Rules For Subject

Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement
1. A verb must agree with its subject, not with any additive phrase in the sentence such as a prepositional or
verbal phrase. Ignore such phrases.
Example: Your copy (of these rules) is on the desk.
Example: The video will not be available until the dispute (over video rights) is settled.
Example: Ms. Hixon's record (of community service, outstanding teaching, and university involvement)
qualifies for her promotion.
2. In an inverted sentence beginning with a prepositional phrase, the verb still agrees with its subject.
Example: At the end of the Christmas holidays come the best sales.
Example: Under the house are some old Mason jars.
3. Prepositional phrases beginning with the compound prepositions such as along with, together with, in
addition to, and as well as should be ignored, for they do not affect subject-verb agreement.
Example: Gladys Knight, as well as the Pips, is riding the midnight train to Georgia.
Example: A driver's license, together with two other pieces of identification, is required.
4. A verb must agree with its subject, not its subject complement.
Example: Taxes are a problem.
Example: A problem is taxes.
Example: He's a hedonist; his main source of pleasure is food and women.
Example: For some people, a few pounds are no problem.
5. When a sentence begins with an expletive such as there, here, or it, the verb agrees with the subject, not
with the expletive.
Example: Surely, there are several loyal alumni in this area who would be interested in meeting regularly as a
group.
Example: There are fifty students in my English composition class.
Example: There are some awful statistics coming out on child abuse.
6. Indefinite pronouns such as each, either, one, everyone, everybody, and everything are singular.
Example: Somebody in Detroit loves me.
Example: Does either of you have a pencil?
Example: Neither of my parents has a formal education.
7. Indefinite pronouns such as several, few, both, and many are plural.
Example: Both of my sorority sisters have decided to live off campus.
Example: Few seek the enlightenment of higher education.
8. Indefinite pronouns such as all, some, most, and none may be singular or plural depending on their
referents.
Example: Some of the food is cold.
Example: Some of the vegetables are cold.
Example: I can think of some remarks in retort, but none seem appropriate.
NOTE: None is singular when it means "no one of" or "not a single one."
Example: None of the girls is married.
Example: None of the children is as sweet as Mary Ann.
9. Fractions such as one-half and one-third may be singular or plural depending on the referent.
Example: Half of the mail has been opened.
Example: Half of the letters have been read.
10. Subjects joined by and take a plural verb unless the subjects are thought to be one item or unit.
Example: Jim and Tammy are "televangelists."
Example: Guns and Roses is my favorite rock group.
Example: Chicken and dumplings is my favorite holiday dish.
Example: A psychiatric analysis and examination has been done.
11. In cases where the subjects are joined by or, nor, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, the verb must agree with
the subject closer to it.
Example: Either the teacher or the students are responsible.
Example: Neither the students nor the teacher is responsible.
12. Relative pronouns, such as who, which, or that, which refer to plural antecedents require plural verbs.
However, when the relative pronoun refers to a single subject, the pronoun takes a singular verb.
Example: She is one of the girls who cheer on Friday nights. BUT She is the only one of the cheerleaders who
has a broken leg.
13. Subjects preceded by every, each, and many a are singular.
Example: Every man, woman, and child was given a life preserver.
Example: Each graduate and undergraduate is required to pass a proficiency exam.
Example: Many a tear has to fall, but it's all in the game.
14. A collective noun, such as audience, faculty, or jury, requires a singular verb when the group is regarded
as a whole and a plural verb when the members of the group are regarded as individuals.
Example: The jury has made its decision.
Example: The faculty are preparing their presentations.
15. Subjects preceded by the number of or the percentage of are singular, while subjects preceded by a
number of or a percentage of are plural.
Example: The number of vacationers in Florida is increasing.
Example: A number of vacationers are young people. However, a large percentage of the vacationers are
senior citizens.
16. Titles of books, companies, name brands, and groups are singular or plural depending on their meaning.
Example: Trix are for kids.
Example: Snickers satisfies you.
Example: Great Expectations is my favorite novel.
Example: The Rolling Stones are performing in the Super Dome.
Example: Kiss is also performing.
Example: Cats is my favorite musical.
17. Certain nouns of Latin and Greek origin have unusual singular and plural forms.
Singular Plural
criterion criteria
alumnus alumni
datum data
medium media
Example: The data are available for inspection.
Example: The only criterion for membership is a high GPA.
18. Some nouns such as deer, shrimp, and sheep have the same spelling for both their singular and plural
forms. In these cases, the meaning of the sentence will determine whether they are singular or plural.
Example: Deer are beautiful animals.
Example: The spotted deer is licking the sugar cube.
19. Some nouns like scissors, jeans, and wages have plural forms but no singular counterparts. These nouns
almost always take plural verbs.
Example: The scissors are on the table.
Example: My Lee jeans fit me like a glove.
20. Words used as words, not as grammatical parts of the sentence, require singular verbs.
Example: Can't is the contraction for cannot.
Example: Cats is the plural form of cat.
21. Mathematical expressions of subtraction and division require singular verbs, while expressions of addition
or multiplication take either singular or plural verbs.
Example: Ten divided by two equals five.
Example: Five times seven equals (OR equal) thirty-five.
22. Nouns expressing time, distance, weight, and measurement are singular when they refer to a unit and
plural when they refer to separate items.
Example: Fifty yards is a short distance.
Example: Ten years have passed since I finished college.
23. Expressions of quantity are usually plural.
Example: Nine out of ten dentists recommend Crest.
24. Some nouns ending in -ics, such as economics and ethics, take singular verbs when they refer to
principles, a system or a field of study; however, when they refer to individual practices or applications, they
usually take plural verbs.
Example: Ethics is being taught in the spring.
Example: His unusual business ethics get him into trouble.
25. Some nouns like measles, news, and calculus, which appear plural in form, are actually singular in
number. These words take singular verbs.
Example: Measles is a dreadful disease.
Example: Calculus requires great skill in algebra.
26. A verbal noun (infinitive or gerund) serving as a subject is treated as singular, even if the object of the
verbal phrase is plural.
Example: Hiding your mistakes does not make them go away.
Example: To run five miles is my goal.
27. A noun phrase or clause acting as the subject of a sentence requires a singular verb.
Example: What I need is to be loved.
Example: Whether there is any connection between the two events is unknown.
28. Plural subjects followed by a singular appositive require a plural verb; similarly, a singular subject
followed by a plural appositive requires a singular verb.
Example: When the girls throw a party, they each bring a gift.
Example: The board, all ten members, is meeting today.
https://uwf.edu/cassh/support-resources/the-uwf-writing-lab/expand-your-skills/grammar-
reviews/introsubverbagr/
Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural
subject takes a plural verb.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.
Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding
subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following
sentence:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to
it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to
this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as,
besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular
verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.
Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
NOTE:
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of
people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's
with a plural subject.
Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a
unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in this
section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular
verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
NOTE
In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be strictly singular. However, according
to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since
Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to
have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it
seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism." When none is
clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.
Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might be
singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.
NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also
consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and
hears a lot these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the
same sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even
better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we
say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things
that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular
subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we
usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the
object clause in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)
Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being
expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.
Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech
and writing.
What is Subject-Verb Agreement?

A simple subject-verb agreement definition implies that the subject of the sentence and the verb of the
sentence must be in agreement in number.
Let’s take an example to understand this concept.
Example 1: The dog is playing with his ball.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘dog’ and the verb used is singular in nature, ‘is playing’.
Example 2: The dogs are playing with their ball.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘dogs’ and the verb used is plural in nature, ‘are playing’.
Subject-Verb Agreement Rules
Let’s explore a series of subject-verb agreement rules required to ace questions based on Sentence
Correction.
RULE 1: When two subjects are joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural.
For example: My friend and his mother are in town.
RULE 2: When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular.
For example: The captain and coach of the team has been sacked.
In case these were two different individuals, two articles need to be used: The captain and the coach of
the team have been sacked.
RULE 3: Indefinite pronouns (everyone, each one, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, anyone,
anybody etc.) are always singular.
For example: Everyone is selfish.
We do not use 'are' in this sentence.
This rule does not apply to: few, many, several, both, all, some.
RULE 4: When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned with plural meaning the plural verb is
used.
For example: 40 of every 100 children are malnourished.
RULE 5: When the subjects joined by ‘either or’ or ‘neither nor’ are of different persons, the verb will
agree in person and number with the noun nearest to it.
For example: Neither you nor your dogs know how to behave.
Either of the books is fine for MAT preparation.
Always remember that, when either and neither are used as pronouns, they are treated as singular and
always take the singular verb.
RULE 6: If connectives/appositives like along with, together with, as well as, accompanied by etc. are
used to combine two subjects, the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.
For example: Mr. Ram, accompanied by his wife Sita and his brother, was banished to the forest.
Sentence Correction: Concepts & Rules
Basics of Sentence Correction
Subject Verb Agreement - 1
Parallelism Error
Subject-Pronoun Agreement
Sentence Correction Exercise
Modifier Errors
Subject Verb Agreement - 2
Redundancy Error
Subject-Verb Agreement Exercise
RULE 7: A number of/ the number or
‘A number of (some countable noun)’ is always plural. ‘The number of (some countable noun)’ is always
singular.
For example: A number of students are going on the trip.
RULE 8: The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or time.
For example: Five gallons of oil was required to get the engine running.
RULE 9: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with a countable noun, the verb is
plural.
For example: Some men are needed for the battle.
RULE 10: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with an uncountable noun, the verb is
singular.
For example: Some milk is spoilt.
Subject-Verb agreement is essential to make sure that a sentence is grammatically correct. Thus, the
above ten basic rules can help you to master subject-verb agreement.
Subject–Verb Agreement Rules

Key: subject = yellow, bold; verb = green, underline
Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
Example: She writes every day.
2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example: They write every day.

Sometimes, however, it seems a bit more complicated than this.
3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.
Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of
employees who left their jobs within 2 years are are reflective of the level of job
satisfaction.
4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the
sentence must agree with the subject.
Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an
in-depth understanding of participants.
Example: An assumption is something that is generally accepted as true and is an
important consideration when conducting a doctoral study.
5. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb
still agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the
subject of the sentence.
Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the Master’s degrees is very motivated.
Example: Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom
participation include using small groups and clarifying expectations.
Example: The focus of the interviews was nine purposively selected participants.
6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a
singular verb.
Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.
7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest
to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.
Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.
8. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody,
nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.
Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.
9. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to
include in the study.
Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.
10. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings,
proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the
city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.
11. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb.
Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.
12. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered
singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are group, team, committee,
family, and class.
Example: The group meets every week.

Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.
However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is
much less common.
Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their private
lives.
Definitions and Examples of Basic Sentence Elements

The Mastering the Mechanics webinar series also describes required sentence elements
and varying sentence types. Please see these archived webinars for more information.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font = prepositional phrase
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a

subject and a verb and is a complete idea.
o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to

an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.
o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…
Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the
subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”
o I like spaghetti.
Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the
verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”
o I like spaghetti.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a
linking verb. It links the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the
predicate of the sentence, in this case, good.)
Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the
object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For
whom?”
o I like spaghetti.
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until,
after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one
of many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”
o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.
English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:
 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.
 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation

point).
 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.
 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).
 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an
independent clause.
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and
modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font =prepositional phrase
Here are a few examples:
 She read.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent
clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined
 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much
to learn.
Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since,
while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the
other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma
separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause
= blue, italics
 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.
 Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at
least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics
 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and
objective.
 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence

variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the
reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.
Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete
sentences) are connected improperly.
Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.
There are two complete sentences in the above example:

Sentence 1: I love to write papers.
Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.
One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed
to indicate their preference.
Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.
Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.
Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the
middle of a sentence.
Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were inconclusive, therefore more
research needs to be done on the topic.
Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive
Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore
Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic
To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add
a comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.
Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research needs to
be done on the topic.
You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly. There are
several easy ways to connect independent clauses.
Correcting Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to
connect independent clauses.
1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller
sentences using a period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences.
Check, however, to make sure that this solution does not result in short, choppy
sentences.
Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the
time.
2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a

grammatically correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that
establishes a close relationship between the two sentences.
Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the
time.
3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a

coordinating conjunction (such as and, but, or or), corrects a run-on sentence. This
method emphasizes the relationship between the two clauses.
Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had
the time.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into

a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (such as because, unless,
and although) connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option
works to cement the relationship between the two parts of the sentence and may
improve the flow of the clauses.
Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the
time.
However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence
variety helps to keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.
Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is
a necessary component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be
a subject (usually a noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence
does not express a complete idea.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.
Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no improvement?).
Fragments can be corrected by identifying the missing element and including it.
Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:

Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that
contributed to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics.
Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action (What are the
doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected easily.
Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to
the body of knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics.
Parallel Construction Basics

Parallel ideas must be presented in parallel grammatical form. Parallel grammatical form
means that each part of a sentence uses the same grammatical structure.
Examples of Parallel Construction
Between and And

Incorrect: We debated the difference between the weather in Minnesota in the
winter and how hot it is in the summer.
Correct: We debated the difference between the weather in Minnesota in the

winter and the weather in Minnesota in the summer.
Both and And

Incorrect: The films were enjoyable to watch and discuss.
Correct: The films were enjoyable to watch and to discuss.
Neither and Nor; Either and Or

Incorrect: Neither the responses to the questionnaire nor what we asked on the
survey were answered.
Correct: Neither the responses to the questionnaire nor the responses to the
survey were answered.
Not Only and But Also

Incorrect: It was surprising not only that the house sold, but also it sold well over the
asking price.
Correct: It was surprising not only that the house sold but also that it sold well over the
asking price.
Parallel Construction in a Series

Sentences with series, or lists, require particular attention to parallel construction.
Example 1:
Incorrect: This paper will address No Child Left Behind, how to teach effectively, and
instructing with multimedia aids.
Correct: This paper will address No Child Left Behind benchmarks, effective
teaching strategies, and multimedia instructional aids.
Now, the series has parallel elements (benchmarks, strategies, and aids are all plural
nouns).
Example 2:
Incorrect: The students were unprepared, poorly behaved, and disrupted the class.
Correct: The students were underprepared, poorly behaved, and disruptive.
Now, the series has parallel elements (underprepared, behaved, and disruptive are all
adjectives).
Relative Clauses and Relative Pronouns
Relative Clause
This is a clause that generally modifies a noun or a noun phrase and is often introduced by
a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose). A relative clause connects ideas by
using pronouns that relate to something previously mentioned and allows the writer to
combine two independent clauses into one sentence. A relative clause is also known as an
adjective clause. There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.
o The book that she read was important for her literature review. (restrictive)
o The participants who were interviewed volunteered to be part of the study.
(restrictive)
o Walden University, which is entirely online, has main administrative offices in
Baltimore and Minneapolis. (nonrestrictive)
Relative Pronouns
Referring to a human Referring to something Possessive

other than a human
Restrictive who, whom, that* which, that** whose
Nonrestrictive (with who, whom which whose

commas)
*In APA, per Section 3.22, use who or whom instead of that when referring to a human.
**Although both which and that are grammatically correct in restrictive clauses, APA
prefers that for restrictive clauses. See APA Section 3.22 for more information on this.
 Take this quiz on Grammar Diagnostic Quiz to test your understanding of relative
pronouns.
 Use relative clauses to create more sentence variety.
Restrictive Clauses
Restrictive Clause
A restrictive clause restricts or defines the meaning of a noun or noun phrase and provides
necessary information about the noun in the sentence. It is not separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas. Restrictive clauses are more common in writing than
nonrestrictive clauses. A restrictive clause is also sometimes referred to as an essential
clause or phrase.
o The student who sits in the back of the room asks a lot of questions.
o The results that I obtained may invoke positive social change.
o The journalist whose story I read yesterday has won prizes for her work.
When the relative pronoun functions as the object of the sentence, it can (and usually is)
omitted from the relative clause.

o The article that I requested did not arrive on time.
o The participants who I interviewed met me at the local library.
Nonrestrictive Clauses
Nonrestrictive Clause
A nonrestrictive clause adds additional information to a sentence. It is usually a proper noun
or a common noun that refers to a unique person, thing, or event. It uses commas to show
that the information is additional. The commas almost act like parentheses within the
sentence. If the information between the commas is omitted, readers will still understand the
overall meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive clause is also known as a nonessential
clause or phrase.
o I want to thank my father, Mark Smith, for all of his love and support.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: I want to thank my father for all of his
love and support.
o The hypothesis, which I tested throughout the research, was rejected.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: The hypothesis was rejected.
o I have found the article, which I have been looking for.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: I have found the article.
While that is sometimes used in restrictive clauses, it is not allowed in nonrestrictive
clauses.
o CORRECT: Minneapolis, which has a population of about 400,000, is the largest

city in Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: Minneapolis, that has a population of about 400,000, is the largest
city in Minnesota.
o CORRECT: I had to fix my printer, which I bought less than a year ago.
o INCORRECT: I had to fix my printer, that I bought less than a year ago.
A relative pronoun cannot be deleted in a nonrestrictive clause.

city in Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: Minneapolis, has a population of about 400,000, is the largest city in
Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: I had to fix my printer, I bought less than a year ago.
Reduced Relative Clauses

In academic writing, relative clauses are often reduced for a more concise style. This also
creates more sentence variety. When reducing a relative clause, it is necessary to delete
the relative pronoun and either delete or change the verb. Here are some examples:
 Gun control is a controversial issue that is about personal rights. (be + prepositional
phrase)
 The steps that were followed were explained in the Methods section. (passive)
 Other researchers who are exploring the same topic have discovered similar
solutions. (progressive verb tense)
 Participants who were available to meet in my office completed their interview
there. (be + able adjective)
 Some of the subjects lived in urban areas that had with high crime rates. (have as a
main verb is replaced by with)
 In this paper, I reviewed many research articles that addressed addressing the
topic of gun control. (linking verbs or verbs describing facts can be changed to –
ing clauses)
 The changes that are to be implemented with the new curriculum revisions are
outlined in the handout. (toclauses)
Relative Clauses and Relative Pronouns
Relative Clause
This is a clause that generally modifies a noun or a noun phrase and is often introduced by
a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose). A relative clause connects ideas by
using pronouns that relate to something previously mentioned and allows the writer to
combine two independent clauses into one sentence. A relative clause is also known as an
adjective clause. There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.
o The book that she read was important for her literature review. (restrictive)
o The participants who were interviewed volunteered to be part of the study.
(restrictive)
o Walden University, which is entirely online, has main administrative offices in
Baltimore and Minneapolis. (nonrestrictive)
Relative Pronouns
Referring to a human Referring to something Possessive

other than a human
Restrictive who, whom, that* which, that** whose
Nonrestrictive (with who, whom which whose

commas)
*In APA, per Section 3.22, use who or whom instead of that when referring to a human.
**Although both which and that are grammatically correct in restrictive clauses, APA
prefers that for restrictive clauses. See APA Section 3.22 for more information on this.
 Take this quiz on Grammar Diagnostic Quiz to test your understanding of relative
pronouns.
 Use relative clauses to create more sentence variety.
Restrictive Clauses
Restrictive Clause
A restrictive clause restricts or defines the meaning of a noun or noun phrase and provides
necessary information about the noun in the sentence. It is not separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas. Restrictive clauses are more common in writing than
nonrestrictive clauses. A restrictive clause is also sometimes referred to as an essential
clause or phrase.
o The student who sits in the back of the room asks a lot of questions.
o The journalist whose story I read yesterday has won prizes for her work.
When the relative pronoun functions as the object of the sentence, it can (and usually is)
omitted from the relative clause.

o The article that I requested did not arrive on time.
o The participants who I interviewed met me at the local library.
Nonrestrictive Clauses
Nonrestrictive Clause
A nonrestrictive clause adds additional information to a sentence. It is usually a proper noun
or a common noun that refers to a unique person, thing, or event. It uses commas to show
that the information is additional. The commas almost act like parentheses within the
sentence. If the information between the commas is omitted, readers will still understand the
overall meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive clause is also known as a nonessential
clause or phrase.
o I want to thank my father, Mark Smith, for all of his love and support.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: I want to thank my father for all of his
love and support.
o The hypothesis, which I tested throughout the research, was rejected.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: The hypothesis was rejected.
o I have found the article, which I have been looking for.
o With the nonrestrictive clause omitted: I have found the article.
While that is sometimes used in restrictive clauses, it is not allowed in nonrestrictive

clauses.

city in Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: Minneapolis, that has a population of about 400,000, is the largest
city in Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: I had to fix my printer, that I bought less than a year ago.
A relative pronoun cannot be deleted in a nonrestrictive clause.

city in Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: Minneapolis, has a population of about 400,000, is the largest city in
Minnesota.
o INCORRECT: I had to fix my printer, I bought less than a year ago.
Reduced Relative Clauses

In academic writing, relative clauses are often reduced for a more concise style. This also
creates more sentence variety. When reducing a relative clause, it is necessary to delete
the relative pronoun and either delete or change the verb. Here are some examples:
 Gun control is a controversial issue that is about personal rights. (be + prepositional
phrase)
 The steps that were followed were explained in the Methods section. (passive)
 Other researchers who are exploring the same topic have discovered similar
solutions. (progressive verb tense)
 Participants who were available to meet in my office completed their interview
there. (be + able adjective)
 Some of the subjects lived in urban areas that had with high crime rates. (have as a
main verb is replaced by with)
 In this paper, I reviewed many research articles that addressed addressing the
topic of gun control. (linking verbs or verbs describing facts can be changed to –
ing clauses)
 The changes that are to be implemented with the new curriculum revisions are
outlined in the handout. (toclauses)
Adjective and Adverb Comparative Structures

Adjectives and adverbs can be used to make comparisons. The comparative form is used to
compare two people, ideas, or things. The superlative form with the word the is used to
compare three or more. Comparatives and superlatives are often used in writing to hedge
or boost language.
Here are some rules and examples of how to form the comparatives and superlatives:
General Rules for Comparatives and Superlatives
Adjective or
Comparative Superlative
Adverb
One-syllable adjectives small smaller (the) smallest

fast faster (the) fastest
large larger (the) largest
big bigger (Note the (the) biggest

spelling here)
thoughtful more/less thoughtful (the) most/least

thoughtful
Most two-syllable adjectives
useful more/less useful (the) most/least
useful
carefully more/less carefully (the) most/least

careful
Adverbs ending in -ly
slowly more/less slowly (the) most/least
slowly
sleepy sleepier (the) sleepiest

Two-syllable adjectives ending
in -y
happy happier (the) happiest
little littler (the) littlest

Two-syllable adjectives ending
narrow narrower (the) narrowest
with –er, -le, -or, or –ow
gentle gentler (the) gentlest
intelligent more/less intelligent (the) most/least

intelligent
Three or more syllable
adjectives
important more/less important (the) most/least
important
Two-Syllable Adjectives That Follow Two Rules (either form is correct)

Adjective Comparative Superlative
more/less clever (the) most/least clever
clever
cleverer (the) cleverest
more/less simple (the) most/least simple
simple
simpler (the) simplest
more/less friendly (the) most/least friendly

friendly
friendlier (the) friendliest
Irregular Adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better (the) best
bad worse (the) worst
far farther (the) farthest
little less (the) least
few fewer (the) fewest
To find other comparative structures, look up the word in an online dictionary such
as Merriam Webster. If you are a multilingual writer, you may find Merriam Webster’s
Learner’s Dictionary helpful for level-appropriate definitions and examples.
To form comparative sentences, use the comparative with the word than. Here are some
examples:
 Fewer participants volunteered for the study than I had anticipated.

 Business school was less expensive than law school.
 His application was processed more quickly than he thought.
It is also possible to use (not) as…as to express similarity or differences. Here are some
examples:
 Reading is as enjoyable as writing.

 The results were as conclusive as in previous studies.
 Finding participants for the study was not as easy as I thought.
 Her level of expertise was not as extensive as her employer had hoped.
Transitions such as and, but, in addition, in contrast, furthermore, and on the other
hand can also be used to show comparison. See our website page
on transitions and sentence structures and types of sentences for more information and
examples.
Some Common Errors With Comparisons
Common Error 1: Using the comparative instead of the superlative

o INCORRECT: He is the happier person I know.
o REVISION: He is the happiest person I know.
o INCORRECT: She is the more thoughtful person I know.

o REVISION: She is the most thoughtful person I know.
Common Error 2: Doubling up comparisons or superlatives

o INCORRECT: His car is more faster than mine.
o REVISION: His car is faster than mine.
o INCORRECT: His car is the most fastest.

o REVISION: His car is the fastest.
Common Error 3: Using empty comparisons (part of the comparison is missing)

o INCORRECT: The participants were more experienced.
o REVISION: The participants were more experienced than the previous participant
pool.
o INCORRECT: The line moved more slowly.

o REVISION: The line moved more slowly than the line next to it.
Common Error 4: Using ambiguous comparisons (the comparison has more than
one possible meaning)
o INCORRECT: She likes pizza better than her husband. (Does this mean that pizza is
better than her husband?)
o REVISION: She likes pizza better than her husband does. (Now it is clear that the
comparison is who likes pizza more.)
o INCORRECT: Her suitcase is bigger than John. (Does this mean that the size of the
suitcase is larger than another person?)
o REVISION: Her suitcase is bigger than John’s. (Now it is clear that the comparison
is about two suitcases, not about John.)
Common Error 5: Missing the article “the” in the superlative

o INCORRECT: Finishing quickly was least important task.
o REVISION: Finishing quickly was the least important task.
o INCORRECT: The youngest girl was also littlest.

o REVISION: The youngest girl was also the littlest.
Most Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing

According to corpus research, in academic writing, the three tenses used the most often are
the simple present, the simple past, and the present perfect. The next most common
tense is the future; some major assessments, course assignments, and the doctoral study
proposal at Walden are written in this tense for a study that will be conducted in the future.
Simple present: Use the simple present to describe a general truth or a habitual action.
This tense indicates that the statement is generally true in the past, present, and future.
 Example: The hospital admits patients whether or not they have proof of insurance.
Simple past: Use the simple past tense to describe a completed action that took place at a
specific point in the past (e.g., last year, 1 hour ago, last Sunday). In the example below, the
specific point of time in the past is 1998.
 Example: Zimbardo (1998) researched many aspects of social psychology.
Present perfect: Use the present perfect to indicate an action that occurred at a
nonspecific time in the past. This action has relevance in the present. The present perfect is
also sometimes used to introduce background information in a paragraph. After the first
sentence, the tense shifts to the simple past.
 Example: Numerous researchers have used this method.

 Example: Many researchers have studied how small business owners can be
successful beyond the initial few years in business. They found common themes
among the small business owners.
Future: Use the future to describe an action that will take place at a particular point in the
future (at Walden, this is used especially when writing a proposal for a doctoral capstone
study).
 Example: I will conduct semistructured interviews.

Keep in mind that verb tenses should be adjusted after the proposal after the research has
been completed. See this blog post about Revising the Proposal for the Final Capstone
Document for more information.
APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense

APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage (see APA 3.06). In other words,
avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to help
ensure smooth expression.
 Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented) or the present perfect
(e.g., researchers have presented) for the literature review and the description of
the procedure if discussing past events.
 Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test scores improved significantly).
 Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results and present conclusions
(e.g., the results of the study show…).
Per APA 3.18, refer to the work of another researcher in the past.
 Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…
However, there can be a shift to the present tense if the research findings still hold true:
 King (2010) found that revising a document three times improves the final grade.
 Smith (2016) discovered that the treatment is effective.
Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the Document

Itself
To preview what is coming in the document or to explain what is happening at that moment
in the document, use the present or future tense:
 In this study, I will describe…

 In this study, I describe…
 In the next chapter, I will discuss…
 In the next chapter, I discuss…
To refer back to information already covered, such as summaries of discussions that have
already taken place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the past tense:
 Chapter 1 contained my original discussion of the research questions.

 In summary, in this section, I presented information on…
Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect

Rules for the use of the present perfect differ slightly in British and American English.
Researchers have also found that among American English writers, sometimes individual
preferences dictate whether the simple past or the present perfect is used. In other words,
one American English writer may choose the simple past in a place where another
American English writer may choose the present perfect.
Keep in mind, however, that the simple past is used for a completed action. It often is used
with signal words such as yesterday, last week, 1 year ago, or in 2015 to indicate the
specific time in the past when the action took place.
 I went to China in 2010.

 He completed the employee performance reviews last month.
The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred without focusing on the
specific time it happened. Note that the specific time is not given, just that the action has
occurred.
 I have travelled to China.
The present perfect focuses more on the result of the action.
 He has completed the employee performance reviews.
The present perfect is often used with signal words such as since, already, just, until now,
(not) yet, so far, ever, lately, or recently.
 I have already travelled to China.

 He has recently completed the employee performance reviews.
 Researchers have used this method since it was developed.
Summary of English Verb Tenses

The 12 main tenses:
 Simple present: She writes every day.

 Present progressive: She is writing right now.
 Simple past: She wrote last night.
 Past progressive: She was writing when he called.
 Simple future: She will write tomorrow.
 Future progressive: She will be writing when you arrive.
 Present perfect: She has written Chapter 1.
 Present perfect progressive: She has been writing for 2 hours.
 Past perfect: She had written Chapter 3 before she started Chapter 4.
 Past perfect progressive: She had been writing for 2 hours before her friends
arrived.
 Future perfect: She will have written Chapter 4 before she writes Chapter 5.
 Future perfect progressive: She will have been writing for 2 hours by the time
her friends come over.
Conditionals:
Zero conditional (general truths/general habits).
 Example: If I have time, I write every day.
First conditional (possible or likely things in the future).
 Example: If I have time, I will write every day.
Second conditional (impossible things in the present/unlikely in the future).
 Example: If I had time, I would write every day.
Third conditional (things that did not happen in the past and their imaginary results)
 Example: If I had had time, I would have written every day.
Subjunctive: This form is sometimes used in that-clauses that are the object of certain
verbs or follow certain adjectives. The form of the subjective is the simple form of the verb.
It is the same for all persons and number.
 Example: I recommend that he study every day.

 Example: It is important that everyone set a writing schedule.
Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to receive the action.
Example:
Correct: The speaker discussed different marketing strategies in the video.
Incorrect: The speaker discussed in the video.
The verb discuss requires an object (different marketing strategies). It is necessary to

state what the speaker discussed.
Example Sentences
Some other examples of transitive verbs

are address, borrow, bring, discuss, raise, offer, pay, write, promise, and have.
The instructor addressed the student’s question.
Miriam borrowed the methodology book from her classmate because she forgot her copy.
Can you bring your copy of the textbook to our study group meeting?
Donovan gave the gift to his sister.

The committee members will raise money for the new project.
Direct and Indirect Objects

A transitive verb can take more than one object.
Donovan gave his sister a laptop.
In this sentence, there is an indirect object, his sister, and a direct object, a laptop.
However, there is another way to say this same idea using a prepositional phrase.
Donovan gave a laptop to his sister.
In English, an indirect object may come between a transitive verb and the direct object,
like the first example sentence about Donovan, or the indirect object could be in the form of
a prepositional phrase, like the second example sentence about Donovan.
An indirect object is only needed if the action is being done to or for somebody; when using
a transitive verb, you need to include a direct object, but you may not need to include
an indirect object.
Finding the Object
You can figure out the direct object by using this question format: “The subject did what?”
or “The subject [verb] what?”
The instructor addressed what?
the student’s question
Miriam borrowed what?

the methodology book
Can you bring what?

your copy of the text book
The speaker discussed what?

different marketing strategies
The committee members will raise what?

money
You can find the indirect object by asking the question “To whom?” or “For whom?”
Donovan gave a laptop to whom?
his sister
Intransitive Verbs
An intransitive verb does not take an object. Using an object immediately after an
intransitive verb will create an incorrect sentence. However, there may be other information
after the verb, such as one or more prepositional phrasesor an adverb.
Example
Correct: The students arrived at the residency in Houston.
Incorrect: The students arrived Houston.
The second sentence is incorrect because the verb cannot take an object.
Example Sentences
Some other examples of intransitive

verbs are deteriorate, vote, sit, increase, laugh, originate, fluctuate, and trend.
The patient’s health deteriorated quickly.
Ahmad voted in the local election.
May I sit here?
Attendance increased at the weekly study sessions as finals drew near.
Susan laughed.
Notes: An intransitive verb can take more than one prepositional phrase or adverb.
The patient’s health deteriorated quickly during the night.
Ahmad voted for the incumbent in the local election.
Verbs That Are Both Transitive and Intransitive

Verbs That Are Both Transitive and Intransitive
Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on the situation. In some
instances, such a verb may require an object, while in others it does not require an object.
Example Sentences
Format reminder: verb, object, propositional phrase, adverb

continue
We will continue the meeting after the break. (transitive)
The meeting continued after the break. (intransitive)
play
Three of the students play the guitar. (transitive)
The students will play outside today. (intransitive)

return
Javier returned the book to the library. (transitive)
The students returned to school after the winter break. (intransitive)
grow
I grow zucchini in my garden. (transitive)
My daughter is growing quickly. (intransitive)
If you are unsure about whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, you can check a
dictionary. Most dictionaries, such as the online version of Merriam Webster, indicate
whether a verb, and each definition of the verb, is transitive or intransitive. Whether a verb
is transitive or intransitive may depend on whether the verb has multiple meanings. Make
sure to read through the examples provided in the dictionary, if available, to ensure that you
are using the verb correctly.
abject
of the most contemptible kind
aberration
a state or condition markedly different from the norm
abjure
formally reject or disavow a formerly held belief
abnegation
the denial and rejection of a doctrine or belief
abrogate
revoke formally
abscond
run away, often taking something or somebody along
abstruse
difficult to penetrate
accede
yield to another's wish or opinion
accost
approach and speak to someone aggressively or insistently
accretion
an increase by natural growth or addition
acumen
shrewdness shown by keen insight
adamant
impervious to pleas, persuasion, requests, or reason
admonish
scold or reprimand; take to task
adumbrate
describe roughly or give the main points or summary of
adverse
in an opposing direction
advocate
a person who pleads for a person, cause, or idea
affluent
having an abundant supply of money or possessions of value
aggrandize
embellish; increase the scope, power, or importance of
alacrity
liveliness and eagerness
alias
a name that has been assumed temporarily
ambivalent
uncertain or unable to decide about what course to follow
amenable
disposed or willing to comply
amorphous
having no definite form or distinct shape
anachronistic
chronologically misplaced
anathema
a formal ecclesiastical curse accompanied by excommunication
annex
attach to
antediluvian
of or relating to the period before the biblical flood
antiseptic
thoroughly clean and free of disease-causing organisms
apathetic
showing little or no emotion or animation
antithesis
exact opposite
apocryphal
being of questionable authenticity
approbation
official acceptance or agreement
arbitrary
based on or subject to individual discretion or preference
arboreal
of or relating to or formed by trees
arcane
requiring secret or mysterious knowledge
archetypal
of an original type after which other things are patterned
arrogate
seize and take control without authority
ascetic
someone who practices self denial as a spiritual discipline
aspersion
a disparaging remark
assiduous
marked by care and persistent effort
atrophy
a decrease in size of an organ caused by disease or disuse
bane
something causing misery or death
bashful
self-consciously timid
beguile
influence by slyness
bereft
sorrowful through loss or deprivation
blandishment
flattery intended to persuade
bilk
cheat somebody out of what is due, especially money
bombastic
ostentatiously lofty in style
cajole
influence or urge by gentle urging, caressing, or flattering
callous
emotionally hardened
calumny
a false accusation of an offense
camaraderie
the quality of affording easy familiarity and sociability
candor
the quality of being honest and straightforward
capitulate
surrender under agreed conditions
carouse
engage in boisterous, drunken merrymaking
carp
any of various freshwater fish of the family Cyprinidae
caucus
meet to select a candidate or promote a policy
cavort
play boisterously
circumlocution
an indirect way of expressing something
circumscribe
draw a geometric figure around another figure
circumvent
surround so as to force to give up
clamor
utter or proclaim insistently and noisily
cleave
separate or cut with a tool, such as a sharp instrument
cobbler
a person who makes or repairs shoes
cogent
powerfully persuasive
cognizant
having or showing knowledge or understanding or realization
commensurate
corresponding in size or degree or extent
complement
something added to embellish or make perfect
compunction
a feeling of deep regret, usually for some misdeed
concomitant
following or accompanying as a consequence
conduit
a passage through which water or electric wires can pass
conflagration
a very intense and uncontrolled fire
congruity
the quality of agreeing; being suitable and appropriate
connive
form intrigues (for) in an underhand manner
consign
give over to another for care or safekeeping
constituent
one of the individual parts making up a composite entity
construe
make sense of; assign a meaning to
contusion
an injury in which the skin is not broken
contrite
feeling or expressing pain or sorrow for sins or offenses
contentious
showing an inclination to disagree
contravene
go against, as of rules and laws
convivial
occupied with or fond of the pleasures of good company
corpulence
the property of excessive fatness
covet
wish, long, or crave for
cupidity
extreme greed for material wealth
dearth
an insufficient quantity or number
debacle
a sudden and complete disaster
debauch
a wild gathering involving excessive drinking
debunk
expose while ridiculing
defunct
no longer in force or use; inactive
demagogue
a leader who seeks support by appealing to popular passions
denigrate
attack the good name and reputation of someone
derivative
a compound obtained from another compound
despot
a cruel and oppressive dictator
diaphanous
so thin as to transmit light
didactic
instructive, especially excessively
dirge
a song or hymn of mourning as a memorial to a dead person
disaffected
discontented as toward authority
discomfit
cause to lose one's composure
disparate
fundamentally different or distinct in quality or kind
dispel
to cause to separate and go in different directions
disrepute
the state of being held in low esteem
divisive
causing or characterized by disagreement or disunity
dogmatic
pertaining to a code of beliefs accepted as authoritative
dour
showing a brooding ill humor
duplicity
the act of deceiving or acting in bad faith
duress
compulsory force or threat
eclectic
selecting what seems best of various styles or ideas
edict
a formal or authoritative proclamation
ebullient
joyously unrestrained
egregious
conspicuously and outrageously bad or reprehensible
elegy
a mournful poem; a lament for the dead
elicit
call forth, as an emotion, feeling, or response
embezzlement
the fraudulent appropriation of funds or property
emend
make corrections to
emollient
a substance with a soothing effect when applied to the skin
empirical
derived from experiment and observation rather than theory
emulate
strive to equal or match, especially by imitating
enervate
weaken mentally or morally
enfranchise
grant freedom to, as from slavery or servitude
engender
call forth
ephemeral
anything short-lived, as an insect that lives only for a day
epistolary
written in the form of letters or correspondence
equanimity
steadiness of mind under stress
equivocal
open to two or more interpretations
espouse
choose and follow a theory, idea, policy, etc.
evanescent
tending to vanish like vapor
evince
give expression to
exacerbate
make worse
exhort
spur on or encourage especially by cheers and shouts
execrable
unequivocally detestable
exigent
demanding immediate attention
expedient
appropriate to a purpose
expiate
make amends for
expunge
remove by erasing or crossing out or as if by drawing a line
extraneous
not belonging to that in which it is contained
extol
praise, glorify, or honor
extant
still in existence; not extinct or destroyed or lost
expurgate
edit by omitting or modifying parts considered indelicate
fallacious
containing or based on incorrect reasoning
fatuous
devoid of intelligence
fetter
a shackle for the ankles or feet
flagrant
conspicuously and outrageously bad or reprehensible
foil
hinder or prevent, as an effort, plan, or desire
forbearance
good-natured tolerance of delay or incompetence
fortuitous
lucky; occurring by happy chance
fractious
easily irritated or annoyed
garrulous
full of trivial conversation
gourmand
a person who is devoted to eating and drinking to excess
grandiloquent
lofty in style
gratuitous
unnecessary and unwarranted
hapless
unfortunate and deserving pity
hegemony
the dominance or leadership of one social group over others
heterogenous
consisting of elements that are not of the same kind
iconoclast
someone who attacks cherished ideas or institutions
idiosyncratic
peculiar to the individual
impecunious
not having enough money to pay for necessities
impetuous
characterized by undue haste and lack of thought
impinge
infringe upon
impute
attribute or credit to
inane
devoid of intelligence
inchoate
only partly in existence; imperfectly formed
incontrovertible
impossible to deny or disprove
incumbent
necessary as a duty or responsibility; morally binding
inexorable
not to be placated or appeased or moved by entreaty
inimical
not friendly
injunction
a judicial remedy to prohibit a party from doing something
inoculate
inject or treat with the germ of a disease to render immune
insidious
working or spreading in a hidden and usually injurious way
instigate
provoke or stir up
insurgent
in opposition to a civil authority or government
interlocutor
a person who takes part in a conversation
intimation
a slight suggestion or vague understanding
inure
cause to accept or become hardened to
invective
abusive language used to express blame or censure
intransigent
impervious to pleas, persuasion, requests, or reason
inveterate
habitual
irreverence
a mental attitude showing lack of due respect
knell
the sound of a bell rung slowly to announce a death
laconic
brief and to the point
largesse
liberality in bestowing gifts
legerdemain
an illusory feat
libertarian
an advocate of freedom of thought and speech
licentious
lacking moral discipline
linchpin
a central cohesive source of support and stability
litigant
a party to a lawsuit
maelstrom
a powerful circular current of water
maudlin
effusively or insincerely emotional
maverick
someone who exhibits independence in thought and action
mawkish
effusively or insincerely emotional
maxim
a saying that is widely accepted on its own merits
mendacious
given to lying
modicum
a small or moderate or token amount
morass
a soft wet area of low-lying land that sinks underfoot
mores
the conventions embodying the fundamental values of a group
munificent
very generous
multifarious
having many aspects
nadir
the lowest point of anything
negligent
characterized by undue lack of attention or concern
neophyte
any new participant in some activity
noisome
offensively malodorous
noxious
injurious to physical or mental health
obdurate
stubbornly persistent in wrongdoing
obfuscate
make obscure or unclear
obstreperous
noisily and stubbornly defiant
officious
intrusive in a meddling or offensive manner
onerous
burdensome or difficult to endure
ostensible
appearing as such but not necessarily so
ostracism
the act of excluding someone from society by general consent
palliate
lessen or to try to lessen the seriousness or extent of
panacea
hypothetical remedy for all ills or diseases
paradigm
a standard or typical example
pariah
a person who is rejected from society or home
partisan
a fervent and even militant proponent of something
paucity
an insufficient quantity or number
pejorative
expressing disapproval
pellucid
transparently clear; easily understandable
penchant
a strong liking
penurious
excessively unwilling to spend
pert
characterized by a lightly saucy or impudent quality
pernicious
exceedingly harmful
pertinacious
stubbornly unyielding
phlegmatic
showing little emotion
philanthropic
of or relating to charitable giving
pithy
concise and full of meaning
platitude
a trite or obvious remark
plaudit
enthusiastic approval
plenitude
a full supply
plethora
extreme excess
portent
a sign of something about to happen
potentate
a ruler who is unconstrained by law
preclude
make impossible, especially beforehand
predilection
a predisposition in favor of something
preponderance
exceeding in heaviness; having greater weight
presage
a foreboding about what is about to happen
probity
complete and confirmed integrity
proclivity
a natural inclination
profligate
unrestrained by convention or morality
promulgate
state or announce
proscribe
command against
protean
taking on different forms
prurient
characterized by lust
puerile
displaying or suggesting a lack of maturity
pugnacious
ready and able to resort to force or violence
pulchritude
physical beauty, especially of a woman
punctilious
marked by precise accordance with details
quaint
attractively old-fashioned
quixotic
not sensible about practical matters
quandary
state of uncertainty in a choice between unfavorable options
recalcitrant
stubbornly resistant to authority or control
redoubtable
inspiring fear
relegate
assign to a lower position
remiss
failing in what duty requires
reprieve
postpone the punishment of a convicted criminal
reprobate
a person without moral scruples
rescind
cancel officially
requisition
an authoritative request or demand
rife
excessively abundant
sanctimonious
excessively or hypocritically pious
sanguine
confidently optimistic and cheerful
scurrilous
expressing offensive reproach
semaphore
an apparatus for visual signaling
serendipity
good luck in making unexpected and fortunate discoveries
sobriety
the state of being unaffected or not intoxicated by alcohol
solicitous
full of anxiety and concern
solipsism
the philosophical theory that the self is all that exists
spurious
plausible but false
staid
characterized by dignity and propriety
stolid
having or revealing little emotion or sensibility
subjugate
make subservient; force to submit or subdue
surfeit
indulge (one's appetite) to satiety
surreptitious
marked by quiet and caution and secrecy
swarthy
naturally having skin of a dark color
tangential
of superficial relevance if any
tome
a large and scholarly book
toady
a person who tries to please someone to gain an advantage
torpid
in a condition of biological rest or suspended animation
travesty
a composition that imitates or misrepresents a style
trenchant
having keenness and forcefulness and penetration in thought
trite
repeated too often; overfamiliar through overuse
truculent
defiantly aggressive
turpitude
a corrupt or depraved or degenerate act or practice
ubiquitous
being present everywhere at once
umbrage
a feeling of anger caused by being offended
upbraid
express criticism towards
utilitarian
having a useful function
veracity
unwillingness to tell lies
vestige
an indication that something has been present
vicissitude
a variation in circumstances or fortune
vilify
spread negative information about
virtuoso
someone who is dazzlingly skilled in any field
vitriolic
harsh, bitter, or malicious in tone
vituperate
spread negative information about
vociferous
conspicuously and offensively loud
wanton
a lewd or lascivious person
winsome
charming in a childlike or naive way
yoke
join with stable gear, as two draft animals
zephyr
a slight wind
wily
marked by skill in deception
tirade
a speech of violent denunciation
Rule 1: A compound subject joined by or, or nor requires a singular verb if each part is singular; if the
parts differ in number or person the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it.
e.g. My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

The books or the magazines are on the shelf.
Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by either-or or neither-nor require a singular verb, but when a
singular and plural subject are connected, use a plural verb.
e.g. Either John or Susan is available.

Neither the teacher nor the principal is coming.
Either the house or the cars are for sale.
Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 3: When one of your two subjects is I, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.
e.g. Neither she nor I am going to the festival.
Rule 4: Compound subjects joined by and require a plural verb, but when the parts refer to the same
person or have some other close relation, they take a singular verb. Also, if the parts of the compound
subject are modified by each, or no, a singular verb is required.
e.g. Her professor and thesis adviser is here. (same person)

Every branch and twig was covered with dust.
No one is here.
Rule 5: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as,
besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.
e.g. the politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.

Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 6: The indefinite pronouns each, everyone, one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone and
somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
e.g. Each of the girls sings well.
Everyone of participating teams is pleased about the judging.
Note: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is eac
one.
Every one of the items on sale is gone.
Rule 7: With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder,
etc.—look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a
singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the
preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
e.g. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.

Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
Rule 8: When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
e.g. Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule 9: The words here and there have generally been labelled as adverbs even though they indicate
place. In sentences beginning with here and there, the subject follows the verb.
e.g. There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
There sits the guest of honor.
Here sleeps my baby brother.
Rule 10: Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
e.g. Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule 11: Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of the verb in the middle of the
sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly
in front of them. So if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
e.g. Charlene is the scientist who writes the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular.
Therefore the verb writes is singular.
He is one of the men who do the work.
Men preceding who is plural. The verb do is likewise plural.
Rule 12: Collective nouns such as team and staff may be singular or plural depending on their use in the
sentence.
e.g. The staff is in a meeting.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
PARTS OF SPEECH
The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form
classes because they are best identified by form rather than by functions) are nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; and 2) the structure words most of which do carry some
meaning but which also serve to form a structural framework so that words can fit into
sentences.
A. Aspect and Tenses of Verb
TENSE MEANING EXAMPLES

SIMPLE PRESENT -expresses events or a. It snows in Alaska.
(verb+ -s/-es) situations that exist always,
-singular subject usually and habitually b. Edbert and Kyle watch
(verb, base form) television every day.
-plural subject
SIMPLE PAST -an action happened at one a. It snowed in Alaska last
(verb+ -d/-ed) particular time in the past year.
-it began and ended at a
specific time in the past b. Edbert and kyle watched
television last night.
ASPECT
PROGRESSIVE (also called continuous)
The progressive aspects give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular
time. It begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action.
Present Progressive -an action in the past, is in a. Beth is sleeping right
(am/is/are+v-ing) progress at the present now.
time and probably will
continue
Past Progressive -an action began before b. Beth was sleeping when
(was/were+v-ing) and was in progress at a I arrived.
particular time in the past
Future Progressive -an action will begin before c. Beth will be sleeping
(will/shall+be+v-ing) another action, and it will be when we arrived.
in progress at a particular
time in the future.
NOTE: WILL vs. BE GONG TO
 To express a PREDICTION: Use either will or be going to.
 To express a PRIOR PLAN: Use only be going to.
 To express WILLINGNESS: Use only will.
e.g. 1. According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow.
According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy tomorrow. (Prediction)
2. Why did you buy this paint?

I am going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. (Prior plan)
3. I will do it for you. (Willingness)
PERFECT
The perfect aspects all give the idea that one thing happened before another time or
event.
Present Perfect -an action happened a. Gary has already eaten.
(has/have+v-en (Past sometime before now at an
participle)) unspecified time in the past. b. I have been here since
The exact time is not seven o’clock.
important. (Adverbs like
ever, never, already, yet, c. I have known him for
still and just are frequently many years.
used with the present
perfect) d. NOTE: the difference
-a situation that begin in the between since and for.
past and continues to the
present (usually used with FOR+ a duration of time
for or since) SINCE + a particular time
Past Perfect -an action was completely a. Gary had already eaten
(had+v-en (past participle)) finished before another when his friends arrived.
activity or time in the past.
Future Perfect -an action will be b. Gary will already have
(will/shal+have+v-en (past completely finished before eaten when his friends
participle)) another time in the future. arrives.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
The perfect progressive aspects give the idea that one event is in progress immediately
before, up to, until another time or event.
Present Perfect -an event is in progress. It a. Abet has been delivering
Progressive happened before now up to the speech for 30 minutes
(has/have+bee+v-ing) now. now.
Past Perfect Progressive -emphasizes duration of an b. Abet had been delivering
(had+been+v-ing) activity that was in progress the speech for 30 minutes
before another activity that before the President
was in progress before arrived.
another activity or time in
the past.
Future Perfect Progressive -an event is in progress. It c. Abet will have been
(will have+been+v-ing) happened before another delivering the speech for 30
event in the future and will minutes by the time the
last for a particular period of President arrives.
time.
B. Stative Verbs
 Describe states, conditions or situations that exist.
 When verbs have stative meanings, they are usually not used in progressive
tenses. (e.g. This food tastes good. I like it very much. Tastes and like both
describe a state that exists; therefore it is incorrect to say “This food is tasting
good. I am liking it very much.”)
Common Stative Verbs
MENTAL EMOTIONAL POSSESSION SENSE OTHER

STATE STATE PERCEPTIONS EXISTING
STATES
know love possess taste seem
understand like have smell look
recognize appreciate own hear appear
realize please belong feel sound
believe prefer see resemble
need hate look like
suppose dislike cost
desire fear owe
feel eny equal
mind matter
Care
Astonish
surprise
C. Dynamic Verbs, sometimes referred to as “action verbs”, expressed a

wide range of actions which may be physical, mental or perceptual as
opposed to stative verb which purely expresses a state in which there is
no obvious action.
Some examples of dynamic verbs are eat, drink, go, type, read, write,
listen, speak, watch, say, grow, melt, work, sleep, cook, talk, etc.
Nouns
A. What To Remember About Noun Possessive and Pluralization
Possessives
1. An apostrophe is added to form the possessive case of singular and plural
nouns ending in –s or –z; ‘s to those not ending in –s or –z.
2. An of phrase is used after nouns not related to people.

e.g. the tires of the car the surface of the road
the roof of the house the leaves of the tree
3. Nouns connected with people and human activity usually take the ‘s form.
e.g. Proper Names: Abraham Lincoln’s speech
Personal Nouns: the girl’s dress
Collective Nouns: the team’s success
Relating to Human Activity: the body’s ability
Institution: the museum’s members
4. Many phrases of time take the ‘s form.
e.g. a month’s pay two weeks’ vacation
a year’s work season’s greetings
5. Certain idioms take the ‘s form.
e.g. our money’s worth an arm’s length
6. Higher animals can take the ‘s form.
e.g. a dog’s life the kitten’s cry
a bird’s nest the horse’s mane
7. Double possessive using both of and the ‘s form are common with proper
nouns when reference is definite and personal.
e.g. a novel of Conrad’s a painting of Picasso’s
PLURALS
8. The plural of most nouns are generally formed by adding final –s when the
singular form can be pronounced without adding a syllable, or a final –es if
the singular form ends in –s, -z, -ch, and –x that cannot unite with s to
form one syllable.
9. Plurals of figures, signs, and letters used as words add ‘s.
10. There are nouns generally used in the singular and therefore require a
singular verb. Among these are beard, food, fish, fruit, grass, hair.

Rules For Subject

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Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement

Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

What is Subject-Verb Agreement?

Subject–Verb Agreement Rules

Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example: They write every day.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

9. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: The group meets every week.

Definitions and Examples of Basic Sentence Elements

Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

English Sentence Structure

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence

There are two complete sentences in the above example:

Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.

Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.

Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.

Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive

Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore

Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic

Correcting Run-On Sentences

2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a

4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into

Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:

Parallel Construction Basics

Examples of Parallel Construction

Between and And

Correct: We debated the difference between the weather in Minnesota in the

Both and And

Correct: The films were enjoyable to watch and to discuss.

Neither and Nor; Either and Or

Not Only and But Also