Ananya Bose

Asst. Prof.
STCET
Introduction
 An analog device is one in which the output or display
is a continuous function of time and bears a constant
relation to its input.
 Measuring instruments are classified according to
both the quantity measured by the instrument and the
principle of operation.
 Three general principles of operation are available:
 (i) electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects
of electric currents;
 (ii) electrostatic, which utilizes the forces between
electrically charged conductors;
 (iii) electro-thermal, which utilizes the heating effect.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANALOG
INSTRUMENTS
 Absolute instruments –
 gives the value of the electrical quantity to be measured
in terms of the constants of the instruments and its
deflection only, no comparison with another instrument
being required.

 Tangent Galvanometer gives the value of the current

to be measured in terms of the tangent of the angle of
deflection produced by the current, the radius and the
number of turns of galvanometer coil, and the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. No
calibration of the instrument is thus necessary.
 Secondary instruments -
 are so constructed that the value of current, voltage or
other quantity to be measured can be determined from
the deflection of the instruments, only if the latter has
been calibrated by comparison with either an absolute
instrument or one which has already been calibrated.
 The deflection obtained is meaningless until such a
calibration has been made.
 The secondary instruments may be classified as-
 Indicating instruments –
 are instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity
being measured. They generally make use of a dial and a
pointer for this purpose. Eg. – Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Wattmeter.
 Recording instruments –
 give a continuous record of the quantity being measured
over a specified period. The variation of the quantity being
measured are recorded by a pen (attached to the moving
system of the instrument; the moving system is operated by
the quantity being measured) on a sheet of paper that
moves perpendicular to the movement of the pen. Eg. –
recording voltmeters in supply stations.

 Integrating instruments –
 record totalized events over a specified period of time. The
summation, which they give, is the product of time and an
electrical quantity. Ampere hour and watt-hour (energy)
meters are examples of this category.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
 Analog instruments may be classified according to the
principle of operation they utilize.
 The effects they utilize are
 1. Magnetic effect – Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters.
 2. Heating effect - Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters.
 3. Electrostatic effect – Voltmeters.
 4. Induction effect – A.C Ammeters, Voltmeters,
Wattmeters, Energymeters.
 5. Hall effect- Flux meters, Ammeters.
Analog Instruments _ Classification of Analog
Instruments.html
OPERATING TORQUES
 Any instrument’s deflection is found by the total effect
of the deflecting torque/force, control torque/ force
and damping torque/force.
 Three types of torques are needed for satisfactory
operation of any indicating instrument.
 These are-
 Deflecting torque
 The deflecting torque’s value is dependent upon the
electrical signal to be measured; this torque/force
helps in rotating the instrument movement from its
zero position.
 The system producing the deflecting torque is called
the deflecting system.
 Controlling torque
 The act of this torque/force is opposite to the deflecting
torque/force. When the deflecting and controlling torques
are equal in magnitude then the movement will be in
equilibrium or at a definite position.
 Spiral springs or gravity is usually given to produce the
controlling torque.
 The system which produces the controlling torque is called
the controlling system.
 Damping torque
 A damping force generally works in an opposite direction to
the movement of the moving system. This opposite
movement of the damping force, without any oscillation or
very small oscillation brings the moving system to rest at
the final deflected position quickly.
 Air friction, fluid friction and eddy currents provide the
damping torque/force to act.
 When the deflecting torque is much greater than the controlling
torque, the system is called underdamped.
 If the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, it is
called critically damped.
 When deflecting torque is much less than the controlling
torque, the system is under overdamped condition.
 Figure shows the variation of deflection with time for
underdamped, critically damped and overdamped systems.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
 The moving system should have the following
properties:
 The moving parts should be light.
 The frictional force should be minimum.
 These requirements should be fulfilled in order that
power required by the instrument for its operation is
small.
 The power is proportional to the weight of the moving
parts and the frictional forces opposing the
movement.
 So, the weight of the moving parts and the frictional
forces must be reduced to reduce the power
consumption of the system.
SUPPORTS
 Several types of supports are used depending on the
sensitivity required and the operating conditions to be
met.
 Suspension
 Taut suspension
 Pivot and jewel bearings
 Balancing
 Suspension - It consists of a fine, ribbon shaped metal
filament for the upper suspension and coil of fine wire for the
lower part. The ribbon is made of a spring material. This
coiling of the lower part of the suspension is done in order to
give negligible restraint on the deflecting system. The type of
suspension requires careful leveling of the instrument so that
the moving system hangs in correct vertical position.
This construction is, therefore, not suited to field use and is
employed only in those laboratory applications in which very
great sensitivity is required.
 Taut suspension - The taut suspension has a flat ribbon
suspension both above and below the moving element, with
suspension kept under tension by a spring arrangement. The
advantage of this suspension is that exact leveling is not
required if the moving element is properly balanced.
 Pivot and jewel bearings - The deflecting system is mounted
on a spindle made of hardened steel. The two ends of the spindle
are made conical and then polished to form pivots. These ends
fit conical holes in jewels located in the fixed parts of
instruments as shown below.

 Balancing - For a perfect mechanical balance of the moving

systems, the center of gravity should always lie on the axis of
rotation. When this is ensured then the deflection of a spring-
controlled instruments will be independent of its position, and
the wear on the bearings will be uniform.
Torque/Weight Ratio
 The frictional torque exerts a considerable influence
on the performance of an indicating instrument.
 The frictional torque in an instrument depends upon
the weight of moving parts.
 If the weight of the moving parts is large, the frictional
torque will be large.
 If the frictional torque is large and is comparable to a
considerable fraction of the deflecting torque, the
deflection of the moving system will depend upon the
frictional torque to an appreciable extent.
 On the other hand, if the frictional torque is very small
compared with the deflecting torque, its effect on
deflection is negligible.
 Thus, the ratio of deflecting torque to frictional torque
is a measure of reliability of the instrument indications
and is the inherent quality of the design.
 Hence (deflecting) torque/weight ratio of an
instrument is an index of its performance.
 The higher the ratio, the better will be its
performance.
Controlling System
 The controlling torque is provided by a spring or
sometimes by gravity.
 1. Spring Control
 A hair-spring, usually of phosphor-bronze attached to
the moving system, is used in indicating instruments for
control purpose.
 To give a controlling torque which is directly
proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving
system, the number of turns on the spring should be
fairly large, so that the deflection per unit length is
small.
 Suppose that a spiral spring is made up of a total
length L m of strip whose cross-section is rectangular,
the radial thickness being t m and the depth b m.
 Let E be Young’s modulus (N/m2) for the material of
the spring.
 Then, if θ radians be the deflection of the moving
system to which one end of the spring is being
attached, the expression for the controlling torque is

Ebt 3
Tc   Nm
12 L

 Thus, controlling torque ∞ θ ∞ instrument deflection.

 2. Gravity Control
 In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is
attached to the moving system in such a way that it
produces a restoring or controlling torque when the
system is deflected.
 The controlling torque, when the deflection is θ, is ωl
sin θ, where ω is the control weight and l its distance
from the axis of rotation of the moving system, and it is,
therefore, proportional only to the sine of the angle of
deflection, instead of, as with spring control, being
directly proportional to the angle of deflection.
 Gravity controlled instruments must obviously be used
in a vertical position in order that the control may
operate.
Damping System
 There are three systems of damping generally used.
These are as follows:
 Air-friction damping
 Fluid-friction damping
 Eddy-current damping
 Air-Friction Damping
 In this method, a light aluminum piston is attached to
the moving system and moves in an air chamber closed
at one end, as shown in Figure .
 The cross-section of this chamber may be either circular
or rectangular.
 If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air
in the closed space is compressed and the pressure
opposes the motion of the piston (and, therefore, of the
whole moving system).
 If the piston is moving out of the chamber rapidly, the
pressure in the closed space falls, and the pressure on
the open side of the piston is greater than that on the
opposite side.
 Motion is thus again opposed.
 Fluid-Friction Damping
 In this type of damping, a light vane, attached to the
spindle of the moving system, dips into a pot of
damping oil and should be completely submerged by the
oil.
 The frictional drag in the disc is always in the direction
opposing motion. There is no friction force when the
disc is stationary.
 Eddy-Current Damping
 A thin disc of conducting, but non-magnetic material-
usually copper or aluminum is mounted on the spindle
which carries the pointer of the instrument.
 When the spindle rotates, the edge of the disc cuts
through the lines of force in the gap of a permanent
magnet, and eddy currents, with consequent damping,
are produced. Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping _
Physics.html
 When a sheet of conducting material moves in a
magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force, eddy
currents are set up in it and a force exists between these
currents and the magnetic field, which is always in the
direction opposing the motion.
 The force is proportional to the magnitude of the
current and to the strength of the field.
 The magnitude of the current is proportional to the
velocity of movement of the conductor, and thus, if the
magnetic field is constant, the damping force is
proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is
zero when there is no movement of the system.
Types of Instruments
1. Permanent magnet moving coil
2. Moving iron
3. Electro-dynamometer
4. Hot wire
5. Thermocouple
6. Induction
7. Electrostatic
8. Rectifier
PMMC
 Basic range: 10 μA-100 mA
 Coil resistance: 10 Ω-1 kΩ
 Usage:
 - dc PMMC ammeters and voltmeters
 - ac PMMC ammeters and voltmeters (with rectifiers)
 The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque is
exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of
a permanent magnet.
 It is most accurate type for D.C. measurements.
 If we apply AC current to these type of instruments the
direction of current will be reversed during negative half
cycle and hence the direction of torque will also be
reversed which gives average value of torque zero.
 The pointer will not deflect due to high frequency from
its mean position showing zero reading.
 However it can measure the direct current very
accurately.
 The working principle is same as that of d’Arsonval
type galvanometers.
Construction
 Moving Coil : The moving coil can freely move between
the two permanent magnets as shown in the figure. The
coil is wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed
on rectangular aluminum which is pivoted on jeweled
bearings.
 Stationary Part or Magnet System: In the present time
we use magnets of high field intensities, high coercive force
instead of using U shaped permanent magnet having soft
iron pole pieces. The magnets which we are using
nowadays are made up of materials like alcomax / alnico
which provide high field strength.
 The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between
the U-shaped soft-iron pole piece (PP) of a permanent
magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC
[Figure (b)].
 The core serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the
magnetic field by reducing the length of the air gap,
and (b) it makes the field radial and uniform in the air
gap.
 Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to the
magnetic field.
 Control : The spring generally acts as control system
for PMMC instruments. The spring also serves
another important function by providing the path to
lead current in and out of the coil.

 Damping : The damping force hence torque is

provided by movement of aluminum former in the
magnetic field created by the permanent magnets.

 Pointer and Scale : The pointer is carried by the

spindle and moves over a graduated scale.
Deflecting Torque Equation of
PMMC Instrument
 Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)
 i = current in the coil (A)
 l = effective axial length of the coil (m)
 b = breadth of the coil (m)
 N = number of turns of the coil.
 Force on one side of the coil is F  N .Bil sin 
 α = angle between direction of magnetic field and
conductor.
 The field is radial and so α=900
 Force on one side of the coil is F  N .Bil
 Total deflecting torque = Td = force X distance
Td  BilNb N  m
 For a permanent magnet, B is constant. Also, for a
given coil l, b and N are constants and thus the
product (BlNb) is also a constant, say k1.
 Therefore, Td  k1i
 The control on the movement of the pointer over the
scale is provided by two spirally wound, phosphor-
bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the
spindle S.
 The control torque of the springs is proportional to the
angle θ turned through by the coil.
 where TC is the control torque and ks is the spring
constant. Tc  ks
 At final steady-state position,
 Control torque = Deflecting torque.

 So, angular deflection of the pointer is directly

proportional to the current.
 Thus the scale of the instrument is linear or uniformly
divided.
Damping Torque
 When the aluminum former (F) moves with the coil in
the field of the permanent magnet, a voltage is
induced, causing eddy current to flow in it.
 These current exerts a force on the former.
 By Lenz’s law, this force opposes the motion producing
it.
 Thus, a damping torque is obtained.
 Such a damping is called eddy-current damping.
Swamping Resistor
 The coil of the instrument is made of copper. Its
resistance varies with temperature.
 A resistor of low temperature coefficients, called the
swamping resistor, is connected in series with the coil.
 Its resistance practically remains constant with
temperature.
 Hence the effect of temperature on coil resistance is
swamped by this resistor.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments
 1. Sensitive to small current
 2. Very accurate and reliable
 3. Uniform scale up to 270° or more
 4. Very effective built in damping
 5. Low power consumption, varies from 25 μW to 200
μW
 6. Free from hysteresis and not effected by external
fields because its permanent magnet shields the coil
from external magnetic fields
 7. Easily adopted as a multi-range instrument
Disadvantages of PMMC
Instruments
 1. This type of instrument can be operated in direct current
only. In alternating current, the instrument does not
operate because in the positive half, the pointer
experiences a force in one direction and in the negative half
the pointer experiences the force in the opposite direction.
Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.
 2. The moving system is very delicate and can easily be
damaged by rough handling.
 3. The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged
overloading.
 4. It is costlier.
 5. The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and
control spring) may introduce some errors.
Applications:
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be
used as:
1) Ammeter:
• When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very
small current range, the moving coil is connected
across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only
small part of the main current flows through the coil.
• Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is
connected in series with high resistance.
Rest of the function is same.
The same moving coil can be used as an ammeter or
voltmeter with an interchange of above arrangement.
Problem 1
 The coil of a PMMC instrument has 60 turns, on a
former that is 18 mm wide, the effective length of the
conductor being 25 mm. It moves in a uniform field of
flux density 0.5 Tesla. The control spring constant is 1.5
× 10-6 Nm/degree. Calculate the current required to
produce a deflection of 100 degree.
 Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
 Td = BilNb (N-m)
 = 0.5
× i × 25 × 10-3 × 60 × 18 × 10-3
 The control torque of the springs is
 TC = ks × θ
 =1.5 × 10-6 × 100
 At equilibrium,
 Td = TC
 => 0.5 × i x 18 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 60 = 1.5 × 10-6 × 100
1.5 × 10-6 × 100
Problem 2
 A PMMC voltmeter with a resistance of 20 Ω gives a
full-scale deflection of 120° when a potential difference
of 100 mV is applied across it. The moving coil has
dimensions of 30 mm × 25 mm and is wound with 100
turns. The control spring constant is 0.375 × 10-6 N-
m/degree. Find the flux density in the air gap.
 Find also the dimension of copper wire of coil winding
if 30% of the instrument resistance is due to coil
winding. The specific resistance of copper is 1.7× 10-8
Ωm.
 Full-scale deflecting current
 Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
 Td = Bilnb (N-m)
 =B × 5 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 100
 The control torque of the springs is
 TC = ks × θ
 = 0.375 × 10-6 × 120
 At equilibrium, Td = TC
 B × 5 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 100 = 0.375 × 10-6
× 120
 Coil winding resistance = 20 × 0.3 = 6 Ω
 If the copper wire has a cross-sectional area of a m
then
 Length of mean turn Lmt=2( l  b )= 2(30+25)=110mm
 Resistance of coil, Rc=NρLmt/a
Problem 3
 The coil of a moving-coil voltmeter is 40 mm long and
30 mm wide and has 100 turns on it. The control
spring exerts a torque of 240 × 10-6 N-m when the
deflection is 100 divisions on full scale. If the flux
density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1 wb/m2,
estimate the resistance that must be put in series with
the coil to give one volt per division. The resistance of
the voltmeter coil may be neglected.
 Let the full scale deflecting current be I amp.
 Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
 Td = BIlNb (N-m)
= 1 × I × 40 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 100
 The control torque of the springs is
 Tc = ks × θ
= 240 × 10-6
 At equilibrium, Td = TC
=>1 × I × 40 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 100 = 240 × 10-6
 Let the resistance of the voltmeter circuit be R
 Voltage across the instrument = 2X10-3 R
 This produces a deflection of 100 divisions
 Therefore, volts/div= 2X10-3 R/100
 This value should be equal to 1 in order to get 1 volt/div
 2X10-3 R/100 = 1
 So, R=50KΩ
EXTENSION OF RANGE OF PMMC
INSTRUMENTS
 Ammeter Shunts
 The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very
fine wire. It can carry only few mA safely to give full-
scale deflection.
 For measuring higher current, a low resistance is
connected in parallel to the instrument to bypass the
major part of the current.
 The low resistance connected in parallel with the coil is
called a shunt.
 Figure shows a shunt resistance Rsh connected in parallel
with the basic meter.
 The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using
conventional circuit analysis.
 Rsh = shunt resistance (Ω)
 Rm = coil resistance (Ω)
 Im = Ifs = full-scale deflection current (A)
 Ish = shunt current (A)
 I = current to be measured (A)
 The voltage drop across the shunt and the meter must
be same as they are connected in parallel.
The ratio of the total current to the current in the meter is
called multiplying power of shunt. Multiplying power,
 Voltmeter Multipliers
 For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is
connected in series with the instrument to limit the
current in the coil to a safe value.
 This value of current should never exceed the current
required to produce the full scale deflection.
 The high resistance connected in series with the
instrument is called a multiplier. In Figure, Rsc is the
multiplier.
 The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage
range, is calculated as under:
 Rsc = multiplier resistance (Ω), Rm = meter resistance(Ω)
 Im = Ifs = full scale deflection current (A)
 v = voltage across the meter for producing current Im(A)
 = ImRm
 V = voltage to be measured (A) = Im(Rm + Rsc)

 Now multiplying factor for multiplier

 Sensitivity: The moving-coil instrument is a very sensitive
instrument.
 It is, therefore, widely used for measuring current and
voltage.
 The coil of the instrument may require a small amount of
current (in the range of μA) for full-scale deflection.
 The sensitivity is sometimes expressed in ohm/volt.
 The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

 where Ifs is the full-scale deflecting current. Thus, the

sensitivity depends upon on the current to give full-scale
deflection.
Problem-4
 A moving-coil voltmeter has a resistance of 100 Ω. The
scale is divided into 150 equal divisions. When a
potential difference of 1 V is applied to the terminals of
the voltmeter a deflection of 100 divisions is obtained.
Explain how the instrument could be used for
measuring up to 300 V.
 Let Rsc be the multiplier resistance that would be
connected in series with the voltmeter.
 Volt/division = 1/100
 Voltage across the meter for producing the full-scale
deflecting current v = 150 × 1/100 = 1.5 V
 Meter resistance Rm = 100 Ω
 Full scale meter current Im = 1.5/100 amp
Problem 5
 A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 5 Ω and
gives a full scale deflection of 10 mv. Show how the
instrument may be used to measure
 (a) voltage up to 50 v, and
 (b) current up to 10 A.
 Full scale deflection of 10 mv
 Full scale deflection current = 10 × 10-3/5 = 2 mA
 (a) For measuring the voltage up to 50 V we need to
connect a multiplier resistance RSC in series with the
instrument.

 For measuring the current up to 10 A we need to

connect a shunt resistance in parallel to the
instrument.
 P6) A moving-coil ammeter has a fixed shunt of 0.02 Ω.
With a coil resistance of R = 1000 Ω and a potential
difference of 500 mV across it. Full-scale deflection is
obtained. (a) To what shunted current does it correspond?
(b) Calculate the value of R to give full-scale deflection
when shunted current I is (i) 10 A, and (ii) 75 A, (c) With
what value of R, 40% deflection obtained with I = 100 A.

 P7) A simple shunted ammeter using a basic meter

movement with an internal resistance of 1800 Ω and a full-
scale deflection current of 100 pA is connected in a circuit
and gives reading of 3.5 mA on it’s 5 mA scale. The reading
is checked with a recently calibrated dc ammeter which
gives a reading of 4.1 mA. The implication is that the
ammeter has a faulty shunt on it’s 5 mA range. Calculate (a)
the actual value of faulty shunt, and (b) the current shunt
for the 5 mA range.
 P9) A moving-coil instrument gives the full-scale
deflection of 10 mA when the potential difference
across its terminals is 100 mV. Calculate (a) the shunt
resistance for a full-scale deflection corresponding to
100 A, and (b) the series resistance for full scale
reading with 1000 V. Calculate the power dissipation in
each case.

 P10) A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 75 Ω

and gives a full-scale deflection of 100-scale divisions
for a current of 1 mA. The instrument is connected in
parallel with a shunt of 25 Ω resistance and the
combination is then connected in series with a load
and a supply. What is the current in the load when the
instrument gives an indication of 80 scale divisions?
MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS
 Basic range: 10 mA-100 A
 Usage:
 • dc MI ammeters and voltmeters
 • ac MI ammeters and voltmeters
Moving-Iron or MI instruments can be classified as
 • Attraction-type moving-iron instruments
 • Repulsion-type moving-iron instruments

 The current to be measured, in general, is passed

through a coil of wire in the moving iron
instruments.
 In case of voltage measurement, the current which
is proportional to the voltage is measured.
Attraction-type Moving-Iron
Instruments
 The attraction type of MI instrument depends on
the attraction of an iron vane into a coil carrying
current to be measured.
 A soft iron vane IV is attached to the moving system.
 When the current to be measured is passed through the
coil C, a magnetic field is produced.
 This field attracts the mounted vane on the spindle
towards it.
 The spindle is supported at the two ends on a pair of jewel
bearings.
 Thus, the pointer PR, which is attached to the spindle S of
the moving system is deflected.
 The pointer moves over a calibrated scale.
 The control torque is provided by two hair springs S1
and S2 in the same way as for a PMMC instrument.
 Gravity control can also be used for vertically mounted
panel type MI meters.
 The damping torque is provided by the movement of a
thin vane V in a closed sector-shaped box B, or simply by
a vane attached to the moving system.
 Eddy current damping can not be used in MI
instruments owing to the fact that any permanent
magnet that will be required to produce Eddy current
damping can distort the otherwise weak operating
magnetic field produced by the coil.
Used for:
 If the current in the fixed coil is reversed, the field
produced by it also reverses.
 So the polarity induced on the vane reverses.
 Thus, whatever be the direction of the current in the
coil the vane is always magnetized in such a way that it
is attracted into the coil.
 Hence such instrument can be used for both direct
current as well as alternating current.
Repulsion-type Moving-Iron
Instruments
 In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the
coil.
 One is fixed and the other is movable.
 These are similarly magnetized when the current flows
through the coil and there is a force of repulsion
between the two vanes resulting in the movement of
the moving vane.
 Two different designs for moving iron instruments
commonly used are as follows:
Radial Vane Type
 In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron shown in Fig
(a).
 The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one
to the spindle of the instrument.
 The instrument pointer is attached to the moving vane
spindle.
 As current flows through the coil, the generated magnetic
field induces identical polarities on both the fixed and
moving vane.
 Thus, even when the current through the coil is alternating
(for AC measurement), there is always a repulsion force
acting between the like poles of fixed and moving vane.
 Hence deflection of the pointer is always in the same
direction irrespective of the polarity of current in the coil.
 The scale can thus be calibrated to read the current or
voltage directly.
Co-axial Vane Type
 In these type of instruments, the fixed and moving vanes
are sections of coaxial cylinders as shown in Figure (b).
 Current in the coil magnetizes both the vanes with similar
polarity.
 Thus the movable vane rotates along the spindle axis due to
this repulsive force.
 Moving iron instruments have their deflection
proportional to the square of the current flowing through
the coil.
 These instruments are thus said to follow a square law
response and have non-uniform scale marking.
 Deflection being proportional to square of the current,
whatever be the polarity of current in the coil, deflection of
a moving iron instrument is in the same direction.
 Hence, moving iron instruments can be used for both DC
and AC measurements.
Torque Equation of Moving-Iron
Instruments
 To deduce the expression for torque of a moving iron
instrument, energy relation can be considered for a
small increment in current supplied to the instrument.
 This result in a small deflection dθ and some
mechanical work will be done.
 Let Td be the deflecting torque.
 Therefore, mechanical work done = torque × angular
displacement
 Due to the change in inductance there will be a change
in the energy stored in the magnetic field.
 Let I be the initial current, L be the instrument
inductance and θ is the deflection.
 If the current increases by dI then it causes the change
in deflection dθ and the inductance by dL.
 In order to involve the increment dI in the current, the
applied voltage must be increase by:
 The current changes from I to (I + dI), and the
inductor L to (L + dL)
 Therefore the stored energy changes from

 As dI and dL are very small, neglecting the second and

higher order terms in small quantities, this becomes
 From the principle of conservation of energy,
 Electrical energy supplied = Increase in stored energy
+ Mechanical work done.

 where Td is in newton-meter, I is in ampere, L is in

henry and θ is in radians.
 The moving system is provided with control springs and in
turn the deflecting torque Td is balanced by the controlling
torque TC = k θ , where k is the control spring constant
(N-m/rad) and θ is the deflection in radians.
 At final steady position, TC = Td

 Hence, the deflection is proportional to square of the r.m.s

value of the operating current.
 The deflection torque is, therefore, unidirectional whatever
may be the polarity of the current.
Advantages of MI Instruments
 1. Robust construction and relatively cheap
 2. Suitable for measuring both dc and ac
 3. Can withstand overload momentarily
Disadvantages of MI Instruments
 1. As the deflection is proportional to I2, hence the scale of
the instrument is not uniform. It is cramped in the lower
end and expanded in the upper portion.
 2. It is affected by stray magnetic fields.
 3. There is hysteresis error in the instrument. The
hysteresis error may be minimized by using the vanes of
nickel-iron alloy.
 4. When used for measuring ac the reading may be affected
by variation of frequency due to the change in reactance of
the coil, which has some inductance. With the increase in
frequency, iron loses and coil impedance increases.
 5. Since large amount of power is consumed to supply I2R
loss in the coil and magnetic losses in the vanes, it is not a
very sensitive instrument.
Problem-1
 The inductance of a moving-iron ammeter with a full-
scale deflection of 90° at 1.5 A is given by L = (200 + 40θ
- 4θ2 - θ3) μH where θ is the deflection in radian from
the zero position. Estimate the angular deflection of
the pointer for a current of 1 A.
 For an MI instrument,
Problem-2
 The law of deflection of a moving-iron ammeter is
given by I = 4θn ampere, where θ is the deflection in
radian and n is a constant. The self-inductance when
the meter current is zero is 10 mH. The spring constant
is 0.16 N-m/rad.
 (a) Determine an expression for self-inductance of the
meter as a function of θ and n.
 (b) With n = 0.75, calculate the meter current and the
deflection that corresponds to a self-inductance of 60
mH.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
 The electrodynamometer is a transfer-type
instrument. A transfer-type instrument is one that
may be calibrated with a dc source and then used
without modification to measure ac.
 This requires the transfer type instruments to have
same accuracy for both dc and ac.
 It consists of two fixed coils, which are symmetrically
situated.
 Controlling Torque:
 The controlling torque is provided by two control
springs.
 These springs act as leads to the moving coil.
 Damping:
 Air-friction damping is employed for these
instruments and is provided by a pair of aluminum
vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom.
 These vanes move in a C-shaped chamber.
Torque Equation of
Electrodynamometer - type
Instruments
 Let, i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils,
(A)
 i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coils, (A)
 L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils, (H)
 L2 = self-inductance of moving coil, (H)
 M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils
(H)
 Flux linkage of Coil 1, ψ1 = L1i1 + Mi2
 Flux linkage of Coil 2, ψ2 = L2i2 + Mi1
 Electrical input energy,
 From the principle of conservation of energy,
 Total electrical input energy = Change in energy in
energy stored + mechanical energy
 The mechanical energy can be obtained by subtracting
Eq. (2) from Eq. (1).
 Therefore, mechanical energy =
 Now, the self-inductances L1 and L2 are constants and,
therefore, dL1 and dL2 both are equal to zero.
 Hence, mechanical energy = i1i2 dM
 Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and
dθ is the change in deflection, then,
 Mechanical energy = work done = Ti dθ
Operation with dc
 Let, I1 = current in the fixed coils, I2 = current in the moving
coil
 So deflecting torque Td = I1I2 .

 This shows that the deflecting torque depends in general

on the product of current I1 and I2 and the rate of change of
mutual inductance.
 This deflecting torque deflects the moving coil to such a
position where the controlling torque of the spring is equal
to the deflecting torque.
 Suppose θ be the final steady deflection.
 Therefore controlling torque TC = kθ where k = spring
constant (N-m/rad)
 At final steady position Td = TC
 If the two coils are connected in series for
measurement of current, the two currents I1
 and I2 are equal.
 Say, I1 = I2 = I
 Thus, deflection of the pointer is

 For dc use, the deflection is thus proportional to

square of the current and hence the scale non-uniform
and crowded at the ends.
Operation with ac
 Let, i1 and i2 be the instantaneous values of current
carried by the coils.
 Therefore, the instantaneous deflecting torque is:

 If the two coils are connected in series for

measurement of current, the two instantaneous
currents i1 and i2 are equal.
 Say, i1 = i2 = i
dM
Ti  i 2
d
 Thus, for ac use, the instantaneous torque is
proportional to the square of the instantaneous
current.
 As the quantity i2 is always positive, the current varies
and the instantaneous torque also varies.
 But the moving system due to its inertia cannot follow
such rapid variations in the instantaneous torque and
responds only to the average torque.
 The average deflecting torque over a complete cycle is
given by:
 At final steady position Td = TC

 Deflection is thus a function of the mean of the square

of the current.
Sinusoidal Current
 If currents i1 and i2 are sinusoidal and are displaced by
a phase angle φ, i.e.
Electrodynamic Wattmeter
Torque Equation
 Let, if = current in the fixed coil
 im = current in the moving coil
 i = load current
 v = load voltage
 Tin = instantaneous value of the deflecting torque
 p = instantaneous power
 Thus, the instantaneous value of the deflecting torque is
proportional to the instantaneous power.
 Owing to the inertia of the moving system, the pointer
reads the average power.
 In dc circuits, the power is given by the product of voltage
and current, and hence the torque is directly proportional
to the power.
 Thus, the instrument indicates the power.
 For ac, the instrument indicates the average power.
This can be proved as follows:
 Let, v = Vm sin θ
 I = Im sin (θ - Ф)
 Average deflecting torque ∞ average value of Vm sin θ
× Im sin (θ - Ф) ∞ VI cos θ
 If Td be the average torque, then

 P is the true power and k is the constant.

 For spring control TC = ksθ1
 where TC is the control torque, ks is the spring
constant and θ1 is the angle of deflection of the
pointer.
 For steady deflection,

 Hence, in case of ac also the deflection is proportional

to the true power in the circuit.
 The scale of the electrodynamometer wattmeter is
therefore uniform.
Advantages of Electrodynamometer-
type Instruments
 1. They can be used on ac as well as dc measurements.
 2. These instruments are free from eddy current and
hysteresis error.
 3. Electrodynamometer-type instruments are very
useful for accurate measurement of r.m.s values of
voltages irrespective of waveforms.
 4. Because of precision grade accuracy and same
calibration for ac and dc measurements these
instruments are useful as transfer type and calibration
instruments.
Disadvantages of
Electrodynamometer-type Instruments
 1. As the instrument has square law response, the scale
is non-uniform.
 2. These instruments have small torque/weight ratio,
so the frictional error is considerable.
 3. More costly than PMMC and MI type of
instruments.
 4. Adequate screening of the movements against stray
magnetic fields is essential.
 5. Power consumption is comparably high because of
their construction.
Problem-1&2
 The inductance of a 25 A electrodynamic ammeter
changes uniformly at the rate of 0.0035 mH/radian.
The spring constant is 10-6N-m/radian. Determine the
angular deflection at full scale.

 In an electrodynamic instrument the total resistance of

the voltage coil circuit is 8200 Ω and the mutual
inductance changes uniformly from -173 μH at zero
deflection to +175 μH at full scale. The angle of full
scale being 95°. If a potential difference of 100 V is
applied across the voltage circuit and a current of 3 A
at a power factor of 0.75 is passed through the current
coil, what will be the deflection. Spring constant of the
instrument is 4.63 × 10-6 N-m/rad.
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS
 In electrostatic instruments, the deflecting torque is
produced by action of electric field on charged
conductors.
 Such instruments are essentially voltmeters, but they
may be used with the help of external components to
measure the current and power.
 Their greatest use in the laboratory is for measurement
of high voltages.
 Now there are two possible ways in which the
electrostatic force can act. The two possible conditions
are written below,
 When one of the plates is fixed and other plate is free to
move, plates are oppositely charged in order to have
attractive force between them. Now due this attractive
force movable plate will move towards the stationary or
fixed plate till the moving plate stores maximum
electrostatic energy.
 In other arrangement there may be force of attraction or
repulsion or both, due to some rotary of plate.
Force and Torque Equation of
Electrostatic Type Instrument
 Now let us derive force equation for the linear
electrostatic type instruments. Let us consider two
plates as shown in the diagram given below.
 Plate A is fixed and B is movable.
 The plates are oppositely charged and are restrained by a
spring connected to the fixed point.
 Let a potential difference of V volt be applied to the plates;
then a force of attraction F Newton exists between them.
 Plate B moves towards A until the force is balanced by the
spring.
 The capacitance between the plates is then C farad and the
stored energy is ½ CV2 joules.
 Now let there be a small increment dV in the applied
voltage, then the plate B moves a small distance dx towards
A.
 when the voltage is being increased a capacitive current
flows.
 dq d
 This current is given by i  (CV )
dt dt
 From this value of electric current the input energy can
be calculated as :
 Change in stored energy

 (neglecting the higher order terms as they are small

quantities)
 From the principle of conservation of energy,
 Input electrical energy = increase in stored energy +
mechanical work done
 Rotational Motion:
 In order to find out the expression for deflecting
torque in case of rotary type electrostatic instruments,
just replace in the last equation F by Td and linear
displacement dx by angular displacement dθ.
 Now rewriting the modified equation we have
deflecting torque is equals to: T  1 V 2 dC
d
d
2
 If the instrument is spring controlled or has a
suspension then
 Controlling torque TC = k θ, where k = spring constant
 θ = deflection
 Hence, deflection
Advantages of Electrostatic
Instruments
 1. These instruments draws negligible amount of
power from the mains.
 2. They may be used on both ac and dc.
 3. They have no frequency and waveform errors as the
deflection is proportional to square of voltage and
there is no hysteresis.
 4. There are no errors caused by the stray magnetic
field as the instrument works on the electrostatic
principle.
 5. They are particularly suited for high voltage.
Disadvantages of Electrostatic
Instruments
 1. The use of electrostatic instruments is limited to certain
special applications, particularly in ac circuits of relatively
high voltage, where the current drawn by other
instruments would result in erroneous indication.
 A protective resistor is generally used in series with the
instrument in order to limit the current in case of a short
circuit between plates.
 2. These instruments are expensive, large in size and are
not robust in construction.
 3. Their scale is not uniform.
 4. The operating force is small.