3D PRINTING (ADDICTIVE) SYSTEM

-By MATHAN

COPY RIGHT RESERVED

@ASHOK VIJAY STUDIOS 2017
A KINDLE PRODUCT

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION
The competition in the world market for new products manufacturing is
increased extremely now a days. It is very important bring new products to the market as
early as possible before its competitors. Many of the processes involved in the design,
test, manufacture and market of the products have been squeezed to bring products to the
market swiftly, both in terms of material resources and time. The efficient use of such
valuable resources calls for new tools and approaches. They are mainly technology-
driven, usually involving the computer. This is mainly a result of the rapid growth and
advancement in such technologies over the last few years. This book will give clear
idea about various types of additive manufacturing technologies.
WHAT IS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING?
Unlike subtractive manufacturing methods that start with a solid block of raw
material and then cut away the unwanted to create required finished part, Additive
manufacturing builds up part layer by layer from geometry and details in the CAD
model. Additive Manufacturing has been declared as the first “manufacturing
revolution” of the twenty first century. Additive manufacturing is the formalized term
used to be called rapid
prototyping and is popularly called 3D Printing.
The term rapid prototyping (RP) is used in a different industries to describe a
process for rapidly creating a system or part representation before final release or
commercialization. In a product development perspective, the term rapid prototyping
was widely used to explain technologies which created physical prototypes directly
from digital CAD model data. The term rapid prototyping is inadequate and in particular
does not effectively describe more recent applications of the technology. Improvements
in the quality of the output from these machines have meant that there is frequently a
much closer to the product. Now many parts are manufactured directly in these machines
using an additive approach, so it is not correct that label them as “prototypes.” In recent
times formed Technical Committee within ASTM International agreed that new
terminology should be adopted. This is still under debate still recently adopted ASTM
compromise standards now use the term additive manufacturing instead of rapid
prototyping.
AM technology certainly extensively simplifies the manufacturing process of
complex 3D objects directly from CAD model. Other manufacturing processes require a
careful and detailed analysis of the part geometry to determine things like different
features can be fabricated; tools and processes used, and additional fixtures may be
required to complete the part. Additive Manufacturing needs only some basic
dimensional details and a small amount of understanding about the AM machine works
and the materials that are used to build the part. The key thing to how AM works is that
parts are made by adding material in layer by layer; each layer is a thin cross-section of
the part get from the CAD data and each layer must have a finite thickness to it and so
the final part will be an approximation of the original data. If the layer thickness is, the
closer the final part will be to the original.
All AM machines up to date use is a layer-based approach, and the major ways
that they differ are in the materials used, layers creating, and bonded technique to each
other. This will determine factors like the accuracy of the final part, its mechanical and
material properties, post processing requirement, size of the machine, production time
cost for process and machine. This chapter will introduce the basic concepts of additive
manufacturing and describe the AM process from design to application.
WHAT ARE AM PARTS USED FOR?
In this book you will find a wide variety of applications for every AM process.
You will also understand that the number of applications is increasing as the processes
develop and improve. Initially, this process was used particularly to create visualization
models for products as they were being developed. It is well-known that models can be
much more helpful than drawings or renderings in understanding the plan of the designer
when presenting the conceptual design. Drawings are quicker and easier to create, but
the models are always required in the end to confirm the design.
AM technology initially used for only simple model making purpose, but it has
developed as material, quality and accuracy of the product is improved. Models were
quickly engaged to supply information about “3 Fs” of Form, Fit, and Function. The
early models were used to help fully understand the shape and purpose of a design
(Form). Accuracy improvement in the process meant that the sub assembly part were
capable of being built to the tolerances necessary for assembly (Fit). Material
properties improvement meant that parts could be accurately handled so that they can
use for finally work (Function).
WHY USE THE TERM ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING?
By now, you should understand that the technology we are discussing is
primarily the use of additive processes, adding materials layer by layer. The term
additive manufacturing, or AM, seems to describe this quite well, but there are many
other terms which are in use. Some of the process is not purely additive process,
subtractive process is also combined. The term Additive Fabrication was popularized
by Terry Wohlers, a famous industry consultant in this field. Many professionals use the
term “manufacturing” to “fabrication”, but “fabrication” is associated with sheet metal
bending and related processes. Thus the Professionals from these group often the use of
the word fabrication for this industry. Additive manufacturing is starting to become
widely used, and has also been adopted by Wohlers in his most current presentations
and publications.
THE BENEFITS OF AM
The real benefit of Additive manufacturing is not only the speed of production,
also the efficiency by means of lead time reduction. Unlike other manufacturing process,
efficiency of AM remains constant when the volume of production is low, complex
shape and other factors. AM requires few steps (design, build and remove), less efforts,
easy to change alternation in existing design, any design can be build so there is no need
of pre planning and analysis. If we change design slightly the number of steps of part
build will increase in conventional method. Any parts (even complexity is more) can be
build in a single step. The workstation remains clean and neat. There is no need of
planning for jigs and fixtures to part build.
THE EIGHT STEPS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURE
STEP 1: Conceptualization and CAD
STEP 2: CONVERSION TO STL/AMF
STEP 3: TRANSFER TO AM MACHINE AND STL FILE MANIPULATION
STEP 4: MACHINE SETUP
STEP 5: BUILD
STEP 6: REMOVAL AND CLEANUP
STEP 7: POST-PROCESSING
STEP 8: APPLICATION
The above sequence of steps is generally suitable to all AM technologies. There
will be some variations dependent on the type of process and also on the design of the
part.

STEP 1: CONCEPTUALIZATION AND CAD

The first step in any product development process is an idea about the product
function and its look. Conceptualization can be many forms like description, sketches
and representative model. If AM is to be used, the product description must be in a
digital form. AM technology is not possible without 3D CAD. The AM process must
starts with 3D CAD detail. There are many software available for modelling
(solidworks, CATIA, etc). Using this software required CAD model is generated of
designer. Some older and poor CAD software creates solid models without fully
enclosed. The best suitable software package is selected. Then the required design of
CAD model is generated.
STEP 2: CONVERSION TO STL/AMF
Almost every AM technology uses the STL file format. STL stands for
STereoLithograhy, which was the first commercial AM technology from 3D Systems.
STL also stands for Standard Triangulation Language. It approximates the surfaces of the
model with sets of triangular facets. The CAD system converts the 3D CAD model to
STL file format automatically. The limitations of STL file are no units, material, colour
and other feature information. These are rectified by new format called “AMF”. The
complex and highly irregular geometry may result in triangle vertices that do not align
properly. This may lead to gaps in the surface or sometimes it may lead to additional
unwanted material included in the part. While the most of the errors are automatically
detected and rectified in the software, there is a requirement of manual interference.
STEP 3: TRANSFER TO AM MACHINE AND STL FILE MANIPULATION
After STL file has been created and repaired, it can be sent to AM machine to
part build. If we press “Print” button, the machines starts building. It should be possible
to press a “print” button and the machine should build the part immediately. This is not
regularly the case however and there may be a number of actions needed earlier to
building the part. The first task is verify the part is correct. To view and manipulate the
part AM system software usually has visualization tool. The user may desire to
reposition the part or change the orientation to allow it to be built at a specific location
within the machine. More than one part can be built in an AM machine at a time. This
may be multiples of the same part or different part.
STEP 4: MACHINE SETUP
There is different type of AM machines available with setup parameters. The
layer thickness, part orientation, position of part build and other process parameters are
entered based on our requirement. The part builds time and production cost will varies
with this parameters change. Variety of material can be used in some machines.
Improper machine set up lead to poor quality of the final product. The operator must
check the part and support material is loaded sufficiently. Most of the machines
automatically calculate the availability of the materials.
STEP 5: BUILD
After finishing machine set up the part build is started. This process is fully
automated, few process are semi automated. The part build will be layer by layer
adding technique, but the building process various with different AM process. This will
continue until the final product is finished. There is no need of continuous monitoring the
process.
STEP 6: REMOVAL AND CLEANUP
Once the part build finished, the part will required some of post processing. The
part must be removed from the platform or removed from excess material. Support
structures also must be removed. Some process has been developed to produce easy to
remove it. For metal supports, band saw, a wire EDM machine, and/or milling
equipment may be required to remove the part from the base plate and the supports from
the part. Some operator skill is required to remove part and support, since mishandling
of parts can result in damage to the part. The cleaning is required for Different AM
parts.
STEP 7: POST-PROCESSING
Post-processing means the (usually manual) stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes. This may involve some finishing operations like abrasive
finishing, polishing and sandpapering, or application of coatings. Some applications
may only need a minimum of post-processing. Other applications may need very careful
handling of the parts to maintain good precision and finish. Some post-processing may
involve thermal or chemical treatment of the part to attain final part properties. Different
AM processes have different accuracy of finish, and thus machining to final dimensions
may be necessary. Some components may require the use of infiltration and/or surface
coatings to strengthen the final part. Other additional equipment, like polishing tubs or
drying and baking ovens needed.

STEP 8: APPLICATION
After completing the post-processing, parts are ready to use. Although parts may
be made from similar materials to those available from other manufacturing processes
(like casting and molding), parts may not behave as standard material specifications
given. They may also need additional treatment before they are suitable for use. They
may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface finish and texture. The
behaviour of the part may be better or worse for some purpose, but the designer made
the decision for best process. They may also be required some assembly operation with
other mechanical or electronic components to form a final model or product.

DESIGN FOR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Part Orientation
Orientation in which part has to be built in RM machine is very important step.
Part orientation at the time of the built has the biggest impact on part functionality. It also
has an impact on price because it determines the number of material layers is in the part.
The amount of layers dictates run-time and the amount of support material needed. The
part orientation should have the following characteristics.
Maximize the number of perpendicular surface
Maximize the number of up facing horizontal surface
Maximize the number of holes with their axes in slicing direction
Maximize the number of curved cross sections drawn in horizontal plane
Maximize the area of base surface
Minimize the number of sloped surface
Minimize the total area of overhanging surfaces
Minimize the number of trapped volumes
SUPPORT STRUCTURE DESIGN
Depending on the design application a support structure may be decomposed into
three functional areas with different building strategies for practical applications. For an
area connecting to part surfaces the support structure should be easily removable while
proving sufficient support. The support structure for this area is often defined as sierras
or needles with minimum contact with the part surface. The main support should be
strong enough to withstand both vertical weight and horizontal disturbances.
Support structure generation
Parts are built layer-by-layer, every layers must be supported by something
underneath it. Features that are not directly supported by fundamental layers or the build
platform are called unsupported overhangs. Example can be seen in the pictures. These
features fails to print without support structure.

A different strategies may be applied for areas between the main support and the
platform for easy removal while providing a stable base support. The Structure should
be designed such that its total weight is minimized.
Thus, the three functional areas are,
1. Sierras or needles: connection between the main support and the part
2. Supports: the main support structure
3. Separators: connections between the main support and the platform
1.Gussets: gussets ( a single one or a set) are used to support lightweight overhanging
areas during the part building process and attach to a vertical wall near the overhang
areas. Gussets provide the optimal support for overhang areas while requiring minimal
resources during the building process. The Supports are also easily identified during
cleanup.
2. Projected feature edges: The edges of unsupported lightweight areas where gussets
cannot reach are projected downwards to provide support. Projected feature edges
support the edges of the feature and provide excellent control against curling and war
page.
3. Single Webs: Thin walls can be supported by single webs produced by projecting the
center line along the narrow side of the thin walled feature. Cross members are added to
provide stability of the support structure.
4. Webs: Large unsupported areas may be supported by various web structures; Contact
of each support structures with vertical part walls should be avoided to protect the final
part surface. To minimize support material consumption, perforated walls may be used
in the web structure
5. Scaffolding: various scaffolding structures used in the construction and tissue
engineering can also be designed as support structures for rapid prototyping.
6. Honeycomb: Other sophisticated support structures similar to the honeycomb style
for hollowing master prototype models initially developed for Quick Cast 2.0 (Hague et
al. 2001) may also be used as support Structures
7. Columns: For isolated small islands, column type support structures can be used. For
large islands, columns defined by other web structures may also be used.
8. Zigzag and Perimeter support: The zigzag and perimeter support structure is most
suited for FDM prototyping with a continuous path for each layer. For all the above
mentioned Support structures the thickness of thin webs can be just a single cured line.
SLICING
After part orientation and support structure generation, the virtual model is
divided into number of layers. Each layers information is passed to machine to move
controller according to contour of the each layers. Smaller the slice thickness, part
accuracy will be higher.

Tool path generation

 The direction and path in which material is deposited or sintered or glued in
each layer is defined as tool path. Tool path influence on strength, material consumption
and time required to fabricate the part. Tool path generally used in Additive
manufacturing process is shown in figure.
Once the slicing contour data is ready, one can start addressing process
dependent issues for tool path generation. In particular, as most of the RP process is
layer-based process, one can produce the tool path layer-by-layer starting from the
bottom layer.
TYPES OF TOOL PATH GENERATION
Generally the tool path generation of many RP techniques can be classified in
fallowing category.
• RASTER SCANNING
• PERIMETER SCANNING
• DIRECTIONAL SCANNING
• ZIGZAG TOOL PATH
• LINE BY LINE SCANNING
• AREA BY AREA SOLIDIFICATION
• BOUNDARY CUTTING TOOL PATHS

RASTER SCANNING
It refers to scanning along one coordinate axis for model solidification. This is
the simplest path for RP. The scanning strategy can be applied to processes such as
stereo lithography (SL), selective laser sintering (SLS).
PERIMETER SCANNING
This approach can also be turned into a contouring approach with multiple
parameters and their offsetting contours. The method is applicable to almost all RP
technique is mainly for LOM.

DIRECTIONAL SCANNING
It is sometimes used to improve the mechanical properties of model fabricated in
RP techniques. This scanning may be in certain orientation like 0°, 45° and 90°. This is
basic pattern used for the “TRI – HATCH” scanning style that was once used on SLA
machine of 3D system.

ZIGZAG TOOL PATH

It is often used in FDM, 3D welding and other extruding type RP systems. This
also used in drop-on-demand RP Process (3D ink jet Printing). This may be single or
triple parameter zig-zag path.
LINE BY LINE SCANNING
It is often used in inkjet printing process. (Thermo jet printer). Each layer is
produced through single sweeping of a line component along the principle scanning
direction.

BOUNDARY CUTTING TOOL PATHS

In LOM, a boundary cutting strategy is used. For cutting waste and supporting
materials during the LOM process, a basic orthogonal xy- hatching pattern is often used.

AREA BY AREA SOLIDIFICATION

Photo-polymer based resin curing is an ideal example for this tool path. Here
first mask is developed based on the sliced contours and the thin layer of photopolymer
resin is then selectively solidified by exposing it to UV light.

CLASSIFICATION OF AM
The Additive Manufacturing processes are classified based on raw material used.
Liquid based
Solid based
Powder based
NEW AM CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
Vat photopolymerization: processes that use a liquid photopolymer that
is contained in a vat and processed by selectively delivering UV light or
LASER energy to cure specific regions of a part layer.
Sheet lamination: processes that deposit a layer of sheet form material at
a time.
Material jetting: processes ink-jet printing.
Powder bed fusion: processes that use a container filled with powder that
is processed selectively using LASER or Electron Beam energy source
Material extrusion: processes that deposit a material by extruding it
through a nozzle, while scanning the nozzle in a pattern of a part cross
section to be produced.
Binder jetting: processes where a binder is printed into a powder bed to
form cross-sections of part.
Directed energy deposition: processes that simultaneously deposit a
material (powder or wire) and provide energy to cure that material
through a single device.
 LIQUID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
Liquid-based rapid prototyping systems also called vat polymerization because
most of it builds parts in a vat of photo-curable liquid resin, an organic resin that
solidifies or cures by exposure to UV light. The UV light cures the resin near the
surface, forming a hardened layer. When a layer of the part is formed, it is lowered by a
control system to allow the next layer of resin to be similarly formed over it. This
process will continue until the entire part is completed. The vat can then be drained and
the part removed for post processing, if required. There are differences in this technique
by the various vendors and they are dependent on the type of laser or light, method of
exposure scanning, type of elevation, optical system used and type of liquid resin.
STEREOLITHOGRAPHY APPARATUS (SLA)
3D Systems was started by Charles W.Hull and entrepreneur Raymond S. Freed
in 1986. Amongst all the commercial RP systems, the Stereo lithography Apparatus
(SLA) is the lead the way with its first commercial system marketed in 1988.
Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing or 3D printing technology used
for producing models, prototypes, patterns by curing a photo-reactive resin with a UV
laser or another similar power source.
Principle
The SLA process is based on the following principles:
(1) Parts are built from a photo-curable liquid resin which cures when exposed
to a laser beam or light by photo-polymerization process, which scans across the surface
area of the resin.
(2) The part building is done layer by layer, each layer being scanned by the
light or laser scanning system and controlled by an elevation mechanism which lowers
in steps at the completion of each layer.
Photopolymerization
Polymerization is the process of linking small monomers into chain-like larger
polymers. When the chain-like polymers are linked further to one another, a cross-linked
polymer is formed. Photo-polymerization is polymerization initiated by a photochemical
process stimulated by source energy from the radiation.
A photopolymer is a polymer which changes its properties when exposed to UV
light. Hardening of the material occurs as a result of cross-linking when exposed to UV
light. After curing, it hardens the liquid to solid state.
Oligomers: This material consists of chain like, long, chemically-
reactive molecules which give the final solid its mechanical and other
properties. Range of 50 - 80% of the total weight.
Monomers: Monomers may typically constitute 10 - 40% of the
photopolymer.
Photoinitiators: Photoinitiators are molecules that can be divided into
two or more parts by exposure to light. It comprises just a few percent of
the photopolymer.
Process
Stereolithography process creates 3D plastic objects directly from CAD data.
The process starts from photo-curable liquid resin is filled in a vat and the elevator
table set just below the surface of the liquid resin.
The operator loads a 3D CAD solid model file into the system. Supports
structures are designed to support the part during building. The translator converts the
3D CAD data into a STL file format.
The control unit slices the model and support into many of cross section layers
from 0.025 to 0.5 mm thick. Then the computer-controlled optical scanning system direct
and spot the laser beam to solidifies a 2D cross-section corresponding to the slice on
the surface of the photo-curable liquid resin.
The elevator table drops down enough to cover the solid polymer by another the
liquid resin layer. Then a levelling wiper moves across the surfaces to spread the resin
to the next layer on the surface. The laser then draws the next layer.
This process continues the part building from bottom to up, until the system
completes the part. The part is then taken out of the vat and cleaned of excess polymer.
Process parameters

Minimum build envelope [250*250*250]- [737*635*533]

Vat capacity 8.5 l-247 l

Laser Solid state Nd:YVO4(Neodymium-doped yttrium
orthovanadate)

Power 100mW to 1000mW

Beam diameter Std: 0.25mm-0.13

HR mode: 0.075

Slicing thickness 0.025-0.5mm

Advantages:
The main advantages of using SLA are:
Good accuracy. The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used for many
 application areas.
Good user support. The computerized process serves as a good user support.
Wide range of materials. There is a wide range of materials, from general-purpose
materials to specialty materials for specific applications.
Round the clock operation. The SLA can be used continuously and unattended round
the clock.
Build volumes. The different SLA machines have build volumes ranging from small to
large to suit the needs of different users.
Surface finish. The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst RP
technologies.
Disadvantages:
The main disadvantages of using SLA are:
Requires post-processing.
Requires support structures.
Requires post-curing.
Applications
The SLA technology provides manufacturers with cost correct methods for
reducing time to market, reducing product development costs, gaining greater control of
their design process and improving product design.
The applications include:
Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.
Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional testing.
Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.
Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding.
Tools for fixture and tooling design, and production tooling.
 SOLID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
Solid-based rapid prototyping systems are altered from the liquid-based photo-
curing systems. They are also different from one another within it, though some of them
do use the laser in the process. The common feature among them is that they all utilize
solids (in one form or another) as the primary medium to create the prototype.
SOLID GROUND CURING (SGC)
Solid ground curing (SGC) is a photo polymer based additive manufacturing
technology used for producing models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts. In
this process layer geometry is produced is by passing UV light through a mask. As the
basis of solid ground curing is the exposure of each layer of the model by means of a
lamp through a mask. This method offered good accuracy and a very high fabrication
rate.
The Solid Ground Curing (SGC) System is produced by Cubital Ltd. Cubital Ltd.’s
operations began in 1987 as a spin-off from Scitex Corporation and commercial sales began in
1991.

Principle:
SGC process is based on Curing of photopolymer layer by layer. Curing is a term refers
to the toughening or hardening of a polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains, brought
about by electron beams, heat, light or chemical additives. Photopolymer changes its properties
when exposed to light. These changes are often manifested structurally like hardening of the
material occurs as a result exposed to light create cross-linking.
Curing in SGC:
Typically a photopolymer consists of a mixture of multifunctional monomers, photo
initiators and oligomers in order to achieve the desired physical properties. Hardening of the
material occurs as a result of cross-linking in mixture when exposed to light.
Solid Ground Curing Process:
 1. The cross section of each layer is calculated based on the geometric model of the
part and the desired layer thickness.
2. The optical mask is created conforming to each cross section of layer.
3. After leveling, the part building platform is enclosed with a thin layer of liquid
photopolymer.
4. The mask corresponding to the layer is located over the surface of the liquid
resin, and the resin is exposed to a high-power UV light.
5. The remaining liquid is removed from the work piece by an aerodynamic wiper.
6. A layer of melted wax is spread over the work piece to fill voids. Then the wax
is solidified by applying a cold plate to it.
7. The layer surface is trimmed to the required thickness by a milling process.
8. The current work piece is covered with a thin layer of liquid polymer and step 4
to 7 are repeated for each successive upper layer until the uppermost layer has
been processed.
9. The wax is removed by melting after the completion of the part.

Steps:
1. Preparation of Mask
2. Applying liquid photopolymer layer
3. Mask positioning and exposure of layer
 4. Uncured polymer removed from surface
5. Wax filling
6. Milling for flatness and thickness.

SGC Process Specification:

Build Size Models up to 500*350*500 mm

Achievable Accuracy 0.1% (Measured between targets through the

material)
X-Y Resolution 0.084 mm (0.0033 inch)
Geometric Complexity Unlimited
Z Resolution (Variable Layer 0.1 - 0.2 mm (0.004 - 0.008 inch)
Thickness)
Layer build speed 70sec
photopolymers Acrylic and epoxy resin

Advantages
No post curing of parts is required
No supports are required
Good dimensional accuracy
Complexity is unlimited
It allows nesting of parts
SGC has a large build area
It’s a fastest fabrication process when compared to other RP process
Disadvantages
Initial cost is very high
Large area is required for installation
Excessive waste of wax and resin
It has greatest material limitation with only acrylic and a single epoxy resin
Application
The applications of SLA can generally be divided to four areas
General Applications: Conceptual design presentation, engineering testing,
design proofing, functional analysis, integrating and fitting, , exhibitions and
preproduction sales, market research, and inter professional communication.
Casting Applications: Investment casting, sand casting, and rapid tool free
manufacturing of plastic parts.
Mold and Tooling: Silicon rubber tooling, epoxy tooling, spray metal tooling,
acrylic tooling and plaster mold casting.
Medical Imaging: Diagnostic, surgical, operation and reconstruction planning
and custom prosthesis design and so forth.
 FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
FDM is a solid based rapid prototyping technique which uses thermoplastics to print
3d models. FDM is otherwise known as plastic jet printing (PJP). Stratasys Inc. was
started in 1989 and has developed most of the industry’s products based on the Fused
Deposition Modelling (FDM) technology. The technology was first developed in 1988
by Scott Cramp and the patent was awarded in 1992 in the US. FDM uses the extrusion
process to build 3D models.
Reasons to choose FDM
Eco-friendly
Good Surface finish
Functional parts with greater stability
Small series of quality parts

Principle
A type of plastic is extruded from the heated nozzle. The temperature of the
nozzle is controlled by the computer to allow for even extrusion. The material exits the
nozzle with a liquid consistency. The movement of the nozzle varies depending upon the
shape of the printing component.

Materials Used
Modeling material: The most common printing material for FDM is
 acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) which is derived from fossil fuels,
Along with ABS, some FDM machines also print in other thermoplastics, like
polycarbonate (PC) or polyetherimide (PEI).
Support materials: which acts as scaffolding are brittle thermoplastics, like
polyphenylsulfone (PPSF).
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene): ABS plastics are used largely for
mechanical purposes because of its high impact strength.
ABS plus: derived from ABS, 50-70% more efficient.
PPSF(polyphenylsulfone): has the greatest heat and chemical resistance, can
with higher temperatures up to 304°C

Parts of FDM
Extrusion nozzle: This is an important part of the machine from which metal gets heated
up and liquified. There are two nozzles for two types of material.

Stepper motors: The stepper motor helps to move the nozzle precisely according to the
CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) program code which defines the path of the
motion of nozzle
Drive wheels: The drive wheels will provide the required feed for the filaments so that
it properly moves.

Platform: This is the base on which fused deposition model is produced.

Process
Pre-Processing
First, the CAD file is created in AutoCad or another design program. The model
needs to be imported into Stratasys’ software, Insight. The software converts the .stl file
into horizontal layers mathematically, creating the required supports. Insight creates tool
paths required for the extrusion head.
Production
ABS material feeds into the temperature-controlled FDM extrusion head, where it is
heated to a semi-liquid state. When the layer is finished, the head moves up in Z
direction to the next layer. Each layer is extruded with precision, and the layers are
bonded and solidified. The designed 3D model of the object becomes a solid part.

Post-processing
Removal of supports from part
Removal of part from platform
Cleaning of part (rinsing )
Finishing part
Process Parameters:
Advantages
Easy to material change
Wide variety of materials available
Low maintenance costs
No toxic materials
Tolerance of +/- 0.005" overall
No supervision required
Very compact size
Thin parts produced fast
Disadvantages
Slow process
Unpredictable shrinkage
Restricted accuracy
Application
FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:
(1) Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be marked,
drilled, painted and sanded and thus can be finished to be approximately like the actual
product.
(2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing.
(3) Masters and Patterns for tooling. This model can be used as patterns for
molding, sand casting and investment casting.

(4) Aerospace Industries, Automotive Industries, Commercial Industries,

Industrial Components, Medical field.

(5) Automotive Companies such as BMW, Hyundai uses FDM throughout their

product development, prototyping and manufacturing processes

(6) The aim of 3d-printing industries is to make the machine portable

and to get coupled with every desktop as like 2D printers.

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)

Cubic Technologies was established in December 2000 by Michael Feygin, the
inventor who developed Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM). In 1985, Feygin set
up the original company, Helisys Inc., to market the LOMTM rapid prototyping
machines.
Principle
Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-
form materials and the contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.
Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many
parts. The next layer is then laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.
The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each layer is
completed, and the next layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height is
then measured for the exact height so that the corresponding cross sectional data can be
calculated for that layer. No additional support structures are necessary, which are
cross-hatched for later removal, act as the support.
Process
 The Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process is an automated fabrication
method in which a 3D object model is constructed from a solid CAD representation by
consecutively laminating the part cross-sections. The process consists of three phases:
pre-processing; building; post-processing.
Pre-processing
The pre-processing phase comprises several operations. The initial steps
include generating an image from a CAD-derived STL file of the part to be
manufactured, sorting input data, and creating secondary data structures. These are fully
automated by LOM Slice, the LOM system software, which calculates and controls the
slicing functions. Orienting and merging the part on the LOM system are done manually.
These tasks are aided by LOM Slice, which provides a menu-driven interface to
perform transformations (e.g., translation, scaling, and mirroring) as well as merges.

Building
In the building phase, thin layers of adhesive-coated material are sequentially
bonded to each other and individually cut by a CO2 laser beam.
The build cycle has the following steps:
(1) LOM Slice creates a cross-section of the 3D model measuring the exact
height of the model and slices the horizontal plane accordingly. Then the software
images cross-hatches which define the outer perimeter and it converts these excess
materials into a
support structure.
(2) The computer generates precise calculations that guide the focused laser
beam to cut the crosshatches, the cross-sectional outline, and the model’s perimeter. The
laser beam power is designed to cut exactly the thickness of one layer of material at a
time. Once the perimeter is burned, everything within the model’s boundary is removed
from the remaining sheet.
(3) The platform with the stack of already formed layers descends and a new
layer section of material advances. Then the platform ascends and the heated roller
laminates the material to the stack with a single reciprocal motion, thereby bonding it to
the previous layer.
 (4) The vertical encoder measures the stack height and relays the new height to
LOM Slice, which calculates the cross section for the next layer as the laser cuts the
model’s current layer.
(5) This sequence continues until all the layers are built. The product
removed from the LOM machine as a completely covered rectangular block containing
the part.

Post-processing
The last phase is post-processing. It includes separating the part from its support
material and finishing it.
(1) The metal platform, house to the recently created part, is removed from the
LOM machine. A forklift may be required to remove the larger and heavier parts from
the LOM.
(2) Normally a hammer and a putty knife are required to separate the LOM block
from the platform. However, a live thin wire may also be used to cut through the double-
sided foam tape, that serves as the connecting point between the platform and the LOM
stack.
(3) The surrounding wall frame is lifted off the block to expose the crosshatched
pieces of the unwanted excess material. Then Crosshatched pieces may be detached
from the part using wood carving tools. After the part is extracted from surrounding
crosshatches the wood like LOM part can be finished. Traditional model-making
finishing techniques, such as painting, sanding, polishing, etc. can be applied. After the
part has been separated it is be sealed immediately with urethane, silicon or epoxy
spray to prevent moisture absorption and expansion of the part. If essential, LOM parts
can be machined — by milling, drilling, and turning.
Materials
Potentially, any sheet material with adhesive backing can be used in Laminated
Object Manufacturing. It has been established that metals, plastics, and even ceramic
tapes can be used.
However, the most popular material has been Kraft paper with a polyethylene-
based heat seal adhesive system because it is cost effective, widely available, and
environmentally benign.
To maintain uniform lamination across the complete working envelope it is
critical that the temperature stay constant. A temperature control system, with closed-
loop feedback, conform the system’s temperature remains constant, regardless of its
surrounding environment.
Advantages
The main advantages of using LOM technology are as follows:
Wide variety of materials.
Fast build time.
High precision.
Support structure.
Post-curing.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of using LOM are as follows:
Precise power adjustment.
Fabrication of thin walls.
Integrity of prototypes.
Removal of supports.
Applications
(1) Visualization. Many companies use LOM’s ability to produce exact
dimensions of a required product purely for visualization.
 (2) Form, fit and function. LOM parts lend themselves well for performance
estimation and design verification. In low-stress environments LOM parts can withstand
basic tests, giving manufacturers the chance to make changes as well as evaluate the
aesthetic property of the prototype.
(3) Manufacturing: casting, investment casting, sanding casting, silicon rubber
mold, injection molding vacuum forming and spray metal molding.
(4) Rapid tooling. Two part negative tooling is simply created with LOM
systems. Since the material is solid and inexpensive, bulk difficult tools are cost
effective to produce.

POWDER-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)
The SLS process was developed and patented in the 1980’s by Carl Deckard
and his mechanical engineering professor, Joe Beaman. The technology was patented in
1989 and was originally sold by DTM Corporation. DTM was acquired by 3D Systems
in 2001. SLS involves the use of a high power laser (for example, a carbon dioxide
laser).Unlike other additive manufacturing technologies, SLS does not require support
structures.
Principle

Sintering is the process of forming a solid mass of material by heat and/or

pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction. Additive manufacturing, or 3D
printing, is the process of turning digital designs into three-dimensional objects.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing technique that utilizes
a laser as the power source to sinter powdered material, aiming the laser
automatically at points in space defined by a 3D model, binding the material together to
create a solid structure.
Process
1. An object printed with an SLS machine starts as a CAD file
2. CAD files are converted to .STL format
3. The powdered materials are dispersed in a thin layer on top of the build platform
4. A laser, which is controlled by a computer heats the powder either to just below
its boiling point (sintering)
5. This process fuses the particles in the powder together into a solid form.
6. Once the initial layer is formed, the platform of the SLS machine drops usually by
less than 0.1mm exposing a new layer of powder
7. This process continues again and again until the entire object has been printed.
8. When the object is fully formed, it is left to cool for 12 to 24 hours in the machine
before being removed.

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING-SPECIFICATIONS

Material type: Powder (Polymer)

Materials: Thermoplastics such as Nylon, Polyamide, and

 Polystyrene; Elastomers; Composites

Max part size: 560 x 560 x 760 mm.

Min feature size: .127mm

Min layer thickness: .102mm

Tolerance: .254mm

Surface finish: Average

Build speed: Fast

Applications: , Rapid tooling patterns, High heat applications,

Form/fit testing, Functional testing, Less
detailed parts, Parts with snap-fits & living
hinges
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SLS AND SLA
Prototype strength: SLS prototypes are more durable and stronger than SLA
prototypes.
Material properties: SLS allows product prototypes to be produced with
material properties similar to those of injection moulded prototypes.
Surface finish: SLS prototypes have a powdery finish, unlike SLA prototypes.
Machining properties: It is easier to machine prototypes formed using SLS than
those created using SLA.
Material choice: In several different thermoplastic materials SLS allows for
product prototypes
Metal product prototypes: SLS can be used to create metal prototype parts
using metallic powder in the laser sintering process.
Post-completion processing: There is typically very little (if any) processing
required after the SLS process is completed.
ADVANTAGES
It produces the toughest components compared to other RP techniques.
 A wide range of materials can be used, including metal (DMLS), plastic,
ceramics, wax, nylon, elastomers, and polycarbonate.
No post-curing processes are needed.
A relatively short production time (approximately 1 in/h) is possible.
No additional support is required during the building process.
Different parts can be built on top of others.
Leftover powder can be reused with some ratio.
Disadvantages
A rough surface finish is produced due to the stair-case effect.
The time needed to heat up the powder and cool down the model after it has
been completed is approximately 8 to 10h.
Toxic gases are produced especially when plastic materials are fused.
Components are less detailed than those produced by stereo lithography due to
a high processing temperature and high shrinkage.
Application
Due to its capability to easily build very complex geometries directly from
digital CAD data, SLS technology is in broad use around the world.
It is increasingly being used in limited-run manufacturing to produce end-use
parts.
Various industries like Aerospace, Automotive, Industrial, Dental Copings,
Surgical Tools Medical Instruments
It is used in art that is less expected and rapidly growing application of SLS.

LASER ENGINEERED NET SHAPING (LENS)

Optomec Inc. was incorporated in 1992. Since 1997, Optomec has focused on
commercializing a direct fabrication process, the Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
process initially developed by Sandia National Laboratories. Its first commercial
system is delivered to Ohio State University.
Principle
The LENS process is based on the following principles:
(1) A high powered Nd:YAG laser beam focused onto a metal substrate creates a
molten pool on the substrate surface. Powder is then injected into the molten pool to
increase material volume.
(2) A “printing” motion system moves a platform horizontally and laterally as the
laser beam traces the cross-section of the part being created. After formation of a layer
of the part, the machine’s powder delivery nozzle moves upwards prior to building next
layer.
Process
The LENS process builds components in an additive manner from powdered
metals using a Nd:YAG laser to fuse powder to a solid as shown in Figure. It is a
freeform metal fabrication process in which a fully dense metal component is formed.
The LENS process comprises of the following steps:
(1) A deposition head supplies metal powder to the focus of a high powered
Nd:YAG laser beam to be melted. This laser is typically directed by fibre optics or
precision angled mirrors.
(2) The laser is focused on a particular spot by a series of lenses, and a motion
system below the platform moves horizontally and laterally as the laser beam traces the
cross-section of the part being produced. The manufacturing process takes place in a
low pressure argon chamber for oxygen-free operation in the melting zone, ensuring that
fine bond is accomplished.
(3) When a layer is completed, the deposition head moves up and continues with
the next layer. The process is repeated layer by layer until the part is completed. The
entire process is usually enclosed to isolate the process from the atmosphere. Generally
the prototypes need additional finishing, but are fully dense products with good grain
formation.
Advantages
Superior material properties. The LENS process is capable of producing fully
dense metal parts. Metal parts produced can also include embedded structures
and superior material properties. The microstructure produced is also relatively
good.
Complex parts. Functional metal parts with complex features are the forte of
the LENS system.
Reduced post-processing requirements. Post-processing is minimized, thus
reducing cycle time.
Disadvantages
Limited materials. The process is currently narrowly focused to produce only
metal parts.
Large physical unit size. The unit requires a relatively large area to house.
High power consumption. The laser system requires very high
wattage.
Applications
The LENS technology can be used in the following areas:
Build mold and die inserts
Produce functionally gradient structures
Producing titanium parts in racing industry
 Fabricate titanium components for biological implants

THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING (3DP)

Z Corporation was incorporated in 1994 by Hatsopoulos, Walter Bornhost, Tim
Anderson and Jim Brett. In 1997, it commercialized its first 3D Printer, the ZTM402
System based on three-dimensional technology (3DP). This technology was invented
and patented at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Principle
3D printing creates parts by adhesive bonding. Layer is created by adding another
layer of powder. When the binder ink impinges on the powder layer - spherical
aggregates of binder and powder particles are formed. The binding energy for forming
solid is given by binder droplets. Capillary force aggregates including previous layer to
merge. This will result in solid model.
Process
(1) The machine spreads a layer of powder from the feed box to cover the
surface of the build piston. The printer then prints binder solution onto the loose
powder, forming the first cross-section layer. For monochrome parts, Z406 colour
printer uses all four print heads to print a single-coloured binder. For multi-coloured
parts, each of the four print heads deposits a different colour binder, mixing the four
colour binders to produce a spectrum of colours that can be applied to different regions
of a part.
(2) The powder is glued together at where the binder is printed. The remaining
powder remains loose and act as supports that will be printed above this layer.
(3) When one layer is completed, the build piston is lowered one step, a new
layer of powder is spread over its surface, and the process is repeated. The part grows
layer by layer in the fabricate piston until the part is fully completed. Finally the build
piston is raised and the loose powder is vacuumed, removing the complete part.
(4) For a design review, parts can be left raw. To quickly produce a more strong
model, parts can be dipped in wax. And also that can be sanded, painted, finished and,
the part can be infiltrated with a resin or urethane.

Advantages
(1) Versatile. Parts are presently used for the automotive, aerospace, education,
packaging, footwear, telecommunications and medical industries.
(2) Simple to operate: The office compatible Corp. System is straightforward to
operate and does not require a selected technician to build a part. It is dependable and
reliable 3D printer.
(3) No wastage of materials. Powder that is not printed during the process can
be reused.
(3) High speed. Each layer is printed in seconds, reducing the prototyping time
of a hand-held part to 1 to 2 hours.
(5) Colour: Enables complex colour schemes in RP-ed parts from a full 24-bit
palette of colours.
Disadvantages
(1) Limited materials. The materials available are only starch and
plaster-based materials, with the added choice to infiltrate wax.
(2) Limited functional parts. The parts built are much
weaker than SLS, thereby limiting the functional testing capabilities.
 (3) Poor surface finish. Parts built by 3D printing have a relatively
poorer surface finish and post-processing is frequently required.

THE SHAPE DEPOSITION MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The Shaped Deposition Manufacturing process (SDM), first developed by Prof.
Fritz Prinz and his group at Carnegie Mellon University and later Stanford University.
Although most rapid prototyping processes based on the discretized layer by layer
process are able to manufacture almost any complex shape and form, they suffer from the
very process of discretization in terms of geometric accuracies surface finish as well as
surface finish. SDM is a rapid prototyping process that overcomes these problems by
combining the flexibility of the additive layer manufacturing process with the accuracy
and precision attained with the subtractive CNC machining process.
Principle
The SDM process is a rapid prototyping process that combines the advantages of
layer-by-layer manufacturing with the advantages of precision material removal
(subtractive) process.
Process
Materials for the individual segments of the part are first deposited at the
deposition station to form the layer of the part. One of the several deposition processes
is a weld-based deposition process called micro-casting, and the product is a near-net
shape deposition of the part for that layer.
Then the part is transferred to the shaping station, typically a five-axis CNC
machining centre where material is removed to form the desired shape of the part.
After the shaping station, the part is transferred to a stress relief station, such as
shot-penning, to relieve and control residual stress build up due to the thermal process
during deposition and machining.
Then the part is transferred back to the deposition station where complementary
shaped, sacrificial support material is deposited to support the part. The support
material or part material deposition sequence is dependent on the geometry of the part.

The process is repeated until the part is complete, after which, the sacrificial
support material is removed and the final part is revealed.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of Shape Deposition Manufacturing are as follows:
Direct creation of functional metal shapes
Variable layer thickness
Ability to build heterogeneous structures. In addition to the rapid
prototyping of complex shapes, the SDM process is also able to produce multi-
material structures and it also allows pre-fabricated components to be
embedded within the built shapes.
Ease of creating undercut features.
Wide variety of materials. The process is capable of using a wide variety of
materials, including metals stainless steel, photo-curable plastics, steel alloys,
thermoplastics, ceramics, waxes etc
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Shape Deposition Manufacturing are as follows:
Need for precise control of automated robotic system.
Thermal stresses due to temperature gradient.
Need for a controlled environment.
A large area is required for the system.
Applications
With its capability to handle multiple materials and deposition processes, the
SDM can be applied to many areas in many industries, especially in the building of
finished parts and heterogeneous products.
For example the parts is the direct building of ceramic silicone nitrite component
for aircraft engines that was tested and survived on a jet engine rig at up to 1250°C.
The SDM process has also successfully fabricated heterogeneous products like
an electronic device by building a nonconductive shielding package and simultaneously
interconnecting and embedding electronic components within the housing.
This is especially useful in fabricating purpose-build devices for special
applications like the wearable computer.
Many other exciting heterogeneous products with multi-materials embedded
within product have also been tested.
ELECTRON BEAM MELTING (EBM)
Arcam AB, a Swedish technology development company was founded in 1997.
The company’s main activity is concentrated in the development of the Electron Beam
Melting (EBM) technique for the production of solid metal parts straight from metal
powder based on a three dimensional CAD model.
Principle
The EBM process is based on the following two principles:
(1) Parts are built up when an electron beam is fired at the metal powder. The
computer controlled electron beam in vacuum melts the layer of powder precisely as
indicated by the CAD model with the gain of the electrons’ kinetic energy.
(2) The building of the part is accomplished layer by layer. A layer is added
once the previous layer has melted. In this way, the solid details are built up of thin
metal slices melted together.
Process
(1) The first step is design a 3D CAD model of the part to be fabricated. The
model is then sliced into thin layers, approximately a tenth (1/10) of a millimetre
thickness.
(2) Uniform of thin layer of powder is scraped onto a vertically adjustable
surface. Then the first layer’s geometry is created throughout the layer of powder
melting together at those points a computer-controlled electron beam directed from the
CAD file.
(3) Then the building surface is lowered and the next layer of powder is placed
on top of the earlier layer. The procedure is repeated so that the object from the CAD
model is shaped layer by layer until a finished part is completed.
Specifications of the Arcam EBM S12
Model ARCAM EBM S12
Dimension (mm) 1800 × 900 × 2200 (W × D × H)
Building volume (mm) 250 × 250 × 200
Melting speed (m/s) 0.5–1 (material dependent)
Electron position accuracy
+50
(nm)
Electron beam scan speed Up to 1 km/s
Layer thickness (mm) 0.05–0.5
Power supply 3 × 400 V, 32 A
Compressed air supply 4.5 bar, 0.1 m3/h
Process computer PC, Windows NT
Arcam tools, Magics
Software
RP/Materialise

Applications
The EBM process is used to manufacture H13 tool steel, functional prototypes
components in small batches, injection and compression molding tools.
 CASE STUDIES
Case study 1: Ford Uses Stereolithography to Cast Prototype Tooling
With a single project success, Ford has begun a new era of “rapid
manufacturing” applying Quick Cast technology to the development of both prototype
and production tooling. This innovation demonstrates the potential to save manufacturing
industries millions in tooling costs. Creativity was Ford’s most critical component.
When production units of a rear wiper motor cover for the 1994 Explorer were needed
for testing, several tooling alternatives were explored. Conventional methods would
have provided the tool in three months. Ford creates the hard tool by first application of
rapid tooling by investment casting stereolithography mold halves.
They first built a SL model of the cover, fit it over the wiper motor to check the
design integrity, and found a clearance problem. The plastic part was altered by hand,
the fit was re-checked, and the CAD model was adjusted. Pro/MOLDESIGN software
was used to create “negative” mold halves from the same CAD model. Shrink factors
were applied to compensate for the SL resin, A2 steel, and polypropylene end product
material.
The SLA 250-generated QuickCast patterns resulted in a cavity and core pair
investment cast in A2 steel. Knowledge of the cast metal’s characteristics facilitated
changes in a second set of production tooling, e.g., addition of ejector holes and cooling
lines. The turnaround time for the second set of tooling was four weeks only, and the
cost for “QuickCast Tooling” was only $5000 per tool set, compared to the $33 000
fixed for machining a single tool. Ford was able to start durability testing and water
flow testing 18 months to the front of schedule, with costs reduced by 45% and time
savings is more than 40%.

Case study 2: National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) and Boeing
Rocket dyne Uses LOM to Create Hot Gas Manifold for Space Shuttle Main
Engine.
One successful example of how an institute implements LOM systems into their
design process would be from the Rapid Prototyping Laboratory, NASA’s Marshall
Space Flight Centre (MSFC) in Huntsville, AL.
The laboratory was set up firstly to perform research and development in
different ways to advance the technology of building parts in space by remote
processing technique. However, as MSFC engineers found a lot more valuable
applications, i.e., production of concept models and proof-out of component designs
other than remote processing.
The centre acquired the LOM-1015 machine from Helisys in 1999 to add on
their old rapid prototyping systems and the machine was put through its first challenge
when MSFC’s contractor, Boeing/ Rocket dyne designed a hot gas manifold to the space
shuttle of main engine. The part measured 2.40 m long and 0.10 m in diameter and was
complex in design with many turns and twists and “tee” junction connectors. If the
traditional method of creating the prototype were employed, it would need individual
steel parts to be welded together to shape the prototype. Though, there was always a
possible of leakage at the joint part, an alternate method was considered. The prototype
was to be made from a single piece of steel and this solution was not only expensive, the
prototype built did not fit well to the main engine of the space shuttle.
Finally, engineers at Boeing decided to build the part with the LOM process in
MSFC. They prepared a CAD drawing of the design and sent it to MSFC. The design
was sectioned into eight parts, each with the uneven boss-and-socket built in them so as
to make possible joining of the parts together upon finishing point. The whole building
process took 10 days to complete, including 3 days of rework for defective parts. It was
worked on continuously. Advantage of use the LOM machine is that the system can be
left unattended throughout the building process and if the paper gets jammed or the
system runs out of paper during building, it is able to alert the operator. The prototype
was then mounted onto the real space shuttle for final fit check analysis. It was estimated
that the company saved 10000 dollars, although Boeing declined to reveal the actual
cost saving. The whole process also significantly reduces the building time from 2 -3
months to a simply 10 days.

Case study 3: Toyota Uses FDM for Design and Testing

Toyota, the fourth-largest automobile manufacturer in the United States, produces
more than one million vehicles per annum. Its design and testing of vehicles are mainly
done at the Toyota Technical Centre (TTL) USA Inc.
In 1997, TTL purchased the Stratasys FDM 8000 fused deposition modeller
(FDM) system to improve on their efficiency in design and testing. The system, not only
is able to produce brilliant physical properties prototype, it is also able to manufacture
them fast. The system does not require any special environment to be operated in.
In the earlier period, fabricating a prototype was costly and time consuming at
TTL. To manufacture a fully functional prototype vehicle, it required $10,000 to
$100,000 to manufacture a prototype injection mold and it took as long as sixteen weeks
to produce. The number of parts required was around 20 to 50 pieces, so the
conventional tooling method is costly. So the conventional method is ineffective.
In the Avalon 2000 project, TTL replaced its conventional tooling method with
the Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) system. Although a modest 35 parts were being
replaced by rapid prototypes, it was calculated that it saved Toyota more than $2
million in prototype tooling costs. In addition, rapid prototyping also helped designers
to identify unforeseeable problems in the design stage. It would have added to the
production costs considerably if the problems were discovered during the production
stage.
The physical properties of these prototypes are not equal to those made from the
conventional method, but nevertheless, as claimed by one of the staff in TTL, they are
good enough. TTL plans to increase its rapid prototyping capacities by introducing extra
units of the FDM system. Its aim is to eliminate all conventional prototyping tooling and
go directly to production tooling in the future.