Br
CO2C2H5 DMSO Br CO2C2H5
Br + Na2CO3 55%
H3C CHBr2 20oC, 3 hrs H3C CHBr2

3-Alkylthio- or3-arylthio-4-chlorothiolane 1,1-dioxide can be dehydrohalogenated when warmed with triethyl. amine in DMSO (385):

Cl SR SR
DMSO
+(C2H5)3N o 60-90%
90 C, 2 hrs.
O O

5. Nitrogen Elimination
Elemental nitrogen can be eliminated from a number of compounds by heating in DMSO in the presence or absence of bases. Usually
these are compounds that contain the nitrogen-nitrogen bond, such as hydrazones, hydrazides, carbazides, azo compounds,
57
 diazomethane derivatives, azides, diazonium salts and others.
Addition of hydrazones of aldehydes and ketones to a solution of potassium t-butoxide in DMSO produces an immediate evolution of
nitrogen and formation of the corresponding hydracarbons in 60-90% yields. The reaction of the benzophenone hydrazone is typical
(495).
t-BuOK, DMSO
Ph2C NNH2 PH2CH2 + N2
25oC

The above reaction, the so-called Wolff-Kishner reduction in DMSO, can be run even at room temperature.
The rate of the Wolff-Kishner reaction of benzophenone hydrazone in mixtures of butyl carbinol and DMSO in the range of 100-190°C
increases as the concentration of DMSO is increased, but this effect passes through a maximum. The maxima tend to drift
toward higher DMSO concentrations as the temperature is lowered (377).
The thermal decomposition of norbornan-2-one and norborn-5-en-2-one tosylhydrazone sodium salts has been studied over the
°
temperature range 100-150 C in DMSO and two other solvents. First order kinetics have been observed in all cases (8955):

N-N-OTs DMSO + N2 + OTs-

117.5oC
Treatment of 1-acylsemicarbazides in DMSO with air or oxygen gives rise to carboxamides in good yields (3721):

O
H H O2, KOH, DMSO O
N N R" + N2 + CO
R' N R" 100-110 oC R' N
H H
O

Thermal decomposition of two azobisamidines and their conjugate acids has been studied in DMSO (4748).
Rate coefficients are reported for the reaction of diazodiphenylmethane with benzoic acid and its orthosubstituted derivatives in DMSO
and other solvents (2765):
DMSO
Ph2CN2 + RCO2H RCO2CHPh2 + N2
o
30 C
Thermal decomposition of several diazirines has also been investigated in DMSO (4906)(5635), e.g.
Ph N DMSO Cl Cl
N2 + PhClC NN
Cl N 60-90oC diazirine
Ph Ph
Sodium azide in DMSO reacts with Į-bromophenylacetonitrile to yield benzonitrile (10077):

Ph - DMSO PhCN + N2 + CN-

CN + N3
Br 90%

Diazonium salts can be prepared in DMSO by diazotizing primary amines with sodium nitrite. In the case of benzylamine, benzaldehydes
can be prepared in good yields (167), e.g.:
NH2 DMSO
R R CH2 + OS(CH3)2
+ NaNO2 + H+
-N2, H2O

CH3
R C S R CHO + CH3SCH3
H2 CH
3

Benzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate in DMSO decomposes instantaneously with evolution of nitrogen upon addition of a DMSO solution
of choline or tetramethylammonium hydroxide (5124):

OH-, DMSO
N2+ + X +N2
20oC X

58
When p-nitrobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate is decomposed in the presence of DMSO-benzene or DMSOnitrobenzene systems, the
respective biphenyl derivatives are obtained in good yields (5642).
The dediazotization of aromatic diazonium ions has been reviewed in various solvents, including DMSO (9423).

6. Sulfenate Elimination
The t-butoxide ion or dimsyl ion in DMSO has been used to eliminate sulfenates from sulfoxides to produce olefins in moderate to high
yields (501)(203)(672). When a number of 3-phenyl-2-alkylpropyl sulfoxides is allowed to react in DMSO with a large excess of dimsyl
sodium, cyclopropanes and olefins are formed (396)(2842):
R
Ph DMSO Ph + CH3SO-
CH2SOCH3 + H2CSOCH3 o
60-70 C, 48 hrs.
R
When isomeric 2-phenylsulfinyl-1,2-diphenyl-l-ethanols are pyrolyzed in DMSO in the presence of trace quantities of pyridine,
deoxybenzoin is formed (4776):
O S Ph pyridine, DMSO
PhC=CHPh PhCCH2Ph + PhSOH
PhCHCHPh 119oC
OH OH
O

3-Phenylindole is obtained from ȕ-hydroxysulfoxide on treatment of the latter with dimsyl ion in DMSO (5300):
Ph
SOCH3 Ph
OH DMSO
+ H2CSOCH3
NH2 N
H

7. Sulfonate Elimination
Various bases have been used in the reaction of sulfonate esters of primary and secondary alcohols to give alkenes. Some of these
bases are potassium t-butoxide, sodium methoxide, potassium ethoxide, phenoxides, and others. In a few cases, elimination reactions
involving sulfonate esters have been achieved without the presence of a base by the action of heat alone.

a) Potassium t-butoxide in sulfonate elimination

Most ȕ-eliminations involving sulfonate esters seem to have been investigated with potassium t-butoxide as the base. Sulfonate esters
of cyclic and secondary acyclic alcohols react rapidly with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO at 20-25°C to give about 80% yields of alkenes
and no appreciable quantities of ethers. Esters of normal primary alcohols and of cyclohexylcarbinol give only 20-25% alkenes and 60-
70% ethers, as the result of displacement reactions in the latter case (491).
Mesylate and tosylate derivatives of cholesterol, all easily prepared, undergo facile reactions in DMSO at room temperature to afford
excellent yields of dienic materials (965).

Treatment of the tosylate of (+)-(S)-3-methyl-7-deutero-octen-4-ol-7 with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO yields (+)-(S)-cis,trans-3-
methyl-7-deuterooctadiene-4,6 (3482):

t-BuOK, DMSO

80oC
H3C D D CH3
OTs

The tosylate of cyclohexanol-2,2,6,6-d4 on treatment with potassium t-butoxide gives cyclohexene-1,3,3-d3 (3584) :
H OTs
D D t-BuOK, DMSO D D
D room temperature D
D 36%

5,6 Dimethylenebicyclo[2.2.0]hexene-2, the Dewar o-xylylene, can be obtained by reacting the corresponding ditosylate with potassium
t-butoxide in DMSO (3827):

59
 OTs
CH2
t-BuOK, DMSO
room temp.
40% CH2
OTs
When 4- hydroxy-trans-bicyclo[5.1.0] octane p-bromobenzene-sulfonate is treated with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO, it is rapidly
converted to trans-bicvclo[5.1.0]oct-3-ene (4039):

OBs t-BuOK, DMSO

o
H 20-25 C, 30 min.

When 2-butyl and 2-pentyl halides or tosylates are treated with tetraethylammonium fluoride in acetonitrile, an olefin forming elimination
takes place and an overwhelming Saytzeff orientation is observed. These results are compared with results of the elimination in other
base-solvent systems, including potassium t-butoxide in DMSO (4524).
°
The reaction of trans-2-methylcyclooctyl tosylate with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO for 30 min at 25 C yields cis-3-methylcyclooctene,
93%, and cis-1 -methylcyclooctene, 4%. With t-butenol as the solvent, the ratio of the isomers is 2:1.
An approximately equimolar mixture of bicyclo[5.2.0]non-1 (9)-ene and bicyclo[5.2.0]non-8-ene is obtained by treatment of 8-
methanesulfonyloxybicyclo[5.2.0]nonane with potassium 1-butoxide in DMSO (9727).

t-BuOK, DMSO
20oC, 15 hrs.
OMs
65% total

b) Sodium methoxide in sulfonate elimination

Benzenesulfonates of typical primary and secondary alcohols react rapidly at room temperature with sodium methoxide in DMSO to
give high yields of alkenes and/or alkyl methyl ethers. Except for cyclohexyl benzenesulfonate, the ether-alkene ratio is higher in
reactions with sodium methoxide than with potassium t-butoxide. This indicates that the displacement reactions are favored over
elimination reactions with sodium methoxide in most cases (580).
1,3 -Dimethoxypropene can be obtained from p-toluenesulfonate of 1,3-dimethoxy-2-propanol by means of sodium methoxide in DMSO
in good yield with cis/trans ratio of 2.1:1. Evidently little of the displacement reaction goes on (3875):
CH2OCH3 NaOCH3, DMSO CH2OCH3
TsO
CH2OCH3 CHOCH3
71%

A double bond in a cyclic system, a precursor of dl-juvabione, is introduced by treatment of a tosylate with sodium methoxide in
refluxing methanol containing 10% DMSO (6947).

c) Other bases in sulfonate elimination

When cyclohexyl tosylate is reacted with potassium t-butylmercaptide in DMSO, cyclohexene is the major product. However potassium
t-butoxide reacts much more ranidly than the mercaptide (496).
The effect of base strength upon orientation in base prompted elimination reactions has been studied. 2-Butyl p-toluenesulfonate is
reacted with the following bases in DMSO: potassium t-butoxide, potassium ethoxide, potassium phenoxide, potassium 4-
methoxyphenoxide, potassium 4-nitrophenoxide and potassium 2nitrophenoxide. The results are completely consistent with a correlation
between orientation and base strength (882).
The trans:cis olefin ratios have been determined for the elimination reactions of 1-benzylethyl tosylate, PhCH2CH(OTs)CH3, in different
base-solvent systems. The basicity of the nucleophile does not appear to significantly affect the trans:cis ratio (8372).

d) Sulfonate elimination without a base

DMSO has been found to be an excellent non-reacting solvent for the decomposition of (-)-menthyl, ȕ-cholestanyl, cyclohexyl and 2-
octyl aryl-sulfonates to the corresponding olefins. The sulfonates are heated at 89-91°C for 6 hours without a base (408).
°
The elimination reactions of some secondary acyclic and medium sized ring cyclic alcohol tosylates carried out in DMSO at 50 C and
°
90-95 C show that olefins are formed, especially with secondary alcohol tosylates.

8. Water Elimination-dehydration
Many alcohols can be dehydrated in DMSO to olefins. Certain diols when heated in DMSO lead to cyclic ethers. A group of tertiary
°
alcohols, such as 2-alkylcycloalkanes, at 160-190 C for several hours in DMSO give endocyclic olefins, 1 -alkylcycloalkenes, as the
major products. Thus, 1 -methylcyclopentanol gives only 1 -methylcyclopentene (394):

60
 CH3
DMSO
CH3
OH 160oC
6 hours 88%

When certain diols are heated in DMSO, cyclic ethers result instead of the expected dienes (395). When 1,4-butanediol, 1,5-pentanediol
and 1,6-hexanediol are heated, using 2 moles of alcohol per mole of DMSO, the corresponding heterocycles, tetrahydrofuran (70%),
tetrahydropyran (47%), and oxepane (24%) are formed (394):
H2
DMSO C
HOCH 2(CH2)nCH2OH O
o (nH2C) 24-70%
190 C C
14-24 hrs. H2 n=2, 3, 4
2,4-Di(2-hydroxy-2-propyl)cyclohexene can be selectively dehydrated to 2-(2-propenyl)-4-(2-hydroxy-2-propyl)1-cyclohexene in DMSO
(4775):
DMSO
190oC
HO OH 1.5 hrs. 80% OH

Heating of 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane-1,4-diol in a sublimation apparatus in DMSO gives the tetrahydrofuran (4934) :

CH3 CH3 H3C
DMSO H3C CH3
CH2OH C C CH2OH H3C
160oC CH2 42%
CH3 CH3 H2C
16 hrs. O

In the dehydration of 1,4-diols, a cyclic transition state with DMSO has been postulated (395)(6098):
H
O O

S CH 3
O
H3C CH CH 3
3
H

When sec- or tert-benzylic alcohols or tert-aliphatic alcohols are heated in DMSO at 160-185° C for 9-16 hours, dehydration produces
olefins in 70-85% yields (405), e.g.
OH

DMSO
PhCHCH2CH3 PhCH=CHCH3
o
160 C
16 hrs. 79%

2,2-Dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone can be obtained by dehydrating the corresponding 5-hydroxy compound on heating in DMSO (4755):
O O
DMSO

HO O O

2-Methoxy-4,5-dimethylstilbene is obtained by heating 2-methoxy-4,5-dimethylphenylbenzylcarbinol in DMSO (9605):

61
 OCH3 OH OCH3
Ph
DMSO
CH2Ph
150oC 80%
H3C H3C
9.5 hrs CH3
CH3

One of the key features of the stereoselective and regioselective total synthesis of two naturally occurring fungitoxic hydroquinones (±)-
zonarol and (±)-isozonarol is the dehydration of a tertiary alcohol to an alkene without rearrangement (9780):
HO

DMSO
155oC, 16 hrs 77%
H H

In some cases, the dehydration is achieved in DMSO in the presence of an inorganic acid. Thus, the lactonization of a hydrolyzed
terpolymer can be carried out by reacting the polymer in the presence of a very small quantity of concentrated sulfuric acid in DMSO
(2265):
H3C
HO2CHO2C H2SO4, DMSO H3C HO2C

HO CO2H 65oC, 100 hrs HO CO2H

CH2OH O O

Potassium hydrogen sulfate in DMSO is an effective medium for elimination of water from some intermediate hydroxy derivatives in the
preparation of various C19 analogs of retinoic acid (4235):
KHSO4, DMSO
R R
140-160oC
OH
18-40 min

Dehydration of 4-(1 -hydroxyethyl) biphenyl in DMSO in e presence of a small amount of potassium hydrogen sulfate and hydroquinone
gives p-phenyl-styrene (7867):
KHSO4, DMSO
OH 190C 82%
several hours

Dehydration of a diol can also be accomplished by using the triethylamine-sulfur trioxide complex in DMSO (7080):
OH
OH Et3N / SO3, DMSO
O
15oC, 15 minutes

ISOMERIZATION REACTIONS
These are base-catalyzed reactions that convert olefins and other unsaturated compounds into molecules with different atomic
arrangement. Included are also racemization reactions: the conversion of half a given quantity of an optically active compound into one
enantiomer.
1. Acetylene Isomerization
The enhanced rate of base catalyzed isomerization in DMSO can be used to control the direction of a cyclization of acetylenes (600).
When propargyloxyethanol is cyclized in DMSO in the presence of sodium hydroxide, 2-vinyl -1,3-dioxolane and 2-methyl-l,4-dioxene
are the major products (101):

62
 DMSO O
HC CCH2OCH2CH2OH H2C C CHOCH2CH2OH
NaOH O
O
HC COCH2CH2OH
O
Treatment of an acetylenic compound with potassium tert-butoxide in DMSO gives the corresponding allenic compounds (2239):
t-BuOK, DMSO H
R C C CH(A)-R' R C C C(A)-R'
30oC
5 $ON\ORUSKHQ\O5¶ +DON\ORUSKHQ\O$ $ONR[\SKHQR[\DON\OWKLRSKHQ\OWKLRGLDON\XODPLQRHWF

3-Phenylpropyne undergoes in DMSO a dimsyl ion-catalyzed isomerization with very little H-D exchange with the solvent (2987):
D2CSOCD3, (CD3)2SO
PhH2CC CH P hHC C CH2

4-Alkoxy-4-alkyl-1 -t-butoxy-2- butyne, when heated with catalytic amounts of potassium t-butoxide in DMSO, is isomerized to allenic
diethers (4257):
R' t-BuOK , DMSO R'
C CCH2OtBu C CHOtBu
RO RO 50-78%

Similarly, 3-alkoxy-l -phenylpropynes are isomerized in DMSO under the catalytic influence of potassium tert-butoxide to give 3-alkoxy-1
-phenylallenes (4258):
R
R t-BuOK , DMSO R O
Ph Ph C P hHC 40-67%
OC2H5 OC2H5 H

2
The rates of base-catalyzed isomerization of a series of 1,3,3-triphenyl- prop-1-yne and [3- H]-1,3,3-triphenylprop1-yne, have been
measured in aqueous DMSO containing tetramethylammonium hydroxide and give linear correlations with the acidity function for the
medium (5864).
Pure 2-alkynes are obtained upon heating 1-alkynes with sodamide in DMSO (6510):
NaNH2, DMSO
RH2C CH R CH3
o
R=alkyl 65-70 C, 21 hrs. 90-94%

2. Allyl Group Isomerization

The isomerization of allyl ethers to propenyl ethers occurs 1000 times faster in DMSO than in dimethoxyethane and 10,000 times faster
than in dimethoxyethane-t-butanol mixtures (481). This facile isomerization of allyl to easily hydrolyzed propenyl groups.enables the use
of allyl groups as blocking agents (10043). For example, 9-allyladenine is isomerized with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO to the propenyl
compound which is then easily hydrolyzed to regenerate the amino group (941):
N t-BuOK , DMSO N
N N 82%
o
100 C, 20 min.
N N N N

The allyl group of a glycoside can be isomerized to the prop-1 -enyl group by the action of potassium t-butoxide in DMSO, without
affecting phenyloxazine group (8951):
O OCH CH R O
R 2 OCH
CH t-BuOK , DMSO CHCH3
2
O N 20oC, 26 hrs. O N 77%

Ph Ph
3. Diene, Triene Isomerization
Unconjugated dienes can be converted to the conjugated isomers by treating them with a strong base in DMSO. Thus, the treatment of 2-
bromo-1,3-cyclohexadiene (I) with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO yields a mixture of 79% 1-bromo-l,3-cyclohexadiene (II) and 21 % of I.
63
The difference in free energy between I and II appears to be the result of greater conjugation of bromine with cyclohexadiene system in 11
(596):
Br Br
t-BuOK , DMSO
75oC, 8 hrs.
I. II.

Several unconjugated dienamines on treatment with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO produce the conjugated dienamine by a pivoting of
the double bond around the carbon carrying the nitrogen atom (4018):

N N
OCH3 OCH3
t-BuOK , DMSO

2-Methyl-1 -(tetramethylcyclopropylidene)propene is isomerized with potassium t-butoxide in DMSO to give 2methyl-3-

(tetramethylcyclopropylidene)propane (4126):
CH3 CH3
H3C t-BuOK , DMSO H3C
CH3 CH3
C o
CH3 100 C , 2hr. CH
H3C 3
CH3 64% CH3
Unsaturated fatty acid esters containing conjugated double bonds are manufactured by isomerization from the esters with
unconjugated double bonds by heating them with alkali metal alkoxides in DMSO (8906).
4,6 4,7
Steroids have been isomerized with a base in DMSO (3272)(2323). Thus, 19-hydroxy- ǻ -3-NHWRVWHURLGVDUHGHFRQMXJDWHGWRǻ -3
ketones by treatment with sodium methoxide in DMSO (4311):

HOH2C
NaOCH3 , DMSO HOH2C
room temp.
O several min.
O

Sodium methoxide catalyzed deconjugation of cholesta-1,4-6-trien-3-one in DMSO to cholesta-1,5,7-trien-3-one is a key step in a

reported route to 1- Į -hydroxy-vitamin D3 (10048).
1,3,6-Octatrienes and 1,3,7-octatrienes are isomerized to 2,4,6-octatriene in 70-85% yields with hydroxide bases in DMSO (3379).

4. Olefin Isomerization
The isomerizations of simple alkenes (e.g. pentene-1,hexene-1) with potassium t-butoxide do not occur in tert-butanol, THF or 1,2-
dimethoxyethane. However, in DMSO with potassium tert-butoxide as the base, 1-olefins can be converted to 2-olefins, e.g. 2-
methylpentene to 2-methylpentene-2 (579):
H3C CH3
t-BuOK , DMSO
H3CH2CHC
H3CH2CH2C CH3

S-(2-propenyl)-L-cysteine is isomerized to cis-S-(1 -propenyl)-L-cysteine by reaction in potassium tert-butoxide and DMSO (1001):

t-BuOK , DMSO
H2C CHCH2SCH2CH(NH2)CO2H H3CHC CHSHCH2CH(NH2)CO2H
25oC , 18 hrs. 60%
Į-Pinene can be converted to ȕ -pinene by using potassium hydroxide and DMSO (480)(7229):

KOH , DMSO
110-190oC 4-6%
0.5 - 6 hrs.
64
Similarly, (+)-sabinine isomerizes to an equilibrium mixture of 91 % (-)- Į-thujene and 9% (+)-sabinine under the influence of
potassium t-butoxide in DMSO (2998):

t-BuOK ,DMSO

90oC, 2 hrs.
(+)-sabinine (-)-D-thujine

Isomerization of a mixture consisting of 17.4% 1 -methylcyclopropene and 81.3% methylenecyclopropane with potassium t-butoxide
and t-butanol in DMSO produces a 98% pure methylenecyclopropane (4262):
t-BuOK ,DMSO
50-60oC 70%

5. Racemization
In the racemization of saturated compounds by exchange of hydrogen at an asymmetric carbon, the rate of racemization correlates
well with the acidity function of the reaction system containing DMSO (944). Similarly, the base-catalyzed rate of hydrogen-deuterium
exchange correlates well with the racemization rate (1501). In solvents of high dissociating power which are not proton donors, e.g.
DMSO, the carbanion (obtained with potassium t-butoxide) is long enough lived to become symmetrically solvated, and electrophilic
substitution gives a racemic product (1161).
A variety of active functional groups can be attached to the saturated asymmetric carbon atom.
a) Alcohols
When optically pure tertiary alcohols with an asymmetric carbon atom are treated with a strong base in DMSO, the predominant
steric course is racemization (1162)(2589).
b) Alkyl halides
The reduction of optically active tertiary alkyl halides with sodium borohydride in DMSO proceeds with racemization presumably via
an elimination mechanism (3519):
CH3 H3C CH3
H3C
H3C C2H5 DMSO H3C C2H5
Cl 8 NaBH4 H
H3C CH3 H3C CH3
Racemic 2,7-dimethyl-octane
(-)-(R)-3-chloro-3,7-dimethyloctane

c) Amides, amino acids

D- Į -Acetamide- Į -vanillylpropionitrile is racemized using sodium cyanide as the base and DMSO as the solvent to give 96-97%
pure DL- Į -acetamido- Į -vanillylpropionitrile (7772)(7984):
H3CO
H3C CN
HO NH CH
3

Optically active N-acylamino acids are racemized nearly quantitatively by heating with DMSO (8418).

d) Esters
The racemization and solvolysis of (+)-methyl 1 -cyano-2, 2-diphenyl-cyclopropane carboxylate has been studied in DMSO and six
other solvents. In DMSO, racemization is the dominant reaction (6287).

e) Ethers
Potassium t-butylmercaptide in DMSO is a weaker kinetic base system than potassium t-butoxide in DMSO or than dimsyl sodium in
DMSO in the racemization of optically pure (-)-1-methoxyphenylethane (496):

H3CO DMSO H3CO DMSO H3CO

CH3 + B-
H C CH
Ph CH B- Ph 3 BH Ph H
3
Rate constants for racemization of (-)-4-biphenyl-methoxyphenylmethane in methanol-0-d-DMSO-d6 catalyzed by potassium
methoxide have been measured (2007).
65
 f) Hydrocarbons
The results of H-D exchange and racemization of (-)-9-deuterio-9-methyl-2-trimethylammonium fluorene iodide in t-butanol-DMSO
catalyzed by tripropylamine are reported. Exchange (69%) and racemization (69%) take place
(5339):
H(D) CH3
N(CH3)3I

D-tetramisole or its 1 -tetramisole enantiomer is racemized in DMSO solution in the presence of a catalytically effective amount of
potassium hydroxide (10315):
N S
Ph
N

g) Nitriles
Racemization of 2-methyl-3-phenylpropionitrile in DMSO can proceed 1,000,000 times faster than in tert-butanol in the presence of the
same base (434)(944).
The mechanism of base-catalyzed racemization of Į-acetamidonitriles bearing no enolizable Į-hydrogen has been studied in DMSO
and found to proceed via elimination and readdition of the elements of HCN (2013).
The base catalyzed racemization of 2,2-diphenylcyclopropylnitrile (1) has been studied in solvents containing various amounts of
DMSO. With sodium methoxide as the base and nitrile 1 as a substrate, the rate for racernization in 1.5 mole % methanol-98.5 mol %
8
DMSO is 3.6 x 10 times that observed in methanol (7282):

Ph CN -OCH3 , DMSO P h H
Ph H Ph CN
(-) -1 (+) -1

h) Sulfones
°
When the 2,2-dimethyl-1-phenylsulfonylcyclopropane is heated in DMSO for 6 hours at 175 C the material is 88% racemized (2035):
H3C CO2CH3
H3C SO2Ph

C. OTHER REACTIONS IN DMSO ADDITION REACTIONS

These are additions of nucleophilic compounds to carbon-carbon double bonds, carbon-carbon triple bonds, carbon-nitrogen triple
bonds and others.
In a number of cases the use of DMSO improves the rate of addition of nucleophiles to olefins, such as acrylonitrile. The rate of
addition of the glycine anion to acrylonitrile in an aqueous buffer is increased 200-fold by adding an equal amount of DMSO to the
buffer (1233). Similarly, the cyanoethylation of methanol using potassium methoxide catalysis in methanol-DMSO occurs at a rate
greater than in several other aprotic solvents. The order of effectiveness of the solvents for this reaction is also the order of their
hydrogen bonding strength (1591).

a) Additions to acetylenes (carbon-carbon triple bonds)

The DMSO anion (dimsyl sodium) adds to diphenyl acetylene to give a 95% yield of a cis-trans mixture of the expected
unsaturated sulfoxide (203):
Ph CH2SOCH3 Ph Ph
PhC CPh + Na+CH2SOCH3 DMSO +
room temp.
H Ph H CH2SOCH3
95%
°
When the addition is conducted at 40 C, the reaction consumes 2 moles of the DMSO anion with elimination of two methane
sulfenate groups to give 2,3-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene (203):
DMSO CH2
PhC CPh + Na+CH2SOCH3 28%
40oC Ph
Ph
CH2

66
 Ethyl phenylpropiolate reacts readily with dimethyloxosulfonium methylide to give 91 % of a stable ylide (217):
HCO2C2H5
PhC CO2C2H5 (H3C)2SOCH2
PhC C
SO(CH3)2
91%
The addition of alkoxides to triple bonds in DMSO has been examined in structures where the intramolecular addition can
occur(600)(101)(429). The rapid rearrangement of the triple bond to the allenic compound seems to precede the cyclization (600):

O
CH2CH2OH NaOH , DMSO C CH2CH2OH DMSO
N N
CH3 CH3 N
CH3

Dinitrophenylhydrazine reacts with dimethylacetylenedicarboxylate in DMSO-methanol to yield a 1:1 adduct which exists as an imine-
emamine tautomer (3387):
CO2CH3 CH2CO2CH3 CO2CH3
DMSO
PhNHNH2 + P hNHN PhHNHNHC
room temp. , 15 hr CO2CH3 CO2CH3
53%
CO2CH3

The reaction of alkynes with sodium azide in DMSO, followed by hydrolysis, affords 1,2,3-triazoles (3456):
R' R
DMSO C C
RC CR' + NaN3
N N
N
11-54%

DMSO has been one of the solvents studied in the reaction of 1 -propyl-sulfones and sulfoxides with ethylenimine. The greatest amount
of trans product (cis addition) is formed in DMSO. This may be explained on the basis that DMSO can stabilize the zwitterionic
intermediate best (3660):
DMSO H3C SO2C2H5 H3C H
H3CC CSO2C2H5 + NH
room temp. N H N SO2C2H5
6 hrs trans 84% cis 16%

b) Additions to olefins (carbon-carbon double bonds)

Aliphatic conjugated dienes add the dimsyl ion in DMSO to give sulfoxides. These unsaturated sulfoxides isomerize spontaneously and
eliminate methanesulfenate upon continued warming in the strongly basic medium to produce the overall effect of methylation (411):

+ H2CSOCH3 DMSO BH
SOCH3
55oC

E-elimination
SOCH3 + H3CSO-
+B- 50%

Although the yields of the aliphatic dienes are 50% or less, the yields using polynuclear aromatic compounds or some heterocyclic
compounds, such as quinoline, are high (202):
CH3

DMSO
+ H2CSOCH3
70oC, 4 hrs.
N N 96%

67
The dimsyl ion also adds to aryl conjugated olefins, such as styrene or 1,1-diphenylethylene, in DMSO to give the corresponding methyl 3-
arylpropyl sulfoxides in almost quantitative yield (423):
DMSO
Ph2C CH2 + H2CSOCH3 Ph2CCH2CH2SOCH3
25oC
Ph2CHCH2CH2SOCH3 + H2CSOCH3

One stage sequential double methylation of the C=C bonds in stilbene, 2-methylstilbene and 4,4'-dimethoxystilbene with the dimsyl ion in
DMSO leads to methyl diarylbutyl sulfoxides (7234):
CH3 CH3
Ph Ph
DMSO
+ 2H2CSOCH3 CH2CH2SOCH3

Kinetic rate measurements of the alkoxide catalyzed addition of methanol and ethanol to methyl esters of acrylic and methacrylic acid
have been investigated in the mixed solvent alcohol-DMSO (3249).
1-Alkenecarbonitriles react with aromatic or heteroaromatic aldehydes in DMSO under the catalytic influence of cyanLGHLRQVWRJLYHȊ-
oxonitriles (6172)(7582):
R" CN-, DMSO O R"
RCHO + R'HC
CN R CN
R' 54-91%

Alkyl esters of Į , ȕ - and ȕ Ȋ-unsaturated carboxylic acids can be carboxylated at the Į- or ȕ - position using sodium phenoxide in
DMSO (3506):
H2C NaO2CH2C
CO2CH3 - CO2CH3
or + CO2 PhO , DMSO or
H3C CO2CH3 25oC, 3 hrs H3C CO2CH3
CO2Na

Sodium azide adds to Į , ȕ -unsaturated nitro compounds in DMSO to form 1,2,3-triazoles (4452):

DMSO RPh
RPh NO2 + NaN3
room temp.
N N
N
H
60%

Phenacyl bromide and its derivatives in the presence of zinc or a zinc-copper couple undergo anti-Markownikow additions to terminal
olefins (6627):
Zn-Cu , DMSO
X-PhCOCH2Br + H2C Ar2 X-PhCO(CH2)2CHAr2
140oC
54%

Phenacyl bromide in DMSO in the presence of the zinc-copper couple also adds to conjugated enynes and dienes (7536).
When olefins are treated with N-bromosuccinimide in DMSO containing a small quantity of water, the corresponding bromohydrins can be
obtained after a short reaction time in high yields (705)(4026)(4817):
H2O , DMSO Br
+ BrN o
20 C , 15 min.
OH
78%

A variety of alkylaromatic compounds undergo nucleophilic addition to conjugated olefins (3384). Particularly when the reaction is
performed in dipolar aprotic solvents, using potassium t-butoxide as a catalyst. The effectiveness of the solvents decreases in the
following order. DMSO, HMPA, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, DMF, sulfolane, tetramethylurea (4339).

68
c) Additions to nitriles (carbon-nitrogen triple bond)

The reaction of sodium azide with nitriles, such as benzonitrile, occurs readily in DMSO to give 5-phenyl tetrazole (550):
NH4Cl, DMSO N
PhCN + NaN3 Ph N

123-127oC, 7 hrs N NH
87%
The reaction of anthranilonitrile with sodium hydride in DMSO yields 4-amino-2-(2-aminophenyl)quinazoline (8576):
R
R CN NaH , DMSO R CN R CN R N
DMSO
+
0oC, 3hrs 25oC, 21hrs
NH2 NH2 NH2 N
NH2
NH2
R= H orBr nearly quantitative
Phthalodinitriles react with dicyandiamide in DMSO in the presence of basic compounds, such as potassium hydroxide, to
produce phthalo-bis-guanamines (8008):
NH2
N N
CN H
+ 2H2N KOH, DMSO N NH2
CN 85oC, 3hr
CN NH 97%
N N
H2N N NH2

d) Additions to isocyanates
The reactions of organic isocyanates and diisocyanates are catalyzed by DMSO, and they run at good rates in this solvent
(392)(312)(1360). Thus, diisocyanates react in DMSO with active hydrogen compounds such as dihydrazides (450), polyols
(449), or even with the hydroxyl groups of carbohydrates (cellulose) (443). In the last instance, DMSO is also used as an
effective swelling agent for cellulosic rayon fibers.
Diisocyanates, such as bis(4-isocyanatophenyl)methane or 2,2-bis(4-isocyanatophenyl)propane, react with ethylene glycol in
DMSO. Polyurethane filaments can then be spun from the reaction mixture (1880):
a ketone O O
+ HOCH2CH2OH
OCN NCO DMSO OH2CH2CO N N
H H n
Dry DMSO is inert to alkyl or aryl isocyanates but it does react with isocyanates having electron withdrawing groups such as
acyl (714) or sulfonyl (308)(391).
A number of synthetic polymers containing sugar residues, such as D-cellobiose (10116)(10439) and Į , Į -trehalose (10123),
have been prepared by direct addition polymerization of the carbohydrate with diisocyanates, such as 4,4'-
methylenedi(phenylisocyanate) in DMSO.
CONDENSATION REACTIONS
These are mostly specific reactions (e.g. aldol condensation, Mannich reaction) in which two or more molecules combine,
usually with the separation of water or some other simple molecule.
Most of the ordinary reactions of carbonyl compounds can be accomplished in DMSO. Good results are often obtained either
because of the greater solubility of generally insoluble reactants or because of enhanced reactivity of nucleophiles.
a) Aldol-type condensations
Alkyl aryl ketones react easily and at a high rate with paraformaldehyde in DMSO in the presence of base to yield
hydroxymethyl compounds. The high reaction rates may be attributed to the high reactivity of the anionic catalyst in the DMSO
medium (1099). Thus, 1-indanone and formaldehyde react rapidly in DMSO to yield 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)-1-indanone:
O O
CH2OH
KOH, DMSO
CH2OH
room temperature 70%
5 min.
Fluorene and o- and p-nitrotoluene react similarly with paraformaldehyde in an aldol like addition in DMSO under the
influence of a strong base to give hydroxymethyl compounds (1100).

69
 Racemic 2-(o-formylphenoxy)propiophenone can be prepared in 79% yield from equivalent amounts of a sodium salt of salicylaldehyde
and 2-bromopropiophenone in DMSO. When the reaction product is kept in DMSO in the presence of quinine, two optically active
diastereomeric ketols result (5613):
H
CHO CHO
O DMSO
+ H3C DMSO
Ph OH
Ph
Br Ph OC
ONa O OC
79% O
CH3 CH3

The reaction of 1-hydroxy-2,2,5-trimethyl-3,4-hexadione with paraformaldehyde in DMSO in the presence of potassium hydroxide gives
1,6-dihydroxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-3,4-hexadione (6028):
O O O O
KOH, DMSO
+ 2HCHO
20oC, 24 hrs
HO OH 85%

2-Carbomethoxycyclohexanone condenses with 3-pent-2-one in DMSO in the presence of sodium methoxide to give methyl 4-methyl-1
(9)-octal-2-one-1O-carboxylate (4048):
H3CO2C CO2CH3
NaOCH3, DMSO
+

O O 29oC
O

The reaction of pentafIuoracetophenone with methyl benzoate in the presence of sodium hydride in DMSO is the best way to the
diketone (3376):
NaH, DMSO P hCO2R C6F6COCH2COPh
C6F6COCH3 C6F6COCH2
o
35 C, 24hrs 60%

b) Ester condensation
The esters of carboxylic acids react with the dimsyl ion in DMSO to yield ȕ -keto sulfoxides (639)(1651):
O H
RCO2R' + 2H2CSOCH3 RCOCHSOCH3 SOCH3 + R'O- + DMSO
R
This condensation reaction has found a fairly wide application in the synthesis of useful intermediates. Thus, a number of benzoic acid
-
esters can be reacted with the dimsyl ion in DMSO to give the corresponding ȕ -keto sulfoxides (9150):
H3CO OCH3
O
DMSO O
H3CO CO2CH3+ 2H2CSOCH3 OCH3
S
20-25oC, 0.5 hr
H3C
H3CO 70% OCH3

Ethyl salicylate reacts with 3.2 equivalents of dimsyl ion to give the ȕ -keto sulfoxides (9196):
O O
CO2C2H5 S
DMSO CH3
+ 2H2CSOCH3
92%
OH OH

A number of ȕ-keto sulfoxides have been prepared by condensing the dimsyl ion with substituted phenyl or naphthyl esters
(9249)(9402). Thus, ethyl 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate reacts with the dimsyl ion to give 3'-hydroxy-2-(methylsulfinyl)-2'-acetonaphthone
(9244):
OH OH O O
CO2C2H5 S
CH3
+ 2H2CSOCH3
64%

70
Ethyl isovalerate gives methyl sulfinyl methyl isobutyl ketone (9825):
O O
DMSO
(H3C)2CHCH2CO2C2H5 + H2CSOCH3 (H3C)2CHCH2CCH2SCH3
0oC
1/2-1 hr.

The preparation and synthetic applications of ȕ-keto-suIfoxides have been reviewed (4820)(8529).
Symmetrical ȕ -diketones are readily prepared by reacting methyl esters with methyl ketones in DMSO with sodium hydride as the base
(193) :
O O
DMSO
RCOCH3 + RCO2CH3 + 2NaH
CR CH2CR
75-83%

The yield is increased from 36% to 83% by using sodium hydride in DMSO instead of sodium methoxide in toluene.
In the presence of zinc-DMSO, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl esters of Į -substituted ȕ -keto acids react stereospecifically at the Į -carbon to the
ester carbonyl with aldehydes to give aldols in good yields (8833):
O R' O OH

C CH Zn, DM SO
+ OHCR"
25oC R CHR"
R CO2CH3CCl3 48-92%
R'
Cyclohexanediones-1,3 are prepared in good selectivity by reacting an Į , ȕ-unsaturated carboxylic acid ester with a ketone in the
presence of a strong base in DMSO (8717):
CH3

O
NaOCH 3
H2C=CHCO 2CH 3 + CH3COC 2H5
50oC, 1/2 hr.

O
c) Dieckmann condensation-cyclization
The Dieckmann condensation of dimethyl-l -methylcyclohexane 1,2-diacetate with sodium hydride in DMSO furnishes a crystalline keto
ester (6593):
CO2CH3
CO2CH3 NaH, DM SO

CO2CH3 O
85oC
CH3 4 hrs.
CH3

68%

ReDFWLRQRIGLHWK\OȊ-ketopimelate with an excess of methylenetriphenylphosphorane in DMSO provides for the introduction of an

exocyclic methylene group and subsequent Dieckmann condensation to the carbethoxycyclohexanone (6648):
O CH2

+-
Ph3PCH2, DMSO

C2H5O2C CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5

60%
O

71!
 !
d) Mannich reaction
A ȕ -keto carboxylic acid reacts with formaldehyde-piperidine hydrochloride in DMSO to give the corresponding Į ±methylene ketone in
excellent yield (6463)(8888):

O O
O

+ - DM SO
+ HCHO + NH2Cl
20oC
O O
2 hrs. O
CO2H CH2 N HCl 65%
CH2

The first step in the reaction is probably decarboxylation. The Mannich reaction product is most likely formed, but it loses piperidine
hydrochloride in the highly polar reaction medium.
The "Mannich reagent", dimethyl (methylene)ammonium iodide, reacts with enol borinates in DMSO-THF to provide excellent yields of ȕ -
dimethylamino ketones (6671):
O
(R)2BO R CH3
DM SO-THF CH3
+ N I- R' N
Room temp. 80-100%
R' CH3 3 hours
R CH3
e) Michael condensation
The reaction of methyl Į-bromo- ȕ-methoxypropionate (I) with sodium nitrite in DMSO in the presence of phloroglucinol gives dimethyl
Į -methoxymethyl- Į , Į'-dinitrogluturate (IV), which is formed from methyl Į - nitro - ȕ cnethoxypropionate (II) and methyl Į -
nitroacrylate (III) by Michael addition (664):
phloroglucinol.
H3COCH2 CHCO2CH3 + NaNO2 DMSO -MeOH
H3COCH2 CHCO2CH3
Br
I NO2
II

CO2CH3
CH2 C CO2CH3 H2
+ II H3COCH2 C C CHCO2CH3
O2N
NO2 NO2
III
IV

Double Michael reaction of 3-methyl-4-methylene-cyclohex-2-enone with dimethyl 3-oxoglutarate in DMSO in the presence of potassium
fluoride as a catalyst gives a mixture of the stereomeric diketodiesters (9746):
O CO2CH3
OH
O
KF, DM SO
+ H2C CHCO2CH2CH2OH
55-60oC
2 days CO2CH3
CH2
Michael addition of carbazole to 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate in DMSO in the presence of 1,8-diazobicyclo[5.4.0]-7undecene (DBU) takes
place under mild conditions (10091):
DBU, DMSO
+ H2C=CHCO 2CH 2CH 2OH
room temp.
48 hours
N N

H CH 2CH 2CO 2CH 2CH 2OH

Michael-type polyaddition of dithiols to divinylsulfoxide in DMSO leads to the formation of poly(sulfinylethylene-thioalkene (or
arylene)thioethylene)s (10443):

72!
 !

Et3N, DM SO
H2C CH-SO-CH=CH2 + HSRSH [CH2CH2-SO-CH2CH2-S-R-S] n
60o
12hrs.

f) Reformatsky reaction
Bromonitriles, when treated with zinc in DMSO-THF, yield an intermediate organozinc compound. ȕ - Hydroxynitriles are then prepared
from this intermediate and aliphatic aldehydes and ketones (4767):
O
R R R'" R'
DMSO-THF "R C R'"
R' C C+Zn R' C CN "R C C CN

Br ZnBr OH R
30-66%
g) Thorpe-Ziegler condensation
1,4-Dinitriles, which can be prepared from dihalides or ditosylates and sodium cyanide in DMSO, can be cyclized directly to ȕ-enamino
nitriles in very high yields (477)(6163):
CN

OTs DMSO NaH, DMSO

+ NaCN CN NH2
OTs 95oC 95oC
CN
1 hr. 1 hr. 92%

The cyclization of 1,2-di-(cyanomethoxy) benzene with dimsyl ion (sodamide + DMSO) in DMSO produces 3-amino-4-cyano-2H-1,5-
benzodioxepin (8690)(9145):
OCH 2CN CN
H2CSOCH 3, DMSO O

NH2
room temp.
OCH 2CN 3 hours
92% O

h) Ullmann-type condensations
lodofluoroalkanes react with aryl iodides in DMSO in the presence of copper to give arylfluoroalkanes (5185)
(7293):
I R'
Cu, DMSO
+ IR'
100-150oC.

R R
R = CF3, n-C3F7, etc. 45-70%

i) Wittig reaction
The reaction of a tertiary phosphine (usually triphenylphosphine) with an alkyl halide to yield a phosphonium salt can be done in DMSO
(4669). DMSO also seems to be a good solvent for these salts. In these phosphonium salts, the Į C-H bonds are sufficiently acidic
(5551) for the hydrogen to be removed by a strong base in DMSO, e.g. an organolithium compound (4110), sodium hydride or the dimsyl
ion (8360), to produce a phosphorus ylide (a phosphorane), the so-called Wittig reagent. Subsequent reactions of these ylides with
aldehydes, ketones or hemiacetals in DMSO offer a useful synthesis for olefins. The overall reaction can be written as follows
(49)(240)(5551):

DMSO DMSO + - R2CO, DMSO

Ph3P + RCH2X Ph3P + CH2RX- Ph3P-CHR R2C=CHR
base
As mentioned above, the Wittig reaction converts carbonyl compounds to olefins. Thus, the reaction of formaldehyde and the
phosphorane derived from 1 ,5-bis(triphenylphosphoniomethyl)naphthalene dibromide in DMSO gives 1,5-divinylnaphthalene (7641):

73!
 !
+ CH=CH 2
CH 2PPh3Br - CH=PPh 3

CH 2SOCH3, DMSO DMSO

+ HCHO room temperature
room temperature overnight
2.5 hours
64%
CH 2PPh3Br - CH=PPh 3 CH=CH 2

Ketones react with phosphoranes in a way similar to aldehydes. Verbinone with methylidenetriphosphorane in DMSO yields
methylenedihydroterpine (7476):
O CH 2

+ n-BuLi, DMSO DMSO

Ph3PCH3I- Ph3P=CH2 +
reflux
overnight

Lactols (hemiacetals) can also be reacted with a Wittig reagent (7691). Treatment of a lactol with a Wittig reagent derived from 5-
triphenylphosphovalerate ion in DMSO gives the corresponding hydroxy acid (7729):
OH
OH
O
CH 2CH (CH2)3CO 2H
DMSO
+ Ph3P=CH(CH 2)3CO 2H

R
R

It has also been found that aromatic and aliphatic esters can be directly converted to the corresponding isopropenyl compounds by
reaction with methylenetriphenylphosphorane in DMSO (10078):
O CHR"
DMSO
R C OR' + 4PH3P=CHR" +3Na+CH2-SOCH3 R C CH2R"

OXIDATION REACTIONS
These are reactions in which oxygen combines chemically with another substance or reactions in which electrons are transferred from
one substance to another. DMSO in these reactions, with a few exceptions, is a solvent and not a reactant, i.e. it gets neither reduced
nor oxidized.
Many different reactions using oxygen have been conducted in DMSO, such as autoxidation (also chemiluminescence),
dehydrogenation, hypohalite reactions, lead tetraacetate oxidation, silver compound oxidations, superoxide and peroxide oxidations and
others not discussed here (e.g. electrooxidation, periodic acid oxidations, manganese dioxide oxidations, sulfur dioxide oxidations).
a) Autoxidation
The base-catalyzed oxidation of a number of compounds by oxygen in DMSO-t-butanol mixtures has been studied extensively.
Formation of the carbanion of the substrate usually precedes the oxidation. The rate of carbanion formation and oxidation increases as
the DMSO content is increased (728).

In the solution DMSO-t-butanol-potassium t-butoxide, a number of hydrocarbons can be oxidized easily. Thus, triphenylmethane
reacts with oxygen in the above system to form triphenylcarbinol (479):
DM SO-t-BuOH-t-BuOK
Ph3CH + O2 Ph3COH
room temp. 96%
20 min.

Aniline under the above conditions gives azobenzene (469):

DM SO-t-BuOH-t-BuOK
PhNH2 + O2 PhN=NPh
room temp.
1 hr.

Ketones in DMSO-potassium t-butoxide are oxidized to semidiones (1787):

74!
 !
O
.
H t-BuOK, DM SO H -
O + O2 O
R R

Some ketones can also be oxidized to the carboxy compounds (9707).

When nitrotoluenes are oxidized in DMSO-potassium t-butoxide, dimers or acidic products can be formed (568). Thus, the autoxidation of
o- and p-nitrotoluene in DMSO under basic conditions result in the formation of 1,2-di(nitrophenyl)ethanol, presumably via the
corresponding nitrobenzaldehydes (4812):
OH
CH3
KOH, DM SO
+ O2
O2N
NO2

NO2

The above dimers can be further oxidized to ketones, or dehydrated to nitrostilbenes (4812).
The autoxidation of 1- and 3-arylpropenes has been induced with the DMSO-t-butanol system containing potassium t-butoxide. The
autoxidation of safrole gives piperonylic acid. Without DMSO, no oxidation takes place (1140):

O CO2H
O
DM SO-t-BuOH-t-BuOK
+ O2
O 42%
O

In the presence of alkali metal hydroxides, it is possible to oxidize various substituted methanes, such as Į, Į-diphenyl-2-pyridenemethane,
to the corresponding alcohols using air or oxygen and DMSO as the sole solvent (6971):

R R
NaOH, DMSO
R' C H + O2 R' C OH

R" R"

1,2,5,6-Dibenzanthracene and several other aromatic hydrocarbons are oxidized to the corresponding quinone derivatives in basic
DMSO (5587).
Autoxidation of 1 -methyl-2-isopropyl-5-nitroimidozole in DMSO with air or oxygen in the presence of a base gives 2-(2-hydroxy-2-
propyl)-1-methyl-5-nitroimidazole (8867):
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3
N
NO2 C KOR, DM SO N
+ O2 NO2 C OH
CH3
CH3
N N

Base catalyzed autoxidation of ethyl 2-cyano 3,3-disubstituted carboxylates in DMSO gives good yields of the 2-oxo esters (3662):

R CN R O
DMSO, t-BuOH, T-BuOK
R' C CHCO2C2H5+ O2 R'C C CHCO2C2H5

R R

The system cobalt (II) and/or (III) acetylacetonate-t-butyl hydroperoxide has been used to initiate autoxidation of polyvinyl alcohol) in
DMSO (8043).
9,10-Dihydroanthracene can be oxidized to anthraquinone with oxygen in DMSO containing an inorganic base, such as sodium
hydroxide (2940).

75!
 !
b) Chemiluminescence
Chemiluminescence reactions are very similar to autoxidation. Both these reactions require oxygen and the presence of a strong base.
Chemiluminescence reactions can be classified as special autoxidation reactions that produce light emissions. As the basicity of
alkoxides and hydroxides is enormously enhanced in DMSO over the value of hydroxylic solvents, it has also been observed with
chemiluminescence reactions that the emission periods have been increased and the light intensities enhanced in DMSO containing a
base (1025).
A bright green light is observed on the treatment of a solution of 2,3-dimethylindoie and its hydroperoxide in DMSO with a base, e.g.
potassium t-butoxide or granular potassium hydroxide (2140)(2218):

CH3
CH3

CH3 + O2 OOH base, DMSO

KOH, DM SO
CH3
N
N
H O

CCH3

+ light
N CCH3
H
O

When DMSO, luminol, water and caustic solution are shaken in the presence of oxygen from air, an oxidation reaction produces
considerable bright blue-green light. The reaction sequence can be represented as follows (3241):

O O

NH
DM SO N- DM SO
+ 2NaOH + O2
-
N
NH

H2N O
NH2 O

O O

N- O- N2
+ + light
N O2 - O-

NH2 O NH2 O

Some derivatives of luminol, containing methoxyl groups, are more efficient in chemiluminescence in DMSO solution than luminol itself
(1668).

The reaction of potassium cyanide with N-methylacridinium chloride in 90% DMSO-10% water produces Nmethyl-90-cyanoacridan. With
excess cyanide, the red N-methyl-9-cyanoacridanide ion is produced which, in the presence of oxygen, produces N-methylacridone and
potassium cyanate with light emissions (3653):

CN
O

DMSO-H2O KCN, DMSO

+ KCN
+ O2
N
+
CH 3Cl- N
CH 3 + HOCN + light N CH 3

The chemiluminescence emission spectra of two efficient chemiluminescent linear hydrazides in DMSO with potassium t-butoxide and
oxygen suggest that the corresponding acid anion is the light emitter (5116):
76!
 !
O O O
t-BuOK, DMSO O2, DMSO
R CNHNN 2 R C-N-HNN 2 R CNNH
O O
t-BuOK, DMSO
R CN=N - RC- + light

c) Other oxidations with oxygen

Carbonyl compounds can be manufactured by oxidation of olefins, such as ethylene, propylene, styrene, and cyclohexane, in water-
DMSO mixture in the presence of a catalyst to give acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, propanol, acetophenone and others (5800).
DMSO can be used as a catalyst component in the oxidation of olefins, e.g. DMSO can be a coordinate in complexes such as
Cu(ClO4)2(DMSO)4, or Fe(ClO4),(DMSO)4, (9412).
4
3-Oxo- ǻ -(19)-norsteroids react with oxygen in DMSO to afford 1,3,5-(10)-oestratrien-6-ones (5912):

KOAc, DMSO
+ O2
100-120oC
O OH
4 hours
O
15-48%

The liquid phase oxidation of s-butanol with oxygen under pressure has been examined in various solvents using vanadium pentoxide-
°
molybdenum trioxide catalyst While no reaction occurs in water, benzene, or chlorobenzene, the oxidation in DMSO at 125 C for 13 hours
converts 10.8% of s-butanol to methyl ethyl ketone with a selectivity of 89% (9434).
°
Terpenes can be oxidized with dry air in DMSO. Thus, Į -longipinene is oxidized at 125-135 C to longiverbone as the major product
°
(9871), and p-mentha-1,4(8)- and -2,4(8)- dienes at 100 C give p-methylacetophenone (9874).
In neutral solution, benzyl alcohols can be oxidized by oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet light to give the corresponding aldehydes
(737)(1118):

UV, DMSO
C6H5CH2OH + O2 C6H5CHO + C 6H5CO2H
room temp.
48.7% 12.6%

The oxidation of benzoin by cupric sulfate and oxygen in DMSO occurs to give a high yield of benzil (945):
O
O
CuSO4, DMSO
Ph
HO + O2
90-100 o
C Ph 97%
Ph
1 hour O
Ph

d) Dehydrogenation
In the dehydrogenation reaction, oxidation (i.e., the removal of hydrogen) can take place without the presence of oxygen.
Several platenoid metal catalysts in DMSO promote dehydration, disproportionation and dehydrogenation of diarylcarbinols (10422). The
dehydrogenation can be the main reaction when DMSO is used as the solvent instead of Į -methylnaphthalene (8838):

RuCl 2(PPh3)3, DMSO

R2CHOH R2C=O + H2

Dihydroarenes, e.g. 1,2-dihydronaphthalene, can be converted into the corresponding aromatic compounds, e.g. naphthalene, by
deprotonation with potassium fencholate, followed by dehydration with fenchone (2-oxo-1,3,4-trimethylbicyclo [2.2.1 ]-heptane) (9707):

H
O-, DMSO
+ +
90o H
O OH
95%

77!
 !
5,7,4'-Trimethoxyflavanone, when heated with DMSO in the presence of a catalytic amount of iodine and concentrated sulfuric acid,
gives 5,7,4'-trimethoxyflavone in almost quantitative yield (10,000):

OCH 3 O
OCH 3 O OCH 3
I2, H2SO4, DMSO
OCH 3

OCH 3 O
OCH 3 O
A solution of sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid in DMSO oxidizes primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols to ketones. In
these oxidations, DMSO acts as a solvent and not as a reactant (7609):

R R
Na2Cr2O7, DMSO, H2SO4
CH-OH C=O
R R
80-90%
e) Hypohalite oxidations
Halogenations with sodium hypohalites of alkyl - or arylamidines and isoureas in DMSO solution afford the corresponding alkyl-, aryl- or
alkoxy-3-halodiazirines in practical yields (843):
NH R N
NaOX, DMSO C
R-C-HN 2
25-55oC
X N
3-haloazirine, 60%

Oxidative cyclization of trifluoroacetamidine with hypochlorite and chloride ion in aqueous DMSO gives the corresponding diazirine
(8108):
&% #!" &
$(#)*+,-#)*+./0($% '(
!"#$#$%& ' #
#) &

f) Lead tetraacetate oxidations

Polysaccharides, such as dextran and amylose, can be oxidized by lead tetraacetate in DMSO if 15-20% of glacial acetic acid is added
to prevent oxidation of the solvent. This oxidation proceeds at a rate which is several times faster than the periodate oxidation in
aqueous solution. Polysaccharides oxidized by lead tetraacetate contain free aldehyde groups. Oxidation follows the normal glycol-
cleavage pattern (615).

Oxidation of 1 -amino-3,4,5,6-tetraphenyl-2-pyridone with lead tetraacetate in DMSO gives the corresponding 5,5-dimethyl-N-
sulfoximide, indicating that DMSO is an efficient trap for N-nitrenes (4987):
12 12
12
12 12 12 12
12 12
./0(
134(567 8*+./0(
9::;+<=;>? & 12 & (
12 & ( 12 (
@+2:A9
&B & 04#%"7'
&
(

Similarly, lead tetraacetate oxidation of N-aminolactams in the presence of DMSO gives the sulfoximides in good yields (5846):
%"#
134(5678*+./0(
C'&$&%'+D+./0( C'&$& 0 (

%"#

Oxidation of aminonaphth[2,3-b]azet-2(1 H) -one by lead tetraacetate in DMSO leads to 2-naphthoic acid

(6243):

78!
 !
( #('%
134(5678*+./0(
&C

Treatment of a dicarboxylic acid (prepared from the Diels-Alder adduct of dimethyl - cyclobut-1-ene-1,2dicarboxylate with butadiene) with
lead tetraacetate in DMSO containing pyridine gives a product which is mainly bicyclo [4,1,0]octa-1(6),3-diene, with a small amount of
benzocyclobutene (7533):
CO2H
Pb(OAc)4, DMSO, pyridine
+

CO2H

g) Silver compound oxidations

A number of alcohols, e.g. methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, isoborneol, can be oxidized by argentic picolinate to yield the corresponding
aldehydes or ketones, i.e., formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, camphor. The rate of reaction is influenced by the solvent,
and the use of DMSO leads to a more rapid reaction (2915):
DMSO
R'RCHOH + 2Ag(pic)2 R'RC=O + 2Ag(pic) + 2 pic-H
40-70oC
66-80%
10-15 min.

Oxidation of menaquinol-1 dimethyl ether with silver picolinate in DMSO gives the desired alcohol (4653):
OCH 3 OCH 3

CH3 Ag++ picolinate, DMSO CH2OH

R 80oC R
25%
30 min.
OCH 3 OCH 3

Reaction of 1,2-diphenyl-2-[(phenyl)methylamino]vinyl chloride with silver (II) oxide in DMSO gives benzil (5843):

Ph Cl Ag 2O, DMSO Ph Ph

reflux O O
PhMeN Ph
1 1/2 hr. 95%

In boiling nitromethane with silver tetratluoroborate, the yield of benzil is only 60% (5843).
Bromoalkyl formates are easily converted to protected secondary hydroxyaldehydes by treatment with silver tetrafluoroborate in DMSO
in the presence of triethylamine (7507):
OCHO OCHO
AgBF 4, DMSO, Et3, N
H3C-CH-(CH 2)nCH 2Br H3C-CH-(CH 2)nCHO
-5 to -20oC 50-90%
24 - 120 hrs.

The use of silver nitrate in DMSO on a 3-chloro-7-hydroxy-1 7-oxo-androstane accomplishes two purposes. It oxidizes the 7-hydroxy
group to the 7-oxo group, and it dehydrohalogenates the steroid (8340):

79!
 !

AgNO 3, DMSO

reflux
Cl OH 52% O

17 Į-Ethynyl-17 ȕ-hydroxysteroids are converted quantitatively to the corresponding 17-ketones by treatment with excess silver
carbonate or silver oxide in DMSO (7460):
OH O
C C-R'

Ag 2CO3, DMSO

OR

Dimethyl esters of monoalkylated malonic acids and ȕ-keto esters are easily oxidatively dimerized by silver oxide in DMSO (8830),
e.g.:
CO2R' R'O2C CO2R'
Ag 2O, DMSO
R-CH R C C R
CO2R'' 70-80oC CO2R' CO2R'
70-90 %

h) Superoxide and peroxide oxidations

Secondary amines are instantaneously oxidized to dialkylnitroxides by potassium superoxide in DMSO (6293):
DMSO -
R2NH+O 2- R2N-O + OH

Alcohols are the major end products resulting from the reaction of alkyl halides and tosylates with an excess of potassium superoxide in
DMSO in a rapid process in which the C-O bond-forming step proceeds with inversion of configuration (8030):
C6H13 C6H13
KO 2, DMSO
H C X OH C H
25oC
75 min.
CH3 CH3
X = Cl, Br, I, OTs

With 1 -bromooctane, the yield of 1 -octanol is 63%.

Phenolic compounds are prepared by oxidation of aromatic hydrocarbons with organic hydroperoxides in the presence of boron oxide,
meta- or orthoboric acid ortheir lower alkyl esters, and DMSO. Thus, DMSO is added to a mixture of m-xylene, tetralin hydroperoxide and
boron oxide to give 38:62 ratio of 2,6- and 2,4-xylenol, dihydronaphthalene and tetralone (8658).

REDUCTION REACTIONS
These are reactions in which hydrogen is added or oxygen or a halogen is removed. DMSO can be either a solvent or a catalyst
component.
Although DMSO can be either oxidized or reduced, it is comparatively stable toward both changes and hence can be used as a solvent
for many oxidation-reduction reactions. In polarography studies using tetraethylammonium perchlorate electrolyte, the usable potentials
range from +0.3 volts anode potential to-2.8 volts cathode potential (both relative to the standard calomel electrode) (553)(772). In
general, the halfwave potentials for inorganic ions in DMSO are quite similar to those in aqueous solutions (553). However, a more
negative cathode potential is usable in DMSO as shown by the observation of the magnesium wave at -2.20 volts. Lithium metal is inert
toward DMSO (206). The electrodeposition of cerium cannot be accomplished in aqueous solution because the metal is too positive but it
can be deposited from a DMSO solution of cerium chloride (1744). The transfer of electrons between molecules of redox systems
sometimes occurs very readily in DMSO as observed for isotope exchange between ferrous and ferric perchlorates (1036)(923) and in
80!
 !
the base-catalyzed transfer of electrons between unsaturated organic molecules and their dihydro derivatives (722).

1. Reduction of Alkyl Halides and Sulfonates

a) Reduction with sodium borohydride

the selective substitution of hydrogen for primary, secondary or, in certain cases, tertiary halogen (or sulfonate) in alkyl halides without
reduction of other functional groups present in the molecule may be effected by reduction with sodium borohydride in DMSO
(2980)(3248):
R NaBH4, DMSO R

R1 C-X R1 C-H
11
R 25-100oC 11
R
X=Cl, Br, I, tosylate

Sodium borohydride in DMSO is a convenient source of a nucleophilic hydride which may be used for the reductive displacement of
primary and secondary alkyl halides, or sulfonate esters (e.g. tosylates). The mildness of borohydrides allows a number of chemoselective
transformations without damage to groups (e.g. COOR, COOH, CN, NO2) normally affected by harsher reagents such as lithium aluminum
hydride (9783).
The reduction of optically active tertiary alkyl halides with sodium borohydride in DMSO proceeds with racemization, presumably via an
elimination-addition mechanism (3519):
NaBH 4, DMSO BH3/H+, DMSO
R-Cl R(ene) RH

4-Nitro-2-chloromethyl-1-isopropylbenzene can be reduced with sodium borohydride in DMSO in good yield (4602):

CH 3
CH 2Cl
(H3C)2HC
(H3C)2HC
NaBH 4, DMSO
room temp.
NO2
NO2 3 1/2 hrs.
82%

An iodo-tosylate can be reduced with sodium borohydride in DMSO to give one major product, a cyclopentadiene (6502):

CH 2I CH 3

NaBH 4, DMSO
100o C.
OTs 27 hrs.

In the above case, both reduction of the iodide and elimination of the tosylate take place.
Sodium borohydride in DMSO selectively reduces 2-chloro-4-chloromethyl naphthalene to 1-chloro-4methylnaphthalene (6785):
Cl Cl

NaBH 4, DMSO

room temp.
2 hours
72%
CH 2Cl CH 3

Sodium borohydride in DMSO-water reacts with Į , Į , Į , Į¶Į¶Į¶-hexachloro-p-xylene to give an insoluble polymer (7205):

81!
 !

NaBH 4, DMSO-H2O Cl Cl Cl Cl
CCl 3 CCl 3 C C C C
25oC Cl Cl Cl Cl n

c) Reductions with chromous ion

Reduction of Į, Į-dichlorobenzyl benzyl sulfoxide to a mixture of diastereomeric Į-chlorobenzylbenzyl sulfoxide can be carried out by
chromous ion in aqueous DMSO (6972):
O O
Cl S CrCl2, aq. DMSO Cl S
Cl room temp
Ar Ar Ar Ar

The use of n-butanethiol and chromium (II) acetate in DMSO in the reduction of a 5 Į-bromo-6 ȕ-hydroxysteroid permits the removal of
the bromine and the isolation of the 6 ȕ-hydroxy-steroid (6825)(6970):

Cr(OAc)2, n-BuSH, DMSO

OAc OAc
Br H
OH OH

c) Reduction with dimsyl ion

Treatment of 8,8-dibromobicyclo[5,1,0]octane with dimsyl sodium in DMSO produces exo-8-bromobicyclo [5,1,0]octane (454)(3009):

Br H2CSOCH 3, DMSO Br

Br H

d) Reductions with hydrazine

Hydrazine can reduce meso-1,2-stilbene dibromide in DMSO to Į -bromostilbene and some bibenzyl (6509):
DMSO
PhCHBrCHBrPh + N2H4 PhCH=CBrPh + PhCH2CH2Ph
66% 18%

e) Reductions by electrolysis
Controlled potential electrolysis of 2,4-dibromopentanes in DMSO containing tetraethylammonium bromide (TEAB) gives cis- and trans-
dimethylcyclopropanes and small quantities of 1-pentene, 2-pentene and n-pentane (4492)(6659):
H3C H3C

H3C
Br Br
- +
2e , TEAB, DMSO
Br Br H3C CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH=CH 2 + CH3CH2CH=CHCH 3 + CH3(CH2)3CH3

2. Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds

Carbonyl compounds, aldehydes and ketones in DMSO can be reduced by electrochemical means or by Wolff-Kishner reduction of the
corresponding hydrazones.

a) Reductions with borohydrides

The kinetics of the reduction of acetone, pivalaldehyde, (H 3C)3CCHO, and benzaldehyde by sodium borohydride and
tetramethylammonium borohydride have been determined in DMSO-water systems. The reactions obey 2nd order kinetics (8953):

DMSO
4R2CO + BH4- + H2O R2CHOH + B(OH) 4-
82!
 !

The reduction product of benzaldehyde in DMSO is NaB(OCH2Ph)4, which is readily hydrolyzed to benzyl alcohol, PhCH 2OH (8953).
When benzaldehyde is reduced in DMSO and DMSO-water mixtures of tritiated sodium borohydride, the reduction is accompanied by
the incorporation of tritium into the aldehyde group of unchanged benzaldehyde (8954).

b) Catalytic reduction
The mechanism of reduction of cyclic ketones by the system iridium(III) salt-sulfoxide-isopropyl alcohol has been investigated. With 4-t-
butyl cyclohexanone, a 97% conversion to 4-t-butylcyclohexanol, with a cis/trans ratio of 1.50, can be achieved with DMSO as the
sulfoxide (4436):

IrCl3-i-Pr-DMSO OH
O

97% conversion
An unusually selective hydrogenation of Į , ȕ-unsaturated aldehydes to the unsaturated alcohols has been accomplished catalytically
under mild conditions using the iridium complex HlrCl 2(DMSO)3 in isopropanol, the solvent being the source of hydrogen (9752):
HlrCl 2(DMSO)2
RCH=CHCHO + H 2 RCH=CHCH 2OH

c) Electrochemical reduction
The electrochemical reduction of carbonyl compounds, particularly ketones and diketones, has been studied in DMSO (2567)(3217).
The reduction of 1,3-diphenyl-1,3-propanedione in DMSO proceeds by an overall 0.5 electron process (5971):
OH O
OH O
H2
Ph C C C Ph OH O
DMSO
4Ph-C=CH-C-Ph +2e H2 + H
Ph C C Ph Ph2 C C C Ph

OH O
dimeric pinacol enolate anion

d) Wolff-Kishner reduction
The Wolff-Kishner reduction, the reaction of hydrazones of aldehydes and ketones with a base to produce the corresponding
hydrocarbons, has been run in DMSO (495)(377):
t-BuOK, DMSO
Ph2C=NNH 2 Ph2CH 2+N2
25o C 90%
8 hours
benzophenone diphenyl methane
hydrazone

The Wolff-Kishner reduction in DMSO has been carried out in the presence of potassium t-butoxide, dimsyl sodium, and other base
catalysts, and the activation parameters have been determined (8735). The Wolff-Kishner reaction mechanism in DMSO has been
reviewed (1942)(3048).

3. Reduction of nitroaromatics
The reduction of aromatic nitro compounds with sodium borohydride in DMSO initially produces the azoxy compounds which, in most
cases, are subsequently reduced to the corresponding azo derivatives and amines (4946), e.g.:

NaBH4, DMSO
PhNO2 Ph-N=N-Ph Ph-N=N-Ph PhNH2
o
85-100 C
O

nitrobenzene azoxybenzene azobenzene aniline

In the case of o-nitroanisole, 63% of o-methoxyaniline and 23 % of the azobenzene are produced.
Nitroaromatics are selectively hydrogenated in neutral media in the presence of precious metal catalysts and DMSO to produce N-
arylhydroxyamines in high yield. Thus, nitrobenzene in the presence of platinum on carbon and DMSO yields hydroxylamine and phenyl
aniline (5663):

83!
 !

Pt/C-DMSO
PhNO2 + [H] PhNHOH+ PhC6H4NH2
ethanol
room temp. 86% 13%

Catalysts of noble metals on activated carbon can be subjected to the action of DM SO together with hydrazine or its derivatives. The
hydrogenation of 2-chloronitrobenzene in the presence of platinum on carbon and DMSO gives a high yield of 2-chloroaniline (8118):
Cl Cl
NO2 NH2
Pt/C-DMSO
+ [H]
hydrazine

Similarly, the reduction of nitrobenzene with hydrogen over platinum oxide in alcohol (methanol or ethanol)sulfuric acid in the
presence of DMSO produces p-alkoxyaniline (9294)(9581):
PtO2, DMSO
NO2 + [H] OR NH2
ROH- H2SO4

4. Reduction of C=C Systems

The electrochemical reduction of several aryl Į , ȕ -unsaturated ketones, C6H5CH=CHCOR, has been studied at mercury cathodes by the
techniques of polarography, controlled potential coulometry and cyclic voltammetry. Conditions have been established under which a
dimer of the Į, ȕ-unsaturated ketones is formed by coupling at the ȕ-carbon atoms in good yields. A suitable medium for the reduction is
tetra-n-butylammonium perchlorate in DMSO with added lithium perchlorate (4253), e.g.:
H COR Ph CH 2COR
75%

Ph H LiCO 4, DMSO-H2O Ph CH 2COR

R = t-butyl
Diimide, generated by the sodium metaperiodate oxidation of hydrazine in DMSO, is a particularly useful reducing system for olefins or
compounds which contain readily oxidized functional groups (4392), e.g. maleic anhydride can be reduced to succinic anhydride:

O O
HC C HN=NH, DMSO H2C C
O O
HC C H2C C
O 95% O
A thiophene derivative is reduced the same way (4392):
SCH3 SCH3

S HN=NH, DMSO S

CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5

Allylbenzene can be hydrogenated by chloro(DMSO)palladium complexes (5526):

PhCH2CH=CH 2 + [H] (DMSO)2 PdCl2
PhCH2CH2CH3

In the presence of the same catalyst, 1 -pentene is converted to isomers more rapidly than without the catalyst and the bond migration of
the pentene is more rapid than its hydrogenation (5630).
Double bonds in some Į, ȕ-unsaturated ketones are reduced by propen-2-ol in the presence of soluble iridium-DMSO catalysts (7031):

i-PrOH, H[IrCl 4(DMSO)2]

PhCOCH=CHPh PhCOCH2CH2Ph
73o C 95%

Acrylic acid and its derivatives can be dimerized in high yields by means of alkali metal amalgam in DMSO-water. Acrylonitrile gives
adiponitrile (4907):

84!
 !
Na amalgam, DMSO-H2O
2 CH2=CHCN NC(CH 2)4CN
95%

Diethyl fumarate, C2H5O2CCH=CHCO2C2H5, can be dimerized by electrochemical reduction (7331).

SOLVOLYTIC REACTIONS
These are reactions in which the elements of water (also alcohols or amines) are added, usually with the formation of two new
substances.
1. Hydrolysis
The DMSO-water system has been used in many hydrolysis reactions. The rates of base catalyzed reactions usually increase as the mole
fraction of DMSO in the mixture increases, and the increase is particularly rapid above 0.7 mole fraction of DMSO
(336)(367)(369)(464)(726)(730). The opposite is sometimes true in the case of hydrolysis in the presence of acids. The rate of acid
hydrolysis decreases as the mole fraction of DMSO is increased, particularly above 25-30% DMSO (368). A similar decrease is seen for
the acid catalyzed hydrolysis of acetals (742) and the reaction of tert-butyl chloride with aqueous DMSO (431)(1028)(1521).

a) Aliphatic halide hydrolysis

The alkaline hydrolysis of alkyl halides has been studied in DMSO-water (329)(432)(2583)(4846). In the alkaline hydrolysis of methyl
6 7
iodide, DMSO exerts a strong accelerating effect. The rate of the hydroxyl ion catalyzed reaction in DMSO is up to 10 -10 times the rate in
water (329).
The rate constants for the reaction of hydroxyl ion with benzyl chlorides in acetone-water decrease with increasing acetone concentration
while the rates increase with increasing DMSO concentration in DMSO-water (432).
The rate of alkaline hydrolysis of chloroacetic acid increases with increasing concentration of the organic component in acetone-water,
THF-water, dioxane-water and DMSO-water. However, the increase is greatest in DMSO-water (2583).
Alcohols can be prepared from alkyl halides in DMSO-water in the presence of a base. Thus, octanol is obtained from octyl chloride and
calcium hydroxide in DMSO-water at reflux (4846):
DMSO-H2O
Octyl chloride +Ca(OH)2 Octanol
reflux 92%
4 hrs.
Solvolysis of 2-adamantyl bromide and Į-chloroethylbenzene decreases with increasing DMSO content (2194)(3766)(2196).
The Diels-Alder adduct, obtained by reacting 5-methoxymethyl-1,3-cyclopentadiene with chloroacrylonitrile, is converted with aqueous
potassium hydroxide in DMSO to the anti-bicyclic ketone (3033):
H COH C H3COH2C
3 2

KOH, DMSO-H 2O
o
25-30 C
Cl
14 hours
O
CN
b) Aromatic halide hydrolysis
Aromatic halogens can be hydrolyzed from activated nuclei by aqueous bases in DMSO. The rate coefficients for the alkaline hydrolysis of
a series 1-halogen substituted 2,4-dinitrobenzenes have been measured in aqueous DMSO. These rates have been correlated with the
acidity function of medium (4467)(4520).
The aryl polyether that is prepared by the reaction of the disodium salt of bisphenol A with 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone in DMSO depends
on the moisture content of the polymerizing system. In the presence of water, hydrolysis of 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone monomer occurs
concomitant with the polymerization (4704).
The reaction of 2,8-dibromo-5,5-dioxodibenzothiophene with aqueous potassium hydroxide in DMSO gives 8-bromo-2-hydroxy-5,5-
dibenzothiophene (7709):
Br Br OH Br
aq. DMSO
+ KOH
110o C
S 3 hours S
O2 O2

Several 4-halogenophenyl sulfonylphenols, useful for the synthesis of poly(arylene ether sulfones), have been prepared by partial
hydrolysis of the corresponding dihalides in DMSO (8825):

X aq. DMSO O2
SO2 X + 2KOH o X S OK + KX
60 C
R 24 hrs. R
x=halogens R
85!
 !
c) Amide hydrolysis

The rates of base catalyzed hydrolysis of anilides have been studied in DMSO-water (3820)(7573)(8696). Even a very small amount of
DMSO (less than 1 %) facilitates the kinetic measurements in the hydrolysis of p-nitro- and pformylacetanilide (3820). Some increase
with increasing DMSO has been found in the hydrolysis rate of trifluoroacetanilide (7573).

7KHUHDFWLRQRIİ-caprolatam with barium hydroxide in DMSO-ZDWHUJLYHVİ-aminocaproic acid on acidification

(4972):
H
N
O Ba (OH)2, DMSO
+H2O H2N(CH2)5CO 2H
95-103o C
4 hrs.
d) Epoxide hydrolysis
The most commonly encountered reactions of epoxides are those in which the ring is opened by a nucleophile. Such reactions are
advantageously performed in DMSO because DMSO is inert to the epoxides and it also provides maximum reactivity for the nucleophile.
When the relatively unreactive 1 -phenylcyclohexene oxide is heated with potassium hydroxide in aqueous DMSO, the corresponding
trans-glycol is obtained in fairly good yield (334):
Ph
Ph
KOH, DMSO OH
O + H2O
100o C OH
6 hrs 60%
°
In the presence of acids a mixture of cis- and trans glycols results. The same reaction in aqueous dioxane after48 hours at 150 C gives
only a 10% yield (334).

Treatment of 8,9-epoxyundec-5-en-ol with potassium hydroxide in refluxing aqueous DMSO produces undeca-4,6-diene-3,9-diol (8261):
OH OH
O OH
CH2H5CH-CHCH 2CH=CHCH 2CH2H5+H2O KOH, DMSO C2H5CCH 2CH=CHCH=CHCC 2H5

The same treatment of the saturated epoxide, 8,9-epoxy-undecan-3-ol, leads to simple cleavage of the epoxy ring giving undecane-
3,4,9-triol (8261):
HO OH OH
KOH, DMSO
C2H5CH-CH(CH 2)4CHC 2H5+H2O C2H5-CH-CH(CH 2)4CHC 2H5

1 -(ȕȊ-Epoxypropyl)cyclohexan-1 -ol, when treated with base in 75% aqueous DMSO, gives the corresponding oxetan as the main
product (8306):

+H2O OH-, DMSO

CH2
OH
OH
49%
e) Ether hydrolysis
When water, strong acid, and ethyl vinyl ether are all solutes in DMSO, the rate of hydrolysis of the vinyl ether is still controlled by the rate
of proton transfer to the carbon. The rate decreases with increasing DMSO concentration (2492)(7643):

CH2=CHOC 2H5 + H2O H+, DMSO

CH3CHO+C 2H5OH
The rate coefficients for the alkaline hydrolysis of 4-substituted 1-methoxy-2-nitrobenzenes and 1-alkoxy 2,4dinitrobenzenes have been
measured in aqueous DMSO. These rates have been correlated with the acidity function of the medium (4467)(4520):
OR OH
OR OH
NO2 NO2 NO2
aq. DMSO
+ OH-

NO2 NO2
NO2
A similar study has been done with substituted 2-alkoxytropones in 40% aqueous DMSO (4521).
2,4,6-Trinitroanisole and 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl phenyl ether react with DMSO to give 2,4,6-trinitrophenol and methanol and phenol, resp.
(6878):

86!
 !
OR OH

NO2 NO2 NO2 NO2

+ ROH
DMSO

NO2 NO2 R= Me, Ph

f) Nitrile hydrolysis
Powdered anhydrous sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide in DMSO can be used to convert nitriles to amides, e.g. benzonitrile to
benzamide, at a reaction rate that is approximately 10,000 times that in aqueous caustic. However, the solubility of the dry caustic in
DMSO is very low which reduces the speed of converting the nitrile (725).
The reaction of 5-chloro-1,4-diphenyl-1,2,3-triazole with sodium cyanide in moist DMSO gives 1,4-diphenyl1,2,3-triazole-5-carboxamide
due to hydrolysis of the nitrile (7115):
Ph Ph

N DMSO N
Cl + NaCN + H2O COHN 2
N N
N N

Ph Ph

g) Saponification
In the base catalyzed hydrolysis of esters in aqueous DMSO, the rate of hydrolysis increases as the mole fraction of DMSO in the mixture
increases. This increase is particularly rapid above 0.7 mol fraction of DMSO (336)(367)(369) (464)(726)(730).
The use of DMSO-water as a solvent for saponification increases the reaction rate difference between the first and second group of
diesters. In 50% aqueous DMSO (v/v) the first ester group can be hydrolyzed more than nine times faster than the second one (1694).
There is a considerable rate enhancement for both steps in alkaline hydrolysis of a series of dicarboxylic acid esters in DMSO-water. The
rates increase with increasing amount of DMSO and these rates are larger in aqueous DMSO than in aqueous ethanol (5969)(6543) or
aqueous acetonitrile (5459).
When the saponification of glycol monobenzoates are carried out in 80% aqueous DMSO, 80% aqueous ethanol and 80% aqueous
acetone, the rates are up to 1000 times faster in 80% aqueous DMSO than in the other two solvent systems (5622):
CH2OH
OH-, DMSO CH2OH
+ H2O + HO2C-Ph
Ph-CO2H2C 30o C CH2OH
Similarly, the saponification rates of unsaturated esters in DMSO-water are faster than in ethanol-water (3356) (7540). Increased transition
state solvation, not increased hydroxyl ion desolvation, is the major cause of rate enhancement in DMSO (6822).
The rate coefficients of neutral hydrolysis of methyl trifluoroacetate and chloromethyl dichloroacetate in DMSOwater are greater than in
acetone-water and acetonitrile-water (6477).
With hydrolysis on the acid side, however, the reaction rate decreases as the mole fraction of DMSO increases above 25-30% DMSO,
as is the case with ethyl acetate (368).
The cleavage of highly hindered esters can be accomplished in DMSO using potassium t-butoxide as the base and heating until the
cleavage is accomplished. In this case, the cleavage occurs by alkyl-oxygen fission (490). Esters are also cleaved by sodium
superoxide in DMSO to give carboxylic acids in excellent yield, as is the case of
ethyl p-cyanobenzoate (10086).
O
DMSO
NC CO2Et + O2- H2NC CO2H
5 min.
96%
2. Alcoholysis, Aminolysis
In the basic methanolysis of some aryl substituted N-methyl-2,2,2-trifluoroacetanilides in DMSO-methanol rate increases with increasing
amount of DMSO (6474):
CH3 R -
O
CH3OH9 DMSO CH3OH
R-C6H4NCOCF3 + CH3O- H3C N
CF3
CH3 O C6H4 OCH 3

R-C6H4-NH + F3CCOCH3
87!
 !

N-Methyl-4'-nitroanilides undergo basic methanolysis by way of rate determining methoxide addition to the amide, as shown above. The
addition of DMSO produces a rate increase in each case (7844).
The mechanism of basic methanolysis of a series of N-aryl-N-phenylbenzamides in methanol and in 80% DMSOmethanol has been
studied. In methanol the rate determining step seems to be the solvent assisted C-N bond breaking, while in 80% DMSO-methanol the
rate determining step is methoxide attack (10409).
Markedly increased alcoholysis rates are obtained by the addition of DMSO to ethylene-vinyl ester interpolymer alcohol mixtures in the
presence of either alkaline or acidic mixtures (7156).
DMSO is an effective catalyst for the n-butylaminolysis of p-nitrophenyl acetate in chlorobenzene (6988).

O NO2 chlorobenzene, DMSO

O NO2
+NH2(CH2)3CH 3
O 25o C OH
O

-
NH(CH 2)3CH3 + O NO2
H3C

The aminolysis of polymeric macronet N-hydroxy-succinimide esters of Boc-amino acids by free amino acids and peptides in DMSO has
been studied, both in the presence and in the absence of organic bases (8832).
3. Transesterification (Ester Interchange)
The reported work concerning the base catalyzed transesterification of fatty acid esters mainly describes esterification of carbohydrates
and other polyhydroxylic materials. DMSO is a particularly suitable solvent in this area because of the enhanced activity of the base
catalyst in DMSO and also because of the excellent solubility of most carbohydrate and polyhydroxylic substances in DMSO. A number of
the reports are concerned with sucrose esters (160)(161)(181)(162)(164)(165). Others report esterifying hexitols and hexoses (1257) and
inositols (166). The reaction of 1,2-0-isopropylidene-6-tosyl-glucose under the conditions of the Kornblum oxidation with potassium
bicarbonate as the base gives none of the expected aldehyde but only the 5,6-carbonate ester(183) in a transesterification.
°
Alkylation of methyl 0-(tetrahydropyran-2-yl) mandelate using alkyl halides and sodium hydride in DMSO at 80 C produces
transesterification products (4278):

OH
O
O H2CSOCH3, DMSO CHCO 2R
C CO CH + RX
2 3
H 80o C

R = benzyl, isopropyl, allyl, n-pentyl or cyclopentyl

Dimethyl terephthalate can be polymerized with ethylene glycol in the presence of a tin chloride-DMSO complex and trimethylphosphate
to give a poly(ethylene terephthalate) (7255).
Thermoplastic polymers derived from natural products have been prepared by interesterifying starch with methyl palmitate in DMSO with
potassium methoxide as the catalyst (8227).

PART V USES
1. Polymerization and Spinning Solvent
DMSO is used as a solvent for the polymerization of acrylonitrile and other vinyl monomers, e.g. methyl methacrylate (9638) and styrene
(5192). Acrylonitrile is readily soluble in DMSO and the polymerization is carried out by the addition of initiators (8184)(8185). The low
incidence of transfer from the growing chain to DMSO leads to high molecular weights. Copolymerization reactions of acrylonitrile with
other vinyl monomers can also be run in DMSO. Monomer mixtures consisting of acrylonitrile, styrene, vinylidene chloride, methallyl
sulfonic acid, styrene sulfonic acid, etc. are polymerized in DMSO-water (6713). In some cases, the fibers are spun from the reaction
solution into DMSO-water baths (8501)(8603).
DMSO can also be used as a reaction solvent for other polymerizations. Thus, ethylene oxide is rapidly and completely polymerized in
DMSO (9652). Diisocyanates and polyols and polyamines can be dissolved and reacted in DMSO to form solutions of polyurethanes
(8677).

Polymerization Solvent for Heat Resistant Polymers. Poly(ether sulfones) are a family of polymers from which a series of tough
°
thermoplastics can be selected for use under continuous stress in the temperature range of 150-250 C (7196)(7619). These poly(ether
sulfones) are prepared by reacting dialkali metal salts of a bisphenol, such as bisphenol A or 4,4'-sulfonyldiphenol with 4,4'-
dihyalodiphenyl sulfones by the displacementetherification reaction in DMSO (7104)(9961), e.g.:
88!
 !
DMSO
Cl SO2 Cl + NaO SO2 ONa

S n
O2
Interest in heat-resistant polymers has also lead to the development of polyetherimides. These polymers are prepared by the reaction of
a dialkali metal salt of a bisphenol, such as bisphenol A or 4,4'-sulfonyl diphenol, with bis(halophthalimide) in DMSO as the solvent
(9686). In place of bis(halophthalimides), certain bis(nitrophthalimides) in DMSO can be used (10434):
O O
O O
S
N N DMSO
+

O O NaO ONa
X X
X= halogen or NO2.
X O
O O
S
N N
O n
O O O

Somewhat similar polyetherimides can be prepared by reacting an aromatic bis(ether dicarboxylic acid) component with a diamine in
DMSO-water (10762):
X
X
O O CO2H
HO2C
+
H2N NH2
HO2C CO2H
X

O O O O

N N
X= S; SO2, CH2, C(CH3)2, etc. X
O O x-S; SO2; CH2; C(CH3)2, etc

2. Extraction Solvent
DMSO is immiscible with alkanes but a good solvent for most unsaturated and polar compounds. Thus it can be used to separate olefins
from paraffins (10771). DMSO is used in the Institute Francais du Petrole (IFP) process for extracting aromatic hydrocarbons from
refinery streams (8554). DMSO is also used in the analytical procedure for determining polynuclear hydrocarbons in food additives of
petroleum origin (2371).

3. Solvent for Electrolytic Reactions

DMSO has been widely used as a solvent for polarographic studies and it permits the use of a more negative cathode potential than in
water. In DMSO cations can be successfully reduced to form metals that would react with water. Thus, the following metals have been
electrodeposited from their salts in DMSO: cerium (1749), actinides (2520), iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese ± all amorphous deposits;
zinc, cadmium, tin, bismuth ± all crystalline deposits; (5488); chromium (6672), silver (7459), lead (9175), copper (9396), titanium
(7260). Generally, no metal less noble than zinc, such as magnesium or aluminum, can be deposited from DMSO.

4. Cellulose Solvent
Although DMSO by itself does not dissolve cellulose, the following binary and ternary systems are listed as cellulose solvents: DMSO-
methylamine, DMSO-sulfur trioxide, DMSO-carbon disulfide-amine, DMSO-ammoniasodamide, DMSO-dinitrogen tetroxide, DMSO-
paraformaldehyde (8970)(10368), DMSO-sulfur dioxide-ammonia (9541). A least a ratio of 3 moles of active agent per mole of glucose unit
is necessary for complete dissolution (8970). While only 80% of cellulose dissolves in DMSO-methylamine under cold anhydrous
conditions (10368), DMSO-nitrogen tetroxide is a better solvent, particularly when a small quantity of water is added (9170). Most of these
systems are capable of producting cellulose fibers. The recently discovered DMSO-paraformaldehyde system does not degrade cellulose
and it can form solutions containing up to 10% cellulose (7763)(8506)(9850). It is believed that a methylol-cellulose compound forms which
is stable for extended periods of storage at ambient conditions (9850). Regenerated cellulose articles such as films and fibers can be
prepared by contacting the DMSO-paraformaldehyde solution with methanol and water (9850)(9895).
89!
 !

5. Pesticide Solvent
Many organic fungicides, insecticides and herbicides are soluble in DMSO, including such difficultly soluble materials as the substituted
ureas and carbamates. DMSO forms cosolvent systems of enhanced solubility properties with many solvents.
6. Cleanup Solvent
DMSO is used to remove urethane polymers and other difficultly soluble materials from processing equipment. Hard crusts of poly(vinyl
chloride) resin can be dissolved by using 85:15 ethyl acetate-DMSO mixture (8927).

7. Sulfiding Agent
DMSO (ENVIRO-S) can be used as a sulfiding agent in refineries because of its low odor, low toxicity and ease of handling.

8. Integrated Circuits
DMSO solutions are useful for etching resists in integrated circuit manufacture.

PART VI
TOXICITY, HANDLING, HAZARDS, ANALYSIS

1. Toxicity and Handling Precautions

Dimethyl sulfoxide is a relatively stable solvent of low toxicity. The LD 50, for single dose oral administration to rats is about 18,000 mg/kg.
For comparison, the LD50 for ethyl alcohol is about 13,700 mg/kg. DMSO by itself presents less hazard than many chemicals and solvents
commonly used in industry. However, DMSO has the ability to penetrate the skin and may carry with it certain chemicals with which it is
combined under certain conditions.
The toxicity of DMSO solutions will depend, in part, on the nature and toxicity of the other chemicals used and the degree of penetration.
The degree of penetration is determined by the concentration of DMSO and water in the solution and the length of time of skin contact.
Not all chemicals will be carried through the skin even though the DMSO may penetrate. A 10% solution of DMSO in water causes only
slight increase in skin penetration over the same solution without DMSO.
Conventional industrial safety procedures and practices should be observed when working with DMSO as with any organic solvent.
Protective clothing is not necessary when handling DMSO in containers or in small amounts on limited occasions. However, when working
with DMSO on a prolonged basis or in combinations with other materials, protective clothing is recommended, including suitable gloves or
eye protectants. Butyl rubber gloves are suggested for DMSO service.
Contacts with DMSO Alone
Skin: Undiluted DMSO may have a mildly irritating effect on the skin and should be washed off promptly with cold water. As is the case
with other organic solvents, dimethyl sulfoxide tends to dehydrate and de-fat the skin. Repeated skin contact overextended periods should
be avoided since the effects of such contact, if any, are not yet known.
Eyes: DMSO in contact with the eye may cause temporary irritation but will not result in eye damage if washed out promptly with cold
water.
° °
Vapors: The normal ambient airborne DMSO concentration is low. (DMSO has a high boiling point, 189 C or 372 F, and a low vapor
pressure.) Inhalation of vapors of hot DMSO or DMSO aerosol mists may be harmful and should be avoided.
Contact with DMSO solutions: When handling solutions of possibly toxic substances in DMSO, care must be taken to avoid contact with
the skin and to wash such solutions off immediately and thoroughly with soap and water. If toxic substances penetrate into the system,
serious harm may occur. Clothing contacted by such solutions should be removed and washed before reusing.

90!
 2. Comparative Toxicity of Commercial Solvents
All solvents are toxic to some extent, but DMSO is much less so than many in common usage. Toxicity, as measured by dermal and
oral LD50 in rats, is shown for a number of common solvents. They are listed in order of increasing oral toxicity.
TABLE XII
Single-Dose Toxicity (Rats) of Some Common Solvents
LD50, mg/kg

Solvent Oral Dermal

Glycerine 31600 10000
DMSO 17400 40000
Ethanol 13700 -
Acetone 9750 -
Dimethylacetamide 7500 5000
Ethylene glycol 7200 -
N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone 7000 -
Trichloroethylene 5860 -
Lsopropanol 5840 -
n-Propanol 4300 -
Benzene 4080 -
Diacetone alcohol 4000 -
Methyl ethyl ketone 3980 -
Xylene 3830 10000
Cyclohexanone 3460 -
Acetic acid 3310 -
n-Butenol 2610 5620
2-Heptanol 2580 -
Butyl cellosolve 2380 -
Dimethylformamide 2250 442
Sodium lauryl sulfate 1650 10000
Pyridine 891 1120
Aniline 442 1540
Phenol 14* -
* Approximate lethal dose.
Most of the solvents in the above table were chosen because, like DMSO, they are polar.
Several studies have been made in comparing the toxicity of DMSO with other solvents. Table XIII shows the results of
one of these studies.
TABLE XIII
Single-Dose Toxicities to Mice of 4M Solutions
LD50, mg/kg (mice)

Compound Intravenous Intraperitoneal

DMSO 7176 14664
Glycerine 6164 6900
Dimethyl formamide 3650 6570
Dimethyl acetamide 3915 5916
N-methyl pyrrolidone 1980 3564

3. Chemicals and Reactions to be Avoided with DMSO

DMSO can react vigorously and even explosively with iodine pentafluoride, periodic acid, potassium permanganate, silver fluoride and
other strong oxidizing agents such as magnesium perchlorate and perchloric acid.
DMSO cannot be used in Friedel-Crafts reactions or with Ziegler-Natta catalysts.
DMSO reacts vigorously with acid chlorides. These reactions proceed with about the same vigor as the reaction between acid
chlorides and ethyl alcohol, and suitable precautions should be taken.
DMSO also reacts with carboxylic acid anhydrides, such as acetic anhydride, the major product being the
acyloxymethyl methyl sulfide, RCO2CH2SCH3.
Adequate heat removal should be provided when reacting DMSO with sodium hydride or potassium hydride when making the
DMSO anion (dimsyl ion) (Please see PART III, Reactions of DMSO, 4. Reaction with Strong
Bases).
An uncontrolled reaction took place when DMSO was heated with methyl bromide to prepare trimethyloxosulfonium bromide. This

91!
reaction should be run in the presence of compounds that remove HBr or Br2, such as methyl or ethyl orthoformate or tetramethyl
orthocarbonate. These esters act as scavengers of HBr and Br 2, produced as byproducts in the reaction. Thus, the possible
violent exothermic decomposition of the reaction mixture can be prevented with little, if any, loss in the yield of the product (9964).
4. Analytical Procedure
a) Gas chromatographic analysis of DMSO
Apparatus
Gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector and a 4 ft. x 1/8 inch o.d. stainless steel column packed with 15% FFAP
(Varian Aerograph) on Chromosorb T (Johns-Manville), 40/60 mesh.
1.0 microliter syringe.
Chromatograph Conditions
Temperatures: Column - 150°C, Detector - 220°C, Inlet - 210°C Carrier gas flow -
30 ml/min
Adjust the instrument sensitivity so that a 0.5 microliter sample will give a DMSO peak between 75 and 100% of recorder full
scale.
Procedure
Inject 0.5 microliters of the DMSO. Record the DMSO peak at the sensitivity determined above. Record the period before and
after the DMSO peak at 100 times this sensitivity. Record the chromatogram for 20 minutes. Sum the areas of any extraneous
peaks.

Calculations

b) DMSO Freezing Point

Pour 30-50 ml of DMSO into a clean, dry test tube, approximately 2.5x20 cm in size and fitted with a stopper
containing thermometer and also containing a small magnetic stirring bar.
°
Cool the test tube in water at 15 C while agitating with a magnetic stirrer until crystallization starts. Once crystallization has
°
begun read the thermometer while both liquid and solid DMSO are present. Purified DMSO - 18.3 C minimum (See Figure
2b, page 5)
c) Water Determination by Karl Fischer Titration
Discussion
Water is determined by Karl Fischer titration. Karl Fischer procedures other than the one described below may be used provided
that their accuracy in this analysis has been determined.
Scope
This procedure may be used with all grades of DMSO.
Reagents
1. Pyridine-SO2-methanol.
Mix 300 ml. C.P. pyridine and 300 ml anhydrous methanol. Bubble in 60 grams of SO 2. This can be done
with the solution on a platform balance to weigh directly the SO2 added.
2. Anhydrous methanol.
3. Karl Fischer Reagent - stablilized.
Fischer Scientific SO-K-3
4. Water-methanol standard.
1 ml = 1 mg of water. Can be obtained commercially.
Apparatus
Titration Assembly
The titration is contained in a screwcap glass jar of 100-200 ml capacity. The cap is drilled to admit2 platinum electrodes and one
burette tip. During the titration the jar is mounted over a magnetic stirrer with the electrodes extending through the cap into the solution
to be titrated. Reagents and sample are added through the third hole and a micro burette containing Karl Fischer Reagent is mounted
above the third hole.
A preferred alternate to the above assembly can be constructed from both halves of a large diameter glass ball and socket joint.
End-Point Detecting Assembly
The end-point detecting assembly is of the "dead stop" type, which depends upon the depolarization of the electrodes on reaching the
end-point of the titration.

92!
Procedure
End-Point Detection
With the equipment set up as described and the material to be titrated in the bottle, start the magnetic stirrer. Adjust the variable
resistance to produce a microammeter deflection of 1 or 2 microamps. Titrate with Karl Fischer Reagent. As the end-point is neared,
the ammeter needle starts to swing with each addition of titrant, but returns to the original point of deflection after each swing. When
the end-point is reached the needle will remain permanently displaced up scale.
Standardization of Reagents

The Karl Fischer solution must be standardized daily. Add 20 ml of anhydrous methanol and 5 ml of the pyridine-SO2-methanol
solution to the titration bottle (Note 1). Add Karl Fischer Reagent dropwise from a microburette to the end-point. Accurately pipette 20
ml of the water-methanol standard (a weighed amount of pure water may be used) into the titration bottle and titrate with Karl Fischer
Reagent to the end-point. Record the volume of titrant used in the second titration and calculate its water equivalence.
Determination of Water

Add 20 ml of anhydrous methanol and 5 ml of the pyridine-SO2-methanol solution to a clean titration bottle. Add Karl Fischer Reagent
dropwise to the end-point. Add 2 to 3 grams (accurately weighed) of the DMSO to be tested (Notes 2, 3, and 4). Titrate with Karl
Fischer Reagent to the end-point. Record the volume of titrant used in the second titration and calculate the water content of the
dimethyl sulfoxide.
Notes
1. Response tends to be slow with the stabilized Karl Fischer Reagent. A sharper end-point is obtained with the addition of the
pyridine-SO2-methanol solution to the titration vessel.
2. DMSO is extremely hydroscopic. Exposure of the sample to atmospheric moisture must be kept to a minimum.
3. Samples larger than 2-3 grams of DMSO produce low results.
4. For convenience, with a sacrifice of accuracy, a 2 or 3 ml. volume of DMSO can be sampled with a volumetric pipette. The weight
of DMSO samples is calculated by multiplying the volume in ml. by 1.10 (the specific gravity of pure DMSO @ 20°C.).
5. A titration assembly such as a Beckman Model KF-2 Aquameter may be used for the titration.

PART VII
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3033 Corey, E.J.; Weinshenker, N.M.; Schaaf, T.K.; Huber, W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 91, 5675-
5677 (1969).
3048 Kharasch, N.; Szmant, H.H. Quart. Rep. Sulfur Chem. 3(2), 147-148 (1968).
3049 Kharasch, N.; MacGregor, W.S. Quart. Rep. Sulfur Chem. 3(2), 149-158 (1968).
3112 Davies, J.S.; Cavies, V.H.; Hassall, C.H. J. Chem. Soc. C 1873-1879 (1969).
3142 Terrell, R.C. U.S. 3,476,812 (C1.260-609) (Nov. 4, 1969).
3148 Iriuchijima, S.; Tsuchihashi, G.-I. Synthesis 588 (1970).
3152 Beninate, J.V.; Boylston, E.K. U.S. 3,480,381 (C1. 8-120) (Nov. 25, 1969).
3178 Gibson, T.W.; Erman, W.F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 91, 4771-4777 (1969).
3215 Bennett, C.F. Crown Zellerbach, results unpublished (Sept. 15, 1970).
3217 Tallant, D.R.; Evans, D.H. Anal. Chem. 41(6), 835-838 (1969).
3241 Schneider, H.W. J. Chem. Ed. 47, 519-522 (1970).
3247 Whitaker, K.E.; Snyder, H.R. J. Org. Chem. 35, 30-32 (1970).
3248 Bell, H.M.; Vanderslice, C.W.; Spehar, A. J. Org. Chem. 34, 3923-3926 (1969).
3249 Feit, B.A.; Bigon, Z. J. Org. Chem. 34, 3942-3948 (1969).
3272 Irvine, D.S.; Kruger, G. J. Org. Chem. 35, 2418-2419 (1970).
3356 Blakrishnan, M.; Rao, G.V.; Venkatasubramian, N. Indian J. Chem. 8, 566-567 (1970).
3360 Weiss, R.G.; Snyder, E.I. J. Org. Chem. 35, 1627-1632 (1970).
3368 Bartsch, R.A. J. Org. Chem. 35, 1334-1338 (1970).
3376 Filler, R.; Rao, Y.S.; Biezais, A.; Miller, F.N.; Beaucaire, V.D. J. Org. Chem. 35, 930-935
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3384 Stalick, W.M.; Rines, H. J. Org. Chem. 35, 422-426 (1970).
3386 Chow, S.W.; Pilato, L.A.; Wheelwright, W.L. J. Org. Chem. 35, 20-22 (1970).
3387 Heindel, N.D.; Kennewel, P.D. J. Org. Chem. 35, 80-83 (1970).
3395 Cruickshank, P.A.; Fishman, M. J. Org. Chem. 34, 4060-4065 (1969).
3398 Bartsch, R.A.; Cook, D.M. J. Org. Chem. 35, 1714-1715 (1970).
3399 Klabunde, K.J.; Burton, D.J. J. Org. Chem. 35, 1711-1712 (1970).
3429 Brown, H.C.; Heim, P.; Yoon, N.M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92,1637-1646 (1970).
3433 Kornblum, N.; Stuchal, F.W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 1804-1806 (1970).
3445 Orvik, J.A.; Bunnett, J.F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 2417-2427 (1970).
3447 Kemp, D.S.; Paul, K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 2553-2554 (1970).
3456 Woerner, F.P.; Reimlinger, H. Ber. 103, 1908-1917 (1970).
3481 Sucrow, W.; Girgensohn, B. Ber. 103, 750-756 (1970).
3482 Roth, W.R.; Koenig, J.; Stein, K. Ber. 103, 426-439 (1970).
3490 Kornblum, N.; Swiger, R.T.; Earl, G.W.; Pinnick, H.W.; Stuchal, F.W. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
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3503 Kelsey, D.R.; Bergman, R.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 228-230 (1970).
3506 Bottaccio, G.; Chiusoli, G.P. Z. Nturforsch. (B) 23, 1016 (1968); Synthesis 1,33 (1970).
3519 Jacobus, J. J. Chem. Soc. (D) 338-339 (1970).
3572 Yamatani, T.; Yasunami, M.; Takase, K. Tetrahedron Lett. 1725-1728 (1970).
3584 Fahey, R.C.; Monahan, M.W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 2816-2820 (1970).
3602 Butterworth, R.F.; Hanessian, S. Synthesis 70-88 (1971).
3631 Miller, B. J. Org. Chem. 35, 4262-4264 (1970).
3653 Happ, J.W.; Janzen, E.G.; Rudy, B.C. J. Org. Chem. 35, 3382-3389 (1970).
3660 Truce, W.E.; Markley, L.D. J. Org. Chem. 35, 3275-3281 (1970).
3662 Rabjohn, N.; Harbert, C.A. J. Org. Chem. 35, 3240-3243 (1970).
3686 Baer, H.H.; Naik, S.R. J. Org. Chem. 35, 3161-3164 (1970).
3707 Reese, C.B.; Shaw, A. J. Chem. Soc. (D) 1172-1173 (1970).
3721 Lorkowski, H.J.; Pannier, R. J. Prakt. Chem. 311, 936 (1969).
3743 Dodd, D.; Johnson, M.D. J. Chem. Soc. (B), 1337-1343 (1970).
3766 Raber, D.J.; Bingham, R.c.; Harris, J.M.; Fry, J.L.; Schleyer, P.V.R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92,
5977-5981 (1970).
3816 Brown, H.C.; Bigley, D.B.; Arora, S.K.; Yoon, N.M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 7161-7167
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3820 Pollack, R.M.; Bender, M.L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 7190-7194 (1970).
3827 Farr, F.R.; Bauld, N.L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 6695-6696 (1970).
3830 Miller, B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 6252-6259 (1970).
3853 Bartsch, R.A.; Kelly, C.F.; Pruss, G.M. Tetrahedron Lett. 3795-3796 (1970).
100!
3875 Franck, B.; Petersen, U.; Hueper, F. Angew. Chem. Intern. Ed. Engl. 9, 891 (1970).
3885 Reimlinger, H. Ber. 103, 3278-3283 (1970).
3920 Bennett, C.F. Crown Zellerbach; results unpublished (Aug. 8, 1969).
3921 Bennett, C.F. Crown Zellerbach; results unpublished (Nov. 20, 1970).
3922 Bennett, C.F. Crown Zellerbach; results unpublished (Nov. 12, 1968).
3925 Tuemmler, W.B.; Linder, S.M. U.S. 3,506,724 (C1. 260-622) (Apr. 14, 1970).
3931 Orle, J.V. Crown Zellerbach; results unpublished (Jan. 14, 1969).
3951 Taranko, L.B.; Perry, R.H., Jr. J. Org. Chem. 34, 226-227 (1969).
4018 Birch, A.J.; Hutchinson, E.G.; Rao, G.S. J. Chem. Soc. (C) 637-642 (1971).
4026 Dalton, D.R.; Dutta, V.P. J. Chem. Soc. (B) 85-89 (1971).
4037 Marshall, J.A.; Cohen, G.M. J. Org. Chem. 36, 877-882 (1971).
4046 Hutchins, R.O.; Lawson, D.W.; Rua, L.; Milewski, C.; Maryanoff, B. J. Org. Chem. 36, 803-
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4048 Marshall, J.A.; Warne, T.M., Jr. J. Org. Chem. 36, 178-183 (1971).
4058 Hales, R.H.; Bradshaw, J.S.; pratt, D.R. J. Org. Chem. 36, 314-317 (1971).
4059 Bradshaw, J.S.; Hales, R.H. J. Org. Chem. 36, 318-322 (1971).
4066 Weiss, R.G.; Snyder, E.I. J. Org. Chem. 36, 403-406 (1971).
4068 Baumann, J.B. J. Org. Chem. 36, 396-398 (1971).
4077 Farnum, D.G.; Mostashari, A.; Hagedorn, III, A.A. J. Org. Chem. 36, 698-702 (1971).
4093 Walters, S.L.; Bruice, T.C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 2269-2282 (1971).
4098 Stocks, I.D.H.; Waite, J.A.; Wooldridge, K.R.H. J. Chem. Soc (C), 1314-1317 (1971).
4110 Bhalerao, U.T.; Rapaport, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 105-110 (1971).
4123 Jacobs, R.L. J. Org. Chem. 36, 242-243 (1971).
4126 Poutsma, M.L.; Ibarbia, P.A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 440-450 (1971).
4128 Venezky, D.L. Anal. Chem. 43, 971 (1971).
4136 Seree, De Roch, I.; Menguy, P. French Pat. 1,540,284 (C1. CO7C) (Sept. 27, 1968); CA
71, 80944Q.
4175 Sherrod, S.A.; Bergman, R.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 1925-1940 (1971).
4176 Kelsey, D.R.; Bergman, R.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 1941-1952 (1971).
4180 Parker, A.J. Chem. Tech. 297-303 (1971).
4235 Augustyn, O.P.H.; DeWet, P.; Garbers, C.F.; Lourens, L.C.F.; Neuland, E.; Schneider, D.F.;
Steyn, K. J. Chem. Soc. (C) 1878-1884 (1971).
4249 Zefirov, N.S.; Chapovskaya, N.K. J. Org. Che. USSR 4, 1252 (1968).
4257 Mantione, R. Synthesis, 332-333 (1971).
4258 Mantione, R. Synthesis, 332 (1971).
4261 Shepherd, T.M. Chem. Ind. 567 (1970); Synthesis, 334 (1971).
4262 Koester, R.; Arora, S.; Binger, P. Synthesis, 322-323 (1971).
4278 Shepard, K.L. J. Chem. Soc. (D), 951-952 (1971).
4311 Kruger, G. J. Org. Chem. 36, 2129-2132 (1971).
4333 Cable, J.; Djerassi, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 3905-3910 (1971).
4339 Pines, H.; Stalick, W.M.; Holford, T.G.; Golab, J.; Lazar, H.; Simonik, J. J. Org. Chem. 36,
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4349 Brimacombe, J.S. Angew. Chem. Intern. Ed. Engl. 10, 236-248 (1971).
4355 Isele, G.L.; Luttringhaus, A. Synthesis, 266-268 (1971).
4360 Muchowski, J.M. Can. J. Chem. 49, 2023-2028 (1971).
4382 Karady, S.; Ly, M.G.; Pines, S.H.; Slezinger, M. J. Org. Chem. 36, 1949-1951 (1971).
4384 McMurry, J.E.; Melton, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 5309-5311 (1971).
4392 Hoffman, J.M., Jr.; Schlessinger, R.H. J. Chem. Soc. (D), 1245-1246 (1971).
4425 Davies, J.H.; Haddock, E.; Kirby, P.; Webb, S.B. J. Chem. Soc. (C), 2843-2846 (1971).
4436 Gullotti, M.; Ugo, R.; Colonna, S. J. Chem. Soc. (C), 2652-2656 (1971).
4452 Zefirov, N.S.; Chapovskaya, N.K.; Kolesnikov, V.V. J. Chem. Soc. (D), 1001-1002 (1971).
4467 Bowden, K.; Cook, R.S. J. Chem. Soc. (B), 1765-1770 (1971).
4492 Fry, A.J.; Britton, W.E. Tetrahedron Lett. 46, 4363-4366 (1971).
4520 Bowden, K.; Cook, R.S. J. Chem. Soc. (B), 1771-1778 (1971).
4521 Bowden, K.; Price, M.J. J. Chem. Soc. (B), 1784-1792 (1971).
4523 Gilmer, T.C.; Pietrzyk, D.J. Anal. Chem. 43, 1585-1592 (1971).
4524 Ono, N. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan 44, 1369-1372 (1971).
4562 Russell, G.A.; Norris, R.K.; Panek, E.J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 5839-5845 (1971).
4573 Dunn, B.M.; Bruice, T.C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 93, 5725-5731 (1971).
4600 Boulton, A.J.; Ghosh,k P.B.; Katritzky, A.R. J. Chem. Soc. (B), 1004-1011 (1966).
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4602 Chen, C.-T.; Yan, S.-J.; Wang, C.-H. Chem. Ind. (London) 895-896 (1970); CA 73,
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4636 Claus, P.; Vavra, N.; Schilling, P. Monatsh. Chem. 102, 1072-1080 (1971).
4651 Lerch, U.; Moffatt, J.G. J. Org. Chem. 36, 3861-3869 (1971).
4653 Snyder, C.D.; Bondinell, W.E.; Rapoport, H. J. Org. Chem. 36, 3951-3960 (1971).
4669 McKinley, S.V.; Rakshys, J.W., Jr. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 134-135 (1972).
4699 Heine, H.G. Synthesis 664 (1971).
4704 Johnson, R.N.; Farnham, A.G. J. Polymer Sci. A-1, 5, 2415-2427 (1967).
4739 Bullock, E.; Carter, R.A.; Gregory, B.; Shields, D.C. J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 97-98
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4748 Hammond, G.S.; Neuman, R.C., Jr. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 83, 1501-1508 (1963).
4755 Margaretha, P. Tetrahedron Lett. 4891-4892 (1971).
4767 Fomin, G.V.; Gurdzhiyan, L.N. Zh. Fiz. Khim. 44, 1820-1821 (1970); CA 73, 76458H.
4772 Doucet, J.; Gagnaire, D.; Robert, A. Synthesis, 556 (1971).
4775 Wharton, P.S.; Sundin, C.E.; Johnson, D.W.; Kluender, H.C. J. Org. Chem. 37, 34-38
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4776 Kingsbury, C.A. J. Org. Chem. 37, 102-106 (1972).
4792 Haszeldine, R.N.; Hewitson, B.; Higginbottom, B.; Rigby, R.B.; Tipping, A.E. J. Chem.
Soc., Chem. Commun. 249-250 (1972).
4802 Martin, D.; Berger, A.; Peschel, R. Synthesis, 598 (1971).
4812 Bakke, J. Acta. Chem. Scand. 25, 3509-3516 (1971).
4815 Hortmann, A.G.; Roberston, D.A.; Gillard, B.K. J. Org. Chem. 37, 322-324 (1972).
4817 Dalton, D.R.; Rodebaugh, R.K.; Jefford, C.W. J. Org. Chem. 37, 362-367 (1972).
4820 Durst, T. Advan. Org. Chem. 6, 285-388 (1969); CA 72, 21221Z.
4846 Komatsu, Y.; Furukawa, Y.; Shima, K. Japan. 70,00,496 (C1. 16 B 41) (Jan. 1970); CA 72,
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4891 Olofson, R.A.; Marino, J.P. Tetrahedron 27, 4195-4208 (1971).
4892 Bohlmann, F.; Buhmann, U. Ber. 105, 863-873 (1972).
4898 Marino, J.P.; Pfitzner, K.E.; Olofson, R.A. Tetrahedron 27, 4181-4194 (1971).
4906 Liu, M.T.H.; Toriyama, K. J. Phys. Chem. 76, 797-801 (1972).
4907 Arad, Y.; Levy, M.; Miller, I.R.; Vofsi, D. U.S. Patent 3,649,666 (C1. 250-465.8) (Mar. 14,
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4910 Jackisch, P.F. U.S. Patent 3,642,887 (C1. 260-534 E) (Feb. 15, 1972).
4920 zu Reckendorf, W.M.; kamprath-Scholtz, U. Ber. 105, 686-695 (1972).
4934 Bates, R.B.; Kroposki, L.M.p; Potter, D.E. J. Org. Chem. 37, 560-562 (1972).
4945 Friedman, M.; Krull, L.H. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 207, 361-363 (1970); CA 73, 35746G.
4972 Tandara, M. U.S. Patent 3,655,748 (C1. 260-634 R) (Apr. 11, 1972).
4987 Rees, C.W.; Yelland, M. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin I Trans. 77-82 (1972).
5033 Kharasch, N.; Ranky, W.O.; Nelson, D.C. Organic Sulfur Compounds. Dimethyl Sulfoxide,
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5038 Schmid, G.H.; Wolkoff, A.W. Can. J. Chem. 50, 1181-1186 (1972).
5116 Rapaport, E.; Cass, M.W.; White, E.H. J. Am. Chem.Soc. 94, 3153-3159 (1972).
5118 Tanner, D.D.; Van Bostelen, P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 94, 3187-3195 (1972).
5124 Kamigata, N.; Kurihara, T.; Minato, H. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan 44, 3152-3154 (1971).
5185 McLoughlin, V.C.R.; Thrower, J. Synthesis, 441 (1971).
5192 Bamford, C.H.; Ferrar, A.N. Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A 321, 425-443 (1971).
5244 Bradshaw, J.S.; Chen, E.Y.; Hales, R.H.; South, J.A. J. Org. Chem. 37, 2051-2052 (1972).
5279 Moyer, P.H.; Penner, S.E. Ger. Offen. 1,959,343 (C1. C O7 C) (Aug. 13, 1970); CA 73
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5296 Whistler, R.L.; BeMiller, J.N.; Onodera, K.; Kashimura, N. Oxidation of Carbohydrates with
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5300 Bravo, P.; Gaudiano, G.; Ponti, P.P. Chem. Ind. (London) 253-254 (1971);CA 74,
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5339 Chu, K.C.; Cramn, D.J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 94, 3521-3531 (1972).
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5488 Morisaki, S.; Baba, N.; Tajima, S. Denki Kagaku 38, 746-752 (1970).
5526 Nazarova, N.M.; Freidlin, L.K.; Kopyttsev, Y.A.; Varava, T.I. Isv. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Ser.
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5551 House, H.O. Modern Synthetic Reactions, 2nd Edition, W.A. Benjamin Inc., Menlo Park,
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5587 Haga, J.J.; Russell, B.R.; Chapel, J.F. Biochem. Biphys. Res. Commun. 44, 521-525
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5594 Schoberth, W.; Hanack, M. Synthesis, 703 (1972).
5613 Benius, U.; Bergson, G. Acta. Chem. Scand. 26, 2546-2547 (1972).
5622 Balakrishnan, M.; Rao, G.V.; Venkatasubramanian, N. Tetrahedron Lett. 4617-4620
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5630 Freidlin, L.K.; Nazarova, N.M.; Kopyttsev, Y.A. Izv. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Ser. Khim. 201-
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5635 Liu, M.T.H.; Toriyama, K. Can. J. Chem. 50, 3009-3016 (1972).
5642 Gloor, B.; Kaul, B.L.; Zollinger, H. Helv. Chim. Acta. 55, 1596-1610 (1972).
5663 Rylander, P.N.; Karpenko, I.M.; Pond, G.R. U.S. 3,694,509 (C1. 260-578) (Sept. 26, 1972).
5800 David, Estienne, J. Brit. 1,219,599 (C1. C O7C 27/12, 45/34, 51/32) (Jan. 20, 1971).
5834 Belanger, A.; Brassard, P. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 863-864 (1972).
5836 Johnston, D.B.R.; Schmitt, S.M.; Firestone, R.A.; Christensen, B.G. Tetrahedron Lett.
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5843 Capozzi, G.; Modena, G.; Ronzini, L. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1136-1139 (1972).
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5864 Bowden, K.; Cook, R.S. J. Chem. Soc. Perking Trans. II, 1407-1411 (1972).
5912 Hofmeister, H.; Laurent, H.; Wiechert, R. Ber. 106, 723-726 (1973).
5969 Rao, G.V.; Venkatasubramaniam, N. Aust. J. Chem. 24, 201-203 (1971).
5971 Buchta, R.C.; Evans, D.H. J. Electrochem. Soc. 117, 1492-1500 (1970).
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6026 Gould, R.F.; Schulze, S.R.; Baron, A.L. Advances in Chemistry Series 91, American
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6028 Kruger, H.-R.; Weyerstahl, P.; Marschall, H.; Nerdel, F. Ber. 105, 3553-3565 (1972).
6079 Hirano, S.; Kashimura, N.; Kosaka, N.; Onodera, K. Polymer 13, 190-194 (1972); CA 77,
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6098 Jacobus, J. J. Org. Chem. 38, 402-404 (1973).
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6163 Paquette, L.A.; Meisinger, R.H.; Wingard, R.E., Jr. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95, 2230-2240
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6268 Iriuchijima, S.; Tsuchihashi, G. U.S. 3,732,318 (C1. 260-607) (May 8, 1973).
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6293 Poupko, R.; Rosenthal, I. J. Phys. Chem. 77, 1722-1724 (1973).
6315 Kabuto, K.; Kikuchi, Y.; Yamaguchi, S.; Inoue, N. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan 46, 1839-1844
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6325 Cox, B.G.; Parker, A.J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95, 408-410 (1973).
6347 Marshall, J.A.; Faubl, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 92, 948-955 (1970).
6378 Bartsch, R.A.; Shelly, T.A. J. Org. Chem. 38, 2911-2913 (1973).
6398 DeJonge, C.R.H.I.; Hageman, H.J.; Huysmans, W.G.B.; Mijs, W.J. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin
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6460 Anderson, E.; Fife, T.H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95, 6437-6438 (1973).
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6474 Broxton, T.J.; Deady, L.W. Tetrahedron Lett. 3915-3918 (1973).
6477 Cleve, N.J. Suom. Kemistilehti B 45, 385-390 (1972).
6496 Ibne-Rasa, K.M.; Tahir, A.R.; Rahman, A. Chem. Ind. (London) 232 (1973).
6502 Barrow, K.D.; Barton, D.H.R.; Chain, E.; Ohnsorge, F.W.; Sharma, P. J. Chem. Soc.
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 Perkin Trans. I, 1590-1599 (1973).
6509 Gordon, J. E.; Chang, V. S. K. J. Org. Chem. 38, 3062-3064 (1972).
6510 Klein, J.; Gurfinkel, E. Tetrahedron 2127-2131 (1970); Synthesis 704 (1972).
6543 Findlay, J. A.; Kwan, D. Can. J. Chem. 51. 3299-3301 (1973).
6572 DiNunno, L.; Florio, S.; Todesco, P. E. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1954-1955 (1973).
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6627 Ghera, E.; Perry, D. H.; Shoua, S. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 858-859 (1973).
6648 Matcha, R. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95, 7508-7510 (1973).
6659 Fry, A.J.; Britton, W. E. J. Org. Chem. 38, 4016-4021 (1973).
6671 Hooz, J.; Bridson, J. N. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95, 602 (1973); Synthesis 685 (1973).
6672 Bharucha, N. R. U.S. Pat. 3,772,170 (C1. 204/51) (Nov. 13, 1973).
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6692 McMurry, J. E.; Melton, J. J. Org. Chem. 38, 4367-4373 (1973).
6713 Sakai, H.; Hamada, S.; Yamanaka, Y.; Ito, I.; Izumi, Z.; Kitagawa, H.; Mukoyama, E.;
Suzuki, Z.; Kato, T.; Hosaka, S. U.S. Pat. 3,781,248 (C1. 260-793 M) (Dec. 25, 1973).
6785 Renaud, R. N. Can. J. Chem. 52, 376-380 (1974).
6815 Pearson, D. E.; Buehler, C. A. Chem. Revs. 74, 45-86 (1974).
6818 Bartsch, R. A.; Wiegers, K. E.; Guritz, D. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96, 430-433 (1974).
6822 Balakrishnan, M.; Rao, G. V.; Venkatasubramanian, N. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 6-
10 (1974).
6825 Hanson, J. R. Sythesis, 1-8 (1974).
6830 Robinson, H. B.; Valley, D. J. U.S. Pat. 3,264,536 (C1. 317-258) (Aug. 2, 1966).
6831 Barth, B. P. U.S. Pat. 3,370,107 (C1. 260-901) (Feb. 20, 1968).
6847 Minoura, Y.; Shiina, K.; Yoshikawa, K. J. Polymer Sci. A-1, 5, 2843-2856 (1967).
6878 %\YDO¶NHYLFK2*/HVKLQD796KHLQ60Izv. Sib. Otd. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Ser.
Khim. Nauk. 1973, 114-116; CA 80, 36780.
6937 Abe, T. Chem. Lett. (Japan), 1339-1342 (1973).
6947 Fincini, -'¶$QJHOR-1RLUH--$P&KHP6RF-1214 (1974).
6970 Akhtar, M.; Barton, D. H. R.; Sammes, P. G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 87, 4601-4607 (1965).
6971 Kress, T. J. U.S. 3,794,642 (C1. 260-251R) (Feb. 26, 1974).
6972 Hauser, F. M.; Huffman, R. C. Tetrahedron Lett. 905-908 (1974).
6988 Su, C.-W.; Watson, J. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96,1854-1857 (1974).
7022 Krapcho, A. P.; Jahngen, E. G. E. Jr.; Lovey, A. J.; Short, F. W. Tetrahedron Lett. 1091-
1094 (1974).
7028 Binger, P. Synthesis, 190-192 (1974).
7031 Henbest, H. B.; Trocha-Grimshaw, J. J. Chem. Soc. Perkins Trans. I, 601-603 (1974).
7044 Sharma, A. K.; Swern, D. Tetrahedron Lett. 1503-1506 (1974).
7047 Kende, A. S.; Wade, J. J.; Ridge, D.; Poland, A. J. Org. Chem. 39, 931-937 (1974).
7071 Zu Reckendorf, W. M.; Wassiliadou-Micheli, N. Ber. 107, 1188-1194 (1974).
7073 Baron, A. L. U.S. 3,532,677 (C1. 260-79.3) (Oct. 6, 1970); CA 73, 121223R.
7080 Ferland, J. M. Can. J. Chem. 52, 1652-1661 (1974).
7104 '¶$OHVVDQGUR W. J. U.S. 3,455,866 (C1. 260-37, C 08G, F 16D) (July 15, 1969); CA 71,
62072Z (1969).
7108 Kornblum, N.; Boyd, S. D.; Ono, N. J.Am. Chem. Soc. 96,2580-2587 (1974).
7115 Smith, P. A. S.; Bruckmann, E. M. J. Org. Chem. 39, 1047-1054 (1974).
7153 DeMeijere, A. Ber. 107, 1684-1701 (1974).
7156 Hoyt, J. M.; Williams, M. Jr. U.S. 3,780,004 (C1. 260-87.3) (Dec. 18, 1973).
7158 Jacobs, R. L. U.S. 3,813,446 (C1. 260-622 R) (May 28, 1974).
7173 Haugwitz, R. D.; Maurer, B. V.; Narayanan, V. L. J. Org. Chem. 39, 1359-1361 (1974).
7184 Oda, M.; Kayama, Y.; Kitshara, Y. Tetrahedron Lett. 2019-2022 (1974).
7196 Rose, J. B. Polymer 15, 1456-465 (1974).
7205 St. Clair, T. L.; Bell, H. M. J. Polymer Sci. Polymer Chem. Ed. 12, 1321-1322 (1974).
7229 Ferro, A.; Naves, Y.-R. Helv. Chim. Acta. 57, 1152-1155 (1974).
7234 James, B. G.; Pattenden, G. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1204-1208 (1974).
7255 Segawa, H.; Itoi, K. Japan 73, 19,557 (C1. C08G, B 01 J) (June 14, 1973); CA 80,
104!
 134072X.
7260 Santos, E.; Dyment, F. Plating (East Orange, N.J.) 60, 821-822 (1973); CA 79, 99733G.
7282 Youssef, A. A.; Sharaf, S. M. J. Org. Chem. 39, 1705-1707 (1974).
7285 Wilczynski, J. J.; Johnson, H. W. Jr. J. Org. Chem. 39, 1909-1915 (1974).
7293 *ULIILWK-52¶5HDU-*6\QWKHVLV
7331 Ryan, M. D.; Evans, D. H. J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 881-883 (1974).
7361 Krapcho, A. P. Synthesis 383-419 (1974).
7459 Nakagawa, S.; Takehara, Z.; Yoshizawa, S. Denki Kagaku 41, 880-883 (1973); CA 80 151,
952Q.
7460 Vitali, R.; Gladiali, S.; Gardi, R. Gazz. Chim. Ital. 102, 673-678 (1972); Synthesis 454
(1974).
7476 Mariano, P. S.; Watson, D. J. Org. Chem. 39, 2774-2778 (1974).
7507 Boeckman, R. K. Jr.; Ganem, B. Tetrahedron Lett. 913 (1974); Synthesis, 748 (1974).
7527 Wu, M.-C.; Anderson, L.; Slife, C. W.; Jensen, L. J. J. Org. Chem. 39. 3014-3020 (1974).
7528 Brand, W. W.; Bullock, M. W. U.S. 3,842,096 (C1. 260-327 M) (Oct. 15, 1974).
7533 Thummel, R. P. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 899-900 (1974).
7536 Ghera, E.; Shoua, S. Tetrahedron Lett. 3843-3846 (1974).
7540 Balakrishnan, M.; Rao, G. V.; Venkatasubramanian, N. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 51, 537-539
(1974).
7547 Tokoroyama, T.; Matsuo, K.; Kanazawa, R.; Kotsuki, H.; Kubota, T. Tetrahedron Lett. 3093-
3096 (1974).
7552 Mully, M.; Zsindely, J.; Schmid, H. Chimia 28, 62 (1974); Synthesis, 604 (1974).
7553 Gulbenk, A. H.; Horne, D. J.; Johnston, H. U.S. 3,746,707 (C1. 260-243AN; CO 7D) (July
17, 1973); CA 79, 105301H.
7573 Meresaar, U. Acta. Chem. Scand. A28, 656-660 (1974).
7582 Stetter, H.; Schreckenberg, M. Ber. 107, 210-214 (1974); Synthesis, 63 (1975).
7608 Kocienski, P. J. J. Org. Chem. 39, 3285-3296 (1974).
7609 Rao, Y. S.; Filler R. J. Org. Chem. 39, 3304-3305 (1974); Synthesis, 543 (1975); CA 82,
16,473K.
7613 Varkey, T. E.; Whitfield, G. F.; Swern, D. J. Org. Chem. 39, 3365-3372 (1974).
7619 Rose, J. B. Chimia 28, 561-567 (1974).
7641 Fleming, R. H.; Quina, F. H.; Hammond, G. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96, 7738-7741 (1974).
7643 Eliason, R.; Kreevoy, M. M. J. Phys. Chem. 78, 2658-2659 (1974).
7655 Challis, B. C.; Kerr, S. H.; McDermott, I. R. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1829-1832
(1974).
7657 Girdler, D. J.; Norris, R. K. Tetrahedron Lett. 431-434 (1975).
7691 Iguchi, Y.; Kori, S.; Hayashi, M. J. Org. Chem. 40, 521-523 (1975).
7692 Martin, R. L.; Norcross, B. E. J. Org. Chem. 40, 523-524 (1975).
7699 Thompson, R. M.; Duling, I. N. U.S. 3,738,960 (C1. 260-49) (June 12, 1973).
7709 Leslie, V. J.; Newton, A. B.; Rose, J. B. U.S. 3,775,368 (C1. 260-49) (Nov. 27, 1973).
7710 Heath, D. R.; Wirth, J. G. U.S. 3,869,499 (C1. 260-465 F) (March 4, 1975).
7729 Corey, E. J.; Shiner, C. S.; Volante, R. P.; Cyr, C. R. Tetrahedron Lett. 1161-1164 (1975).
7737 Belanger, A.; Brassard, P. Can. J. Chem. 53, 195-200 (1975).
7756 Doddi, G.; Mencarelli, P.; Stegel, F. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 273-274 (1975).
7763 Johnson, D. C.; Nicholson, M. D.; Haigh, F. C. IPC Technical Paper Series No. 5 (April
1975).
7772 Reinhold, D. F.; Sletzinger, M.; Chemerda, J. M. U.S. Pat. 3,366,679 (C1. 260-519) (Jan.
30, 1968).
7844 Broxton, T. J.; Deady, L. W. J. Org. Chem. 40, 2906-2910 (1975).
7865 Schexnayder, M. A.; Engel, P. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97, 4825-4836 (1975).
7867 Hanzlik, R. P.; Shearer, G. O. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97, 5231-5233 (1975).
7943 Omura, K.; Sharma, A. K.; Swern, D. J. Org. Chem. 41, 957-962 (1976).
7950 Pfeffer, P. E.; Silbert, L. S. J. Org. Chem. 41, 1373-1379 (1976).
7984 Firestone, R. A.; Reinhold, D. F.; Sletzinger, M. U.S. 3,401,178 (C1. 260-340.5) (Sept. 10,
1968).
8008 Diem, H.; Dudeck, C.; Lehmenn, G. U.S. 3,966,727 (C1. 260-249.9) (June 29, 1976).
8017 Chinn, L. J.; Desai, B. N.; Zawadzki, J. F. J. Org. Chem. 40, 1328-1331 (1975).
8030 San Filippo, J. Jr.; Chern, C.-I.; Valentine. J. S. J. Org. Chem. 40, 1678-1680 (1975).
8033 Harvey, R. G.; Goh, S. H.; Cortez, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97, 3468-3479 (1975).
8043 Auerbach, A.; Indictor, N.; Kruger, A. Macromolecules 8, 262-266 (1975).
105!
8050 Bartsch, R. A. Accounts Chem. Res. 8, 239-245 (1975).
8054 Lowe, O. G. J. Org. Chem. 40, 2096-2098 (1975).
8063 Broxton, T. J.; Muir, D. M.; Parker, A. J. J. Org. Chem. 40, 3230-3233 (1975).
8065 Chapas, R. B.; Knudsen, R. D.; Nystrom, R. F.; Snyder, H. R. Org. Chem. 40, 3746-3748
(1975).
8070 Barton, A. F. M. Chem. Revs. 75, 731-753 (1975).
8095 Lowe, O. G. J. Org. Chem. 41, 2061-2064 (1976).
8105 Gibian, M. J.; Ungermann, T. J. Org. Chem. 41, 2500-2502 (1976).
8108 Grayston, M. W.; Lemal, D. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 98, 1278-1280 (1976).
8118 Vollheim, G.; Troger, K.-J.; Lippert, G. U.S. 3,897,499 (C1. 260-580) (July 29, 1975).
8184 Kimura, K.; Inaki, Y.; Takemoto, K. Angew. Makromol. Chem. 49, 103-114 (1976).
8185 Kimura, K.; Hanabusa, K.; Inaki, Y.; Takemoto, K. Angew. Makromol. Chem. 52, 129-142
(1976).
8227 Rooney, M. L. Polymer 17, 555-558 (1976).
8238 Sowa, J. R.; Lamby, E. J.; Calamai, E. G.; Benko, D. A.; Gordinier, A. Organic Prep.
Proced. Int. 7, 137-144 (1975).
8254 Schmidt, U.; Gombos, J.; Haslinger, E.; Zak, H. Ber. 109, 2628-2644 (1976).
8255 Marschall, H.; Muehlkamp, W. B. Ber. 109, 2785-2792 (1976).
8261 Masamune, T.; Numata, S.; Matsue, H.; Matsuyuke, A.; Sato, T.; Murase, H. Bull. Chem.
Soc. Jap. 48, 2294-2302 (1975).
8276 Akerblom, E. B. U.S. Pat. 3,886,208 (C1. 260-518 R) (May 27, 1975).
8287 White, D. W. U.S. Pat. 3,852,242 (C1. 2060-4 CZ) (Dec. 3, 1974).
8306 Murai, A.; Ono, M.; Masamune, T. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 864-865 (1976).
8311 *UD\$3&HSD636RORPRQ,-¶$QLOLQH2-2UJ&KHP-2439 (1976).
8339 %ULPDFRPEH-6'D¶$ERXO,<XNHU/&1-&KHP6RF3HUNLQ7UDQV,-984
(1975).
8340 Jones, E. R. H.; Meakins, G. D.; Miners, J. O.; Wilkins, A. L. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I,
2308-2312 (1975).
8344 Cavazza, M.; Biggi, G.; DelCima, F.; Pietra, F. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1636-1638
(1975).
8350 Markezich, R. L. U.S. 3,992,406 (C1. 260-326 N) (Nov. 16, 1976).
8360 James, G. G.; Pattenden, G. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 1476-1479 (1976).
8372 Alumni, S.; Baciocchi, E. J. Chem. Soc. Perkins Trans. 11, 488-491 (1976).
8399 Knipe, A. C.; Sridhar, N. Synthesis, 606-607 (1976).
8400 Aida, T.; Akasaka, T.;Furukawa, N.; Oae, S. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jap. 49, 1117-1121 (1976).
8405 Aida, T.; Akasaka, T.; Furukawa, N.; Oae, S. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jap. 49, 1441-1442 (1976).
8408 Sekiguchi, S.; Tsutsumi, K.; Shizuka, H.; Matsui, K.; Itagaki, T. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jap. 49,
1521-1523 (1976).
8410 Timoto, S.; Taniyasu, T.; Miyake, T.; Okano, M. Bull. Chem. Soc. 49, 1931-1936 (1976).
8418 Uzuki, T.; Takahashi, M.; Komachinya, Y.; Wakamatsu, H. U.S. 3,991,077 (C1. 260-326.14
T) (Nov. 9, 1976).
8436 Kornblum, N.; Cheng, L.; Kerber, R. C.; Kester, M.; Newton, B. M.; Pinnick, H. W.; Smith, R.
G.; Wade, P. A. J. Org. Chem. 41, 1560-1564 (1976).
8451 Padwa, A.; Au, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 98, 5581-5590 (1976).
8455 Huang, S. L.; Omura, K.; Swern, D. J. Org. Chem. 41, 3329-3331 (1976); Synthesis, 505
(1977); CA 85-142716S.
8501 Toray Inds. KK Japan. J7 6028-734 (C1. A14F01) (A32 A94) ( Aug. 20, 1976).
8506 Seymour, R. B.; Johnson, E. L. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 20,3425-3429 (1976).
8529 Mozdzen, E. C. Purdue University Organic Seminar (Jan. 29, 1977).
8548 Grossert, J. S.; Langler, R. F. Can. J. Chem. 55, 407-420 (1977).
8551 Haines, A. H. Chem. Ind. (London), 883-887 (1976).
8554 Bailes, P. J. Chem. Ind. (London), 69-73 (1977).
8564 Adams, J. H.; Gupta, P.; Khan, M. S.; Lewis, J. R.; Watt, R. A. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans
I, 2089-2093 (1976).
8576 Kennewell, P. D.; Taylor, J. B. Chem. Soc. Revs. 4, 189-210 (1975).
8582 Bartsch, R. A.; Roberts, D. K. Tetrahedron Lett. 321-322 (1977).
8601 Iwakura, Y.; Uno, K.; Nguyen, C. Makromol. Chem. 175, 2079-90 (1974); CA 81, 152729E
(1974).
8603 Kamino, J.; Okamoto, S. Japan. 73, 29,811 (C1. D 01F) (Sept. 13, 1973); CA81, 38758P
(1974).
106!
8658 Nakano, F.; Sugishita, M. Japan. 74 24,057 (C1. C 07C, B 01J) (June 20, 1974); CA 82,
111772R.
8677 Richardson, T.; Hustad, G. O. U.S. 3,658731 (C1. 260-2.5 BD) (April 25, 1972).
8683 Heath, D. R.; Wirth, J. G. U.S. 3,873,593 (C1. 260-465 F) (March 25, 1975).
8685 Heath, D. R.; Takekoshi, T. U.S. 3,879,428 (C1. 260-346.3) (April 22, 1975).
8690 Wasson, B. K.; Williams, H. W. R. U.S. 3,812,150 (C1. 260-326.15; C07D) (May 21,1974);
CA 81, 37585T (1974).
8696 Gani, V.; Viout, P. Tetrahedron 32, 2883-2889 (1976).
8714 Takekoshi, T. U.S. 4,024,110 (C1. 260-47 CZ) (May 17, 1977).
8717 Mueller, W. H. U.S. 4,028,417 (C1. 260-586 C) (June7, 1977).
8735 Szmant, H. H.; Birke, A.; Lau, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 99, 1863-1871 (1977).
8759 Carson, J. R.; Hortenstine, J. T.; Maryanoff, B. E.; Molinari, A. J. J. Org. Chem. 42, 1096-
1098 (1977).
8766 Mandell, L.; Daley, R. F.; Day, R. A. Jr. J. Org. Chem. 42, 1461-1462 (1977).
8779 Roedig, A.; Zaby, G.; Scharf, W. Ber. 110, 1484-1491 (1977).
8809 Galli, C.; Mandolini, L. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 443-445 (1977).
8825 Attwood, T. E.; Barr, D. A.; Feasey, G. G.; Leslie, V. J.; Newton, A. B.; Rose, J. B. Polymer
18, 354-358 (1977).
8830 Ito, Y.; Fujii, S.; Konoike, T.; Saegusa, T. Synthetic Commun. 6, 429-433 (1976); Sythesis
283 (1977).
8832 Andreev, S. M.; Tsiryapkin, V A.; Samoilova, N. A.; Mironova, N. V.; Davidovich, Y. A.;
Rogozhin, S. V. Synthesis 303-304 (1977).
8833 Mukaiyama,T.; Sato, T.; Suzuki, S.; Inoue, T.; Nakamura, H. Chem. Lett. (1) 95-98 (1976);
Synthesis 433 (1977).
8838 Pri-Bar, I.; Buchman, O.; Blum J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1443-1446 (1977).
8843 Guenther, H. J.; Jaeger, V.; Skell, P. S. Tetrahedron Lett. 2539-2542 (1977).
8861 Markgraf, J. H.; Ibsen, M. S.; Kinny, J. B.; Kuper, J. W.; Lurie, J. B.; Marrs, D. R.; McCarthy,
C. A.; Pile, J. M.; Pritchard, T. J. J. Org. Chem. 42, 2631-2632 (1977).
8867 Hofheinz, W. U.S. 4,042,597 (C1. 548-339) (Aug. 16,1977).
8885 Kabalka, G. W.; Baker, J. D. Jr.; Neal, G. W. J. Org. Chem. 42, 512-517 (1977).
8888 Hajos, Z. G. U.S. 4,048,195 (C1. 260-345.9 S) (Sept. 13, 1977).
8906 Ritz, J.; Reese, J. Ger. Offen. 2,250,232 (C1. C 07C, C09D) (Apr. 25, 1974); CA 82,
113469W (1975).
8923 Razumovskii, S. D.; Shatokhina, E. L.; Malievskii, A. D.; Zaikov, G. E. Izv. Akad. Nauk.
SSSR, Ser. Khim. 543-546 (1975); CA 82, 169742X (1975).
8927 Carosello, T. F.; Weinberg, J. Ger. Offen. 2,432,685 (C1. C 08F, C 04B, A 01N) (Feb. 6,
1975); CA 82, 171903U.
8951 Gigg, R.; Conant, R. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I, 2006-2014 (1977).
8953 Adams, C.; Gold, V.; Reuben, D. M.E. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1466-1472 (1977).
8954 Adams, C.; Gold, V.; Reuben, D. M. E. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1472-1478 (1977).
8955 Liu, M. T. H.; Jennings, B. M.; Yamamoto, Y.; Maruyama, K. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans.
II, 1490-1492 (1977).
8960 Agarwal, S. K.; Moorthy, S. N.; Mahrotra, I.; Devaprabhakara, D. Synthesis 483 (1977).
8970 Philipp, B.; Schleicher, H.; Wagenknecht, W. Chemtech 702-709 (Nov. 1977).
8984 Relles, H. M.; Johnson, D. S.; Manello, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 99, 6677-6686 (1977).
9096 Williams, F. J.; Donahue, P. E. J. Org. Chem. 42, 3414-3419 (1977).
9107 Mendelson, W. L.; Webb, R. L. U.S. 4,057,585 (C1. 260-612 D) (Nov. 8, 1977).
9135 Troostwijk, C. B.; Kellogg, R. M. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 932-933 (1977).
9138 Aydeiran, D.; Bamkole, T. O.; Hirst, J.; Onyido, I. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II 1580-1583
(1977).
9142 McLennan, D. J. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1708-1715 (1977).
9142 Grout, A.; McLennan, D. J.; Spackman, I. H. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. II, 1758-1763
(1977).
9145 Wasson, B. K.; Williams, H. W. R. U.S. 3,944,560 (C1. 260-302H) (March 16, 1976); CA
85, 94415U.
9150 Cresswell, R. M.; Mentha, J. W. U.S. 3,878,252 (C1. 260-607A; C07C) (April 15, 1975);
CA 83, 78855R.
9170 Turbak, A. F.; Hammer, R. B.; Portnoy, N. A.; West, A. C. U.S. 4,076,933 (C1. 536-30)
(Feb. 28, 1978).
9175 .X]QHWVRY99*ULJRU¶HY936KSDQ¶NR63%R]KHQNR/*=DVKFK0HW-
107!
 634 (1975); CA 84, 10359X.
9196 Amick, D. R. J. Heterocycl. Chem. 12, 1051-1052 (1975); CA 84, 59082R.
9222 DeOliveira, L. A.; Toma, H. E.; Giesbrecht, E. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. Lett. 12, 195-203 (1976);
C. A. 84, 112283K.
9244 Von Strandtmann, M.; Shavel, J. Jr.; Klutchko, S. U.S. 3,892,739 (C1. 260-243R; C07D)
(July 1,1975); CA 84, 43632J.
9249 Von Strandtmann, M.; Shavel, J. Jr.; Klutchko, S.; Cohen, M. U.S. 3,937,704 (C1. 260-
250C; C07D) (Feb. 10, 1976); CA 84, 150650K.
9338 Kremley, M. M.; Fialkov, Y. A. Ukr. Khim. Zh. (Russ. Ed.) 42, 1058-1060 (1976); CA 86,
72048V.
9396 Kuznetsov, V. V.; Bozhenko, L. G.; Petrova, I. V. Izv. Sev.-Kavk. Nauchn. Tsentra Vyssh.
Shk., Ser. Estestv. Nauk. 4, 47-79 (1976); CA 86, 179414P.
9402 Von Strandtmann, M.; Shavel, J. Jr.; Klutchko, S.; Cohen, M. P. U.S. 3,843,730 (C1. 260-
592; C 07C) (Oct. 22, 1974), CA 82, 125172G.
9408 Handa, S.; Tanaka, Y.; Nishibata, A.; Ueda, S.; Inamoto, Y.; Saito, M.; Tanimoto, F.; Kitano,
H. U.S. 4,059,610 (C1. 544-193) (Nov. 22, 1977).
9412 Mimoun, H.; Thao, D.; Seree DeRochi, I. U.S. 4,085,145 (C1. 260-592) (April 18, 1978).
9423 Zollinger, H. Angew. Chem. Intern. Ed. Engl. 17, 141-150 (1978).
9434 Takita, Y.; Maehara, T.; Yamazoe, N.; Seiyama, T. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jap. 51, 669-670
(1978).
9439 Jawdosiuk, M.; Kmiotek-Akarzynska, I.; Wilczynski, W. Can. J. Chem. 56, 218-220 (1978).
9464 Tokura, N. Garasu Kogyo Gijutsu Shoreikai Kenkyu Hokoku 28, 85-94 (1976); CA 87,
39046R.
9488 Buncel, E.; Wilson, H. Advances in Physical Organic Chemistry, Academic Press, London,
New York, San Francisco, Vol. 14, 133-202 (1977).
9541 Wagenknecht, W.; Scheicher, H.; Philipp, B. Faserforsch. Textiltech. 28, 546-547 (1977);
CA 88, 75457B.
9563 Maruthamuthu, P.; Santappa, M. Indian J. Cham., Sect. A 16A, 43-45 (1978); CA 88,
126959E.
9567 7URILPRY%$0LNKDOHYD$,.RURVWRYD6(9DNXO¶VND\D7,3RJXGD,6
Voronkov, M. G. Zh. Prikl. Khim. (Leningrad) 51, 117-120 (1978); CA 137048H.
9581 Tsenyuga, V. A.; Nadezhina, N. A.; Ovchinnikov, p. N.; Timofeeva, E. Y. Zh. Org. Khim.
14, 337-339 (1978); C. A. 88, 169698M.
9604 Hagedorn III, A. A.; Farnum, D. G. J. Org. Chem. 42, 3765-3767 (1977).
9605 Marvel, E. N.; Reed, J. K.; Gaenzler, W.; Tong, H. J. Org. Chem. 42, 3783-3784 (1977).
9638 Ouchi, T.; Tatsumi, A.; Imoto, M. J. Polymer Sci. Polymer Chem. Ed. 16, 707-711 (1978).
9652 .D]DQVNLL.66RORY¶\DQRY$$%XEURYVN\6$Makromol. Chem. 179, 969-973
(1978); CA 88, 170564W.
9678 Radhakrishnamurti, P. S.; Padhi, S. C. Curr. Sci. 46, 517-518 (1977); CA 87, 183721Z.
9686 Wirht, J. G.; Heath, D. R. U.S. 3,787,364 (C1. 260-61) (Jan. 22, 1974).
9707 Reetz, M. T.; Eibach, F. Angew Chem. Intern. Ed. Engl. 17, 278-279 (1978).
9727 Salomon, R.G.; Sinha, A.; Salomon, M.F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100, 520-526 (1978).
9746 Irie, H.; Katakawa, J.; Mizuno, Y.; Udaka, S.; Taga, T.; Osaki, K J. Chem. Soc. Chem.
Comm. 717-718 (1978).
9752 James, B.R.; Morris R.H. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 929-930 (1978).
9761 Julia, M.; Righini, A.; Uguen, D. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans I, 1646-1651 (1978).
9767 Dirlam, J.P.; Cue, B.W. Jr.; Gombatz, K.J. J. Org. Chem. 43,76-79 (1978).
9769 Krapcho, A.P.; Weimaster, J. F.; Eldridge, J.M.; Jahngen, E.G.E. Jr.; Lovey, A.J.; Stephens,
W.P. J. Org. Chem. 43, 138-47 (1978); CA 88, 50032Z.
9771 Williams, F.J.; Donahue, P.E. J. Org. Chem. 43,250-254 (1978).
9773 Cocivera, M.; V.; Woo, K.W.; Effio, A. J. Org. Chem. 43, 1140-1145 (1978); CA 88,120237W.
9780 Welch, S.C.; Rao, A.S.C.P. J. Org. Chem. 43, 1957-1961 (1978).
9783 Hutchins, R.O.; Kandasamy, D.; Dux III, F.; Maryanoff, C.A.; Rotstein, D.; Goldsmith, B.;
Burgoyne, W.; Cistone, F.; Dalessandro, J.; Puglis, J. J. Org. Chem. 43,1140-1145 (1978).
9786 Mancuso, A.J.; Huang, S.-L.; Swern, D. J. Org. Chem. 43,2480-2482 (1978); CA 89,2369OT.
9825 Wendler, N.L.; Girota, N.N.; Zelawski, Z.S. U.S. Pat. 4,094,878 (Cl. 260-297Z) (June 13,
1978); CA89,163425U.
9850 Johnson, D.C.; Nicholson, M.D. U.S. Pat4,097,666 (Cl. 536-57) (June 27, 1978)
9871 Shieh, B.; Moriguchi, A.; Matsubara, Y. Nippon Kagaku Kaishi 1167-9 (1978); CA 90,6549R.
9874 Iwamuro, H.; Ohshio, T.; Matsubara, Y. Nippon Kagaku Kaishi, 909-11 (1978); CA 90,23267Q.
108!
9895 +DPPHU5%2¶6KDXJKQHVV\0(6WUDXFK(57XUEDN$)-$SSO3RO\P6FL-
94 (1979); CA90, 122862M.
9926 Omura, K.; Swern, D. Tetrahedron 34, 1651-1660 (1978).
9928 Blancou, H.; Moreau, P.; Commeyras, A. Tetrahedron 33,2061-2067 (1977).
9944 Savignac, P.; Breque, A.; Bartet, B.; Wolf, R. C.R.H. Acad. Sci. Ser. C, 13-16 (1978).
9949 Kim, J. K.; Lingman, E.; Caserio, M.C. J. Org. Chem. 43,4545-4546 (1978).
9960 Babler, J.H. W.S. 4,175,204 (Cl. 560-262) (Nov. 20, 1979).
9961 Johnson, R.N.; Farnham, A.G. U.S. 4,175,175 (Cl. 528-125) (Nov. 20, 1979).
9964 Dryden, H.L.Jr.; Sarcos, M.G. Westrich, J.P. U.S. 4,141,920 (Cl. 260-607B; C07C148/00)
(Feb. 27, 1979); CA 90 168063E.
9985 Larcheveque, M.; Mulot, P. Can. J. Chem. 57, 17-20 (1979).
9986 Gregory, B.; Bullock, E.; Chen, T.S. Can. J. Chem. 57,44-52 (1979).
10000 Fatma, W.; Iqbal, J.; Ismail, H.; Ishratullah, K.; Shaida, W.A.; Rahman, W. Chem. Ind.
(London), 315-316 (1979).
10002 Chollet, A.; Hagenbuch, J.P.; Vogel, P. Helv. Chim. Acta. 62,511-524 (1979).
10008 Kornblum, N.; Carlson, S.C.; Smith, R.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 101,647-657 (1979).
10011 Bartsch, R.A.; Read, R.A.; Larsen, D.T.; Roberts, D.K.; Scott, K.J.; Cho, B.R. J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 101, 1176-1181 (1979).
10032 Dossena, A.; Marchelli, R.; Casnati, G. J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 370-371 (1979); CA
91,211782Y.
10043 Gigg, R. J. Chem. Soc.; Perkin Trans I. 712-718 (1979).
10044 Tanaka, H.; Nagai, Y.; Irie, H.; Uyeo, S.; Kuno, A. J. Chem. Soc.; Perkin Trans. I, 874-878
(1979).
10048 Guest, D.W.; Williams, D.H. J. Chem. Soc.; Perkin TransI, 1695-1697 (1979).
10066 Babler, J. H.; Coghlan, M.J.; Feng, M.; Fries, P. J. Chem. 44,3157-3162 (1979).
10077 Jarvis, B.B.; Nicholas, P.E. J. Chem. 44, 2951-2952 (1979).
10078 Uijttewaal, A.P.; Jonkers, F.L.; Van der Gen, A. J. Chem. 44,3157-3162 (1979).
10084 Mancuso, A.J.; Brownfain, D.S.; Swern, D. J. Chem. 44, 4148-4150 (1979); C.A. 91,210384H.
10085 Detty, M.R. J. Chem. 44,4528-4531 (1979).
10086 Kornblum, N.; Singaram, S. J. Chem. 44,4727-4729 (1979).
10091 Kamogawa, H.; Koizumi, H.; Nanasawa, M. J. Polymer Sci.; Polymer Chem. Ed. 11,9-18
(1979).
10116 Kurita K.; Hirakawa, N.; Iwakura, Y. Makromol. Chem. 180,855-858 (1979).
10123 Kurita K.; Hirakawa, N.; Morinaga, H.; Iwakura, Y. Makromol. Chem. 180, 2769-2773 (1979).
10127 Olah, G.A.; Narang, S.C.; Gupta, B.G.; Malhotra, R.; Synthesis 61-2 (1979) CA 90, 103544T.
10134 Chari, R.V.J.; Reed, J.N.; Turnbull, K. Tetrahedron Lett. 1481-1484
10139 Still, I.W.J.; Reed, J.N.; Turnbull, K. Tetrahedron Lett. 1481-1484 (1979).
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10224 Morimoto, A.; Nanbu, N.; Nanby, T. Jpn Kokai Tokkyo Koho 79,44.611 (Cl. C07Cl47/02) (April
9, 1979); CA 91,91170Y.
10286 Takagi, U.; Tsumura, R.; Mazaki, T. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 79,125,604 (Cl. C07 C79/04) (Sept.
29, 1979); CA92, 110519H.
10315 Gibbio, V.; Omato, F. U.S. 4,206,118 (Cl. 548-155) (Jun. 3, 1980).
10320 Bayer, H.O.; Swithenbank, C.; Yih, H.R.Y. U.S. 4,220, 468 (Cl. 71-124) (Sept. 2, 1980).
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1714-1720 (1980).
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109!
 International, Boston, MA 491M-100-101, (1971).
10569 (ULFNVRQ$6$&RPSLODWLRQRIS.D¶VRI2UJDQLF&RPSRXQGV&URZQ=HOOHUEDFKUHVXOWV
unpublished (1979).
10720 Mancuso, A.J.; Swern, D. Synthesis, 165-185 (1981).
10762 Boldebuck, E.M.; Banucci, E.G. U.S.4,255,471 (Cl. 427-385.5) (Mar. 10, 1981).
10771 Carter, C.O. U.S. 4,267,034 (Cl. 208-323) (May 12, 1981).
16359 Tidwell, T.T. Synthesis, 857-70 (1990).

110!