ECE 333 Green Electric Energy

Lecture 14
The Sun as a Resource

Alejandro D. Dominguez-Garcia
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
[email protected]
Solar Energy: Rapidly Growing, but with
a Long Way to Go!

Current world-wide wind capacity is about 160 GW; total

world-wide electrical capacity is about 4600 GW.
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf
Solar Hot Water Heating: Widely Used
but Outside of Class Scope

http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf
 The Solar Resource

• Before we can talk about solar power, we need

to talk about the sun
• Need to know how much sunlight is available
• Can predict where the sun is at any time
• Insolation : incident solar radiation
• Want to determine the average daily insolation
at a site
• Want to be able to chose effective locations
and panel tilts of solar panels
 The Sun and Blackbody Radiation

• The sun
– 1.4 million km in diameter
– 3.8 x 1020 MW of radiated electromagnetic energy
• Black bodies
– Both a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber
– Perfect emitter – radiates more energy per unit of
surface area than a real object of the same
temperature
– Perfect absorber – absorbs all radiation, none is
reflected
 Plank’s Law

• Plank’s law – wavelengths emitted by a

blackbody depend on temperature
3.74 108
E  (7.1)
5   14400  
 exp    1
  T  

• λ = wavelength (μm)
• Eλ = emissive power per unit area of black body
(W/m2-μm)
• T = absolute temperature (K)
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible light has a wavelength of between 0.4 and 0.7 μm, with
ultraviolet values immediately shorter, and infrared immediately
longer

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation
 288 K Blackbody Spectrum

The earth as a black body

Masters, Figure 7.1

Area under curve is the total radiant power emitted
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

• Total radiant power emitted is given by the

Stefan –Boltzman law of radiation

E  A T 4 (7.2)

• E = total blackbody emission rate (W)

• σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4
• T = absolute temperature (K)
• A = surface area of blackbody (m2)
 Wien’s Displacement Rule

• The wavelength at which the emissive power

per unit area reaches its maximum point

2898
max  (7.3)
T

• T = absolute temperature (K)

• λ = wavelength (μm)
• λmax =0.5 μm for the sun , T = 5800 K
• λmax = 10.1 μm for the earth (as a blackbody), T = 288 K
Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum

Masters, Figure 7.2

 Solar Intensity: Atmospheric Effects

Sun photosphere

Extraterestrial
sunlight (AM0)
Intensity

Sunlight at sea level

at 40° N Lattitude at
noon (AM1.5)
“AM” means “air mass”
 Air Mass Ratio

Masters Figure 7.3

h2 1
air mass ratio m  = (7.4)
h1 sin 
As sunlight passes through
the atmosphere, less energy
arrives at the earth’s surface
• Air mass ratio of 1 (“AM1”) means sun is directly
overhead
• AM0 means no atmosphere
• AM1.5 is assumed average at the earth’s surface
Solar Spectrum on Surface

m increases
as the sun
appears
lower in
the sky. Notice
there is
a large loss
towards the blue
end for higher m,
which is why the
sun appears
reddish at sun rise
and sun set
Masters Figure 7.4
 The Earth’s Orbit

Masters
Figure 7.5

For solar energy applications, we’ll consider the

characteristics of the earth’s orbit to be unchanging
 Solar Declination

• Solar declination δ – the angle formed between

the plane of the equator and the line from the
center of the sun to the center of the earth
• δ varies between +/- 23.45˚
• Assuming a sinusoidal relationship, a 365 day
year, and n=81 is the spring equinox, the
approximation of δ for any day n can be found
from
 360 
  23.45sin   n  81 (7.6)
 365 
 The Sun’s Position in the Sky

Solar declination

Masters Figure 7.6

• Predict where the sun will be in the sky at any time

• Pick the best tilt angles for photovoltaic (PV)
panels
 Solar Noon and Collector Tilt
• Solar noon – sun
is directly over the
local line of
longitude
• Rule of thumb for
the Northern
Hemisphere - a
south facing
collector tilted at
an angle equal to Masters,
Figure 7.8
the local latitude
• During solar noon, the sun’s rays are
perpendicular to the collector face
 Altitude Angle βN at Solar Noon

• Altitude angle at solar noon βN – angle between

the sun and the local horizon
 N  90  L   (7.7)
• Zenith – perpendicular axis at a site

Masters,
Figure 7.9
 Solar Position at Any Time of Day

• Described in terms of altitude angle β and

azimuth angle of the sun ϕS
• β and ϕS depend on latitude, day number, and
time of day
• Azimuth angle (ϕS ) convention
– positive in the morning when sun is in the east
– negative in the evening when sun is in the west
– reference in the Northern Hemisphere (for us) is
true south
• Hours are referenced to solar noon
Altitude Angle and Azimuth Angle

Altitude Angle

Azimuth Angle

Masters
Figure 7.10
 Altitude Angle and Azimuth Angle

• Hour angle H- the number of degrees the

earth must rotate before sun will be over your
line of longitude
• If we consider the earth to rotate at 15˚/hr,
then
 15 
hour angle H      hours before solar noon  (7.10)
 hour 
• At 11 AM solar time, H = +15˚ (the earth
needs to rotate 1 more hour)
• At 2 PM solar time, H = -30˚
 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading
Analysis

• Now we know how to locate the sun in the

sky at any time
• This can also help determine what sites will
be in the shade at any time
• Sketch the azimuth and altitude angles of
trees, buildings, and other obstructions
• Sections of the sun path diagram that are
covered indicate times when the site will be in
the shade
 Sun Path Diagram for Shading
Analysis
• Trees to the southeast, small building to the
southwest
• Can estimate the amount of energy lost to shading

Figure 7.15
 California Solar Shade Control Act

• The shading of solar collectors has been an area

of legal and legislative concern (e.g., a neighbor’s
tree is blocking a solar panel)
• California has the Solar Shade Control Act (1979)
to address this issue
– No new trees and shrubs can be placed on neighboring
property that would cast a shadow greater than 10 percent of
a collector absorption area between the hours of 10 am and 2
pm.
– Exceptions are made if the tree is on designated timberland,
or the tree provides passive cooling with net energy savings
exceeding that of the shaded collector
– First people were convicted in 2008 because of their
redwoods
 The Guilty Trees were Subject to
Court Ordered Pruning

Source: NYTimes, 4/7/08

 Clear Sky Direct-Beam Radiation

• Direct beam radiation IBC – passes in a

straight line through the atmosphere to the
receiver
• Diffuse radiation IDC – scattered by molecules
in the atmosphere

• Reflected radiation IRC –

bounced off a surface
near the reflector

Figure 7.18
 Extraterrestrial Solar Insolation I0
• Starting point for clear sky
radiation calculations
• I0 passes perpendicularly through
an imaginary surface outside of Figure 7.19
the earth’s atmosphere In one year, less than
• Ignoring sunspots, I0 can be half of I0 reaches
written as earth’s surface as a
direct beam
  360n  
I 0  SC  1  0.034cos   (W/m 2
) (7.20)
  365  
• SC = solar constant = 1.377 On a sunny, clear
kW/m2 day, beam radiation
may exceed 70% of
• n = day number I0
 Attenuation of Incoming Radiation

• Can treat attenuation as an exponential

decay function
I B  Ae km (7.21)

• IB = beam portion of the • A = apparent extraterrestrial

radiation that reaches the flux
earth’s surface • k = optical depth
• m = air mass ratio from (7.4)
 Solar Insolation on a Collecting
Surface
• Direct-beam radiation is just a function of the angle
between the sun and the collecting surface (i.e., the
incident angle q:

I BC  I B cos q

• Diffuse radiation is assumed to be coming from

essentially all directions to the angle doesn’t matter; it is
typically between 6% and 14% of the direct value.
• Reflected radiation comes from a nearby surface, and
depends on the surface reflectance, r, ranging down
from 0.8 for clean snow to 0.1 for a shingle roof.
 Tracking Systems

• Most residential solar PV systems have a

fixed mount, but sometimes tracking systems
are cost effective
• Tracking systems are either single axis
(usually with a rotating polar mount [parallel
to earth’s axis of rotation), or two axis
(horizontal [altitude, up-down] and vertical
[azimuth, east-west]
• Ballpark figures for tracking system benefits
are about 20% more for a single axis, and 25
to 30% more for a two axis
 Monthly and Annual Insolation

• For a fixed system the total annual output is

somewhat insensitive to the tilt angle, but
there is a substantial variation in when the
most energy is generated
US Annual Insolation
 Worldwide Annual Insolation

In 2009 worldwide PV capacity was about 21,000 MW, with

almost half (9800 MW) in Germany, 3400 MW in Spain, 2600
MW in Japan and 1200 MW in the US
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf
 Concentrating Solar Power
Technologies (CSP)
• Basic idea: Convert sunlight into thermal
energy, use that energy to get electricity
• Concentration is needed to get a hot enough
temperature
• Three successfully demonstrated
technologies:
– Parabolic Trough
– Solar Central Receiver
– Solar Dish/ Sterling
• This is a different topic than photovoltaic (PV)
cells which we’ll cover next
 Solar Dish/ Sterling

• Multiple mirrors that

approximate a parabolic dish
• Receiver – absorbs solar
energy & converts to heat
• Heat is delivered to Stirling
engine
Source: http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/csp.html

• Average efficiencies >20%

 Parabolic Troughs

• Receivers are tubes - Heat

collection elements (HCE)
• Heat transfer fluid circulates in
the tubes
• Delivers collected energy to
steam turbine/generator Source: http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/csp.html

• Parabolic mirrors rotate east

to west to track the sun

Source:
http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/solar_field.html
 Parabolic Troughs - SEGS

Source: http://www.flagsol.com/SEGS_tech.htm

• Mojave Desert, California

• Aerial view of the five 30MW
parabolic trough plants
• Solar Electric Generation
System (SEGS) Source: http://www.flagsol.com/SEGS_tech.htm
• Largest solar energy facility in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_
the world – 354 MW Energy_Generating_Systems
 Solar Central Receiver

• Also called Power Towers

• Heliostats – computer
controlled mirrors
• Reflect sunlight onto receiver

Source:
http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/csp.html
 Solar Central Receiver – Solar Two

• 10 MW
• Two-tank, molten-salt
thermal storage
system
• Barstow, CA
• Demolished in
November 2009
• Solar Tres is now Source: http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/csp.htm

being built in Spain –

will be 15 MW
 CSP Comparisons

• All use mirrored surfaces to concentrate

sunlight onto a receiver to run a heat engine
• All can be hybridized with auxiliary fuel sources
• Higher temperature -> higher efficiency
Annual Measured Required “Suns” of
Efficiency Acres/MW concentration
Dish Stirling 21% 4 3000

Parabolic 14% 5 100

Troughs
Solar Central 16% 8 1000
Receiver