Nanotechnology Innovations For The Sustainable Buildings of The Future

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Architectural and Environmental Engineering

Vol:8, No:8, 2014
Nanotechnology Innovations for the Sustainable

Buildings of the Future
Ayşin Sev, Meltem Ezel
 a) Emissions into the air,

Abstract—Sustainability, being the urgent issue of our time, is b) Releases to water,
closely related with the innovations in technology. Nanotechnology c) Avoidance, recycling, reuse, transportation and disposal
(NT), although not a new science, can be regarded relatively a new of solid and other wastes, particularly hazardous wastes,
science for buildings with brand new materials and applications. This
d) Use and contamination of land,
paper tends to give a research review of current and near future
applications of nanotechnology (NT) for achieving high-performance e) Use of natural resources and raw materials,
and healthy buildings for a sustainable future. In the introduction, the f) Local issues (noise, vibration, odour, dust, visual
Open Science Index, Architectural and Environmental Engineering Vol:8, No:8, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999095
driving forces for the sustainability of construction industry are appearance, etc.),
explained. Then, the term NT is defined, and significance of g) Transportation problems,
innovations in NT for a sustainable construction industry is revealed. h) Risks of environmental accidents and effects arising, as
After presenting the application areas of NT and nanomaterials for
consequences of incidents, accidents and potential
buildings with a number of cases, challenges in the adoption of this
technology are put forward, and finally the impacts of nanoparticles emergency situations,
and nanomaterials on human health and environment are discussed. i) Effects on biodiversity of atmospheric emissions.
In addition, compared with other industries, the
Keywords—Nanomaterial, self-healing concrete, self-cleaning construction industry presents an unusual case that it is long
sensor, nano sensor, steel, wood, aerogel, flexible solar panel. lasting. Much of the built environment of our time will exist in
the future, which will be the era of rising temperatures and sea
I. INTRODUCTION levels. Structures in developed countries have an average life
C ONSTRUCTION industry is the largest single contributor

to the environmental problems, with the construction,
operation and maintenance of buildings, thus making the high-
of 80–100 years. In many countries there are buildings,
bridges and other structures hundreds of years old. This means
that the design of a building will have long-term repercussions
performance, green building movement the most successful on a structure’s environmental performance. To accomplish
attempt for the sustainability of our planet. Both the existing high-performance, low-environmental-impact buildings, it is
built environment and the process of adding to it, have vital to incorporate sustainability principles by the initial
numerous environmental, social, and economical impacts [1]. phase of a project, through the lifecycle as well [1].
Worldwide buildings are estimated to account for 50 % of all The term sustainable (or high performance/green) building
energy consumption, and more than 50 % of global emissions, is often used to comprehensively address the ecological, social
[2], as well as consuming between 30 and 40 % of the global and environmental problems in the context of its community.
electric energy [3]. Environmental pollution, deforestation, In 1994, the Conseil International du Batiment (CIB) defined
soil erosion, ozone depletion, fossil fuel depletion, and human the goal of sustainable construction as “…creating and
health risks are the significant consequences of design, operating a healthy built environment based on resource
construction and operation of buildings, which disregard the efficiency and ecological design” [6]. The CIB also defined
impacts on the environment. Clearly, construction activities seven principles for a sustainable construction industry, which
play the most significant role in our current environmental would help decision-making during the design and
predicament. construction phases that will also impact through the life cycle
According to Zimmermann [4], there are 24 problematic of the building (Table I).
emissions that result from buildings during their lifecycle, and
TABLE I
two of them are very significant; sulphur dioxide, resulting THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION [6]
from energy generating from fossil fuels; and fine particulates 1 Reduce resource consumption (reduce)
due to extracting mineral raw materials for construction. 2 Reuse resources (reuse)
European Union [5] also mentions the general aspects of 3 Use recyclable resources (recycle)
construction impact on the environment as follows: 4 Protect nature (nature)
5 Eliminate toxics (toxics)
6 Apply life-cycle costing (economics)
Aysin Sev is with the Building Technology Department, University of
7 Focus on quality (quality)
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts, Istanbul, Turkey (corresponding author phone: 212-
252 1600; e-mail: [email protected]).
Meltem Ezel is with the Faculty of Architecture and Design, University of As seen from the Table I, the term sustainable construction
Kocaeli, Kocaeli, Turkey (phone: 505-9412742; e-mail:
[email protected])
is closely related with construction materials, how they are
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(8) 2014 886 ISNI:0000000091950263
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
extracted from the nature, manipulated, manufactured, used in concrete becomes more durable and stronger, steel tougher,
buildings and destroyed, as well. At least 3 billion tones of glass surface self-cleaning, thus all these innovations
materials are used in buildings each year, which is equivalent contributing to a more efficient use of natural resources and
to about 40% of total global material flows and building healthy environment.
material waste is estimated to be about 2 billion tones per year Although the meaning of NT varies from field to field, it is
[7]. In this context, the potential for resource and energy broadly defined as the understanding, controlling and
conservation, as well as reduction of non-renewable resource restructuring of matter on the level of nanometers in order to
consumption, waste, toxicity, and carbon emissions through create materials of new properties and functions [11]. It
architectural applications of new and innovative technologies specifically implies not only the miniaturization, but also the
is significant. The shift from traditional to high-performance precise manipulation of the atoms and molecules to design and
and state-of-the-art applications of buildings will be possible control the properties of nanomaterials and nanosystems.
through innovations in structural materials, insulation, These properties are completely different than those possessed
coatings, adhesives, air and water purification, as well as solar by the bulk materials, producing custom-made devices with
technologies. The foremost of these innovative technologies is capabilities not found in bulk materials or in nature, or even to
the nanotechnology and nano-enhanced materials, whose replicate natural processes that have not been currently
market applications have already, began with small consumer achieved through synthetic materials.
devices. One of the most noteworthy features of NT is that it

This paper tends to give a research review of current and replicates the natural systems, which have exceptional
near future applications of nanotechnology (NT) for achieving performance and also biodegradable, having no impact on the
high-performance and healthy buildings for a sustainable environment [10]. For instance, the abalone shells (Fig. 1) are
future. Initially the term NT is defined, and significance of this made with 0.2 mm thickness layers, and each is made by a
technology for a sustainable construction industry is ‘‘mortar” 0.5 μm thickness of calcium carbonate crystals
explained. Then application areas of NT and nanomaterials for bound altogether with a protein. The final result is a composite
buildings are presented with a number of examples, and material with a toughness 3000 times the toughness of the
finally challenges in the adoption of this technology, as well as calcium carbonate crystals [11], [12]. Another example is the
impacts on human health and environment are discussed. coral reef, formed by the natural system using seawater in
order to produce calcium, magnesium and carbonate to
II. NANOTECHNOLOGY generate a carbonate crystal (aragonite). The spider silk is also
NT is a field that is dominated by developments in basic another interesting example.
physics and chemistry research. By the advent of NT, the use
of very small particles of material, either by themselves or by
their manipulation to create new large-scale materials, is
possible. NT is not a new science or a new technology; it is
rather an extension of the sciences and technologies that have
already been in development for many years. It was initially
introduced in the speech of the physicist R. P. Feynmann
during his lecture entitled “There is Plenty of Room at the
Bottom”, that took place in a meeting of the American
Physical Society in 1959 [8]. Feynmann described a process
by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and
molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools
to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, and so
on down to the needed scale.
There have been many revolutionary developments in
physics, chemistry and biology, which have demonstrated the Fig. 1 The microstructure of the abalone shell
idea of manipulating matter at an extremely small scale.
Another definition of NT was also presented in 1981 by K. Nanoscale science can be divided into three main areas, as;
Drexler, as being the production with dimensions between 0, 1 nanostructures, nanofabrication and nanocharacterization with
and 100 nm [9]. As a comparison, a human hair has 80,000 nm typical applications in nanoelectronics, energy and life
thickness and the DNA double helix has 2 nm diameter [10]. sciences [13]. It also encompasses two main approaches (Fig.
The key in NT is the size of particles, since the material 2) [14]:
properties are dramatically affected under a scale of i. The “top-down” approach, in which larger structures are
nanometer (10-9 meter). As particles become so small, the reduced in size to the nanoscale while maintaining their
proportion of atoms on the surface increases relative to those original properties without atomic-level control (i.e.,
inside and this leads to novel properties. Gravity becomes miniaturization of electronic equipments);
unimportant, quantum physics principles apply on, and
electrostatic forces take over. Related with construction,
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
ii. The “bottom-up” approach, also called “molecular  Affordable production of corrosion-free steel,
manufacturing”, introduced by Drexler et al. [15], in  Production of high-performance thermal insulation
which materials are engineered from atoms or molecular materials,
components through a process of assembly or self-  Production of coats and thin films with self-cleansing and
assembly. color-changing ability to minimize pollution and energy
consumption,
 Production of sensors and materials of nano-size with
sensing and self-repairing ability for more reliable
structures.
Knowledge and manipulation of materials and structures at
Milling nanoscale promotes the development of new applications and
Top - down Grinding new products to repair or improve the properties of
Pyrrolysis construction materials. For example, the fundamental calcium-
silicate-hydrate gel, which is responsible for the mechanical
and physical properties of cement, shrinkage, creep, porosity,
permeability and elasticity, can be modified to obtain better
durability. When elements can be manipulated in nanoscale,

macro-properties can be designed and new materials as well as
processes can be designed [18]. The new characteristics of
Chemical reduction these new nanomaterials, which are maintained by the advent
Bottom - up + capping agent
of NT can significantly fix current construction problems, and
+reducing agent
may change the requirement and organization of construction
process.
For architects, engineers, developers, manufacturers, and
building owners, NT and nano products offer extraordinary
environmental benefits to help meet the rapidly growing
Fig. 2 Top-down and bottom-up approach in NT
demand for more sustainable buildings. In the following
section the current and potential use of NT in the field of
While most of the innovations depending on NT rely on
construction and building materials is reviewed. A variety of
“top-down” approach, molecular NT is widely applied in
beneficial applications that encompass superior structural
materials and manufacturing, electronics, medicine,
properties, functional paints and coatings, high-performance
healthcare, energy, biotechnology, and information
isolations, high-resolution sensing and actuating devices can
technologies as well. NT offers new opportunities in many
be encountered. In this study, the categorization is made
industries based on cost-effective economies, thus contributing
according to the application areas, rather than
to a sustainable development. Related with global energy
nanomaterial/nanoparticle types, such as carbon nanotubes
consumption, it has the potential to significantly reduce the
(CNT), metal oxide nanoparticles (SiO2, Fe2O3, TiO2), and
impact of energy production, storage and use. When
metal nanoparticles, which can be find in a number of other
construction industry and buildings come to term, new
literature [17], [19]-[22].
structural materials, which are durable, stronger and lighter,
fire insulator, coatings, water repellents, self-cleaning
IV. APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN
surfaces, air cleaners, nano-sized sensors, and etc. present new CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
opportunities. In the following section, the application areas of
NT, either in materials or in structures, are briefly presented. A. Structural Materials
Structural materials are of utmost importance in a building,
III. SIGNIFICANCE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN since they determine the durability, longevity and thus
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY sustainability of the structure. A structural material’s
Application and significance of NT in construction industry strength/weight ratio is also important, because stronger and
and building materials have not been identified clearly until a lighter materials can carry greater loads per unit of material
recent date [16]. The first document, which clearly mentions [23]. NT has the potential to improve structural materials in
the potential of NT in construction industry, is the report of two ways; (i) by reinforcing of existing materials, such as
RILEM TC 197-NCM by Zhu, et al. [17]. According to this concrete and steel, with the addition of nanoparticles in order
report, the potential applications of NT in construction to improve the properties of bulk material; (ii) by providing all
industry can be stated as follows: of the structure constructed mainly by new materials, like
 The use of nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), when technically and economically
nanofibers to increase the strength and durability of feasible.
construction materials and components, as well as for Concrete, having the largest annual production among other
pollution reduction, materials is one of the structural materials, which is
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
undergoing drastic enhancements by the advent of NT. Energy (a) (b) (c)
consumption, carbon emissions and waste are major
environmental concerns related with concrete production and
use. Portland cement, binding aggregate, water and lime,
accounts for about 12 % of concrete’s volume, but 92 % of its
energy demand. For every ton of cement production, 1.3 tons
of CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Worldwide, cement
production generates over 1.6 billion tons of carbon, more
than 8 % of total carbon emissions. Waste is also considerable,
as concrete accounts for more than two-thirds of construction
and demolition waste with only 5 % currently recycled [23]. Healing Agent
Catalyst
Conventional utilization of concrete must be reinforced
with steel bars to resist tension, making it a timely and Fig. 3 Self healing matrix of concrete; (a) Crack forms in material;
expensive process. However nanofiber reinforcement has been (b) Crack fills bursts microcapsule, releasing healing agent;
shown to improve the strength of concrete significantly. Also (c) Contact with catalyst causes polymerization
grinding Portland cement into nanoparticles has been proved
to increase compressive strength up to four times [24]. Adding fly ash as an admixture to the cement not only
Sanchez and Sobolev also made experiments by adding improves concrete durability and strength, also reduces the
randomly oriented fibers ranging from nanometers to requirement for cement contributing to sustainability.
micrometers in length and made of carbon, steel or polymers, However, the curing process of concrete is slowed by the
and they suggested the utilization of carbon nanofibers for addition of fly ash and early stage strength is also low in
concrete bridges, heating them in the winter or allowing them comparison to normal concrete. With the addition of SiO2
to self-monitor for cracks, since fibers have the ability to (silica) nanoparticles, part of the cement is replaced but the
conduct electricity [14]-[25]. density and strength of the fly-ash concrete improves
NT has a great potential to produce new cements and particularly in the early stages. Porro et al. also mention that
admixtures in order to achieve high-performance and the use of SiO2 particles increases the compression strength of
sustainable concrete products. By the addition of CNTs and cement pastes, and this not due to puzzolonic reaction,
nanoparticles (SiO2, Fe2O3) to the concrete mixture consisting because calcium hydroxide consumption was very low, but, to
of binding phase and aggregates, the mechanical properties of the increased silica compounds that contributes to a denser
concrete elements can be improved. CNTs, which was first microstructure [27]. According to Lin et al., the use of SiO2
discovered in 1952 in Russia (and mostly ignored) and then nanoparticles on fly ash mortars, compensate the negative
re-discovered in the 1990’s in Japan, are currently on a effects on initial strength [28]. Sanchez and Sobolev also
research phase of investigation. Adding 1% CNTs by weight report that SiO2 nanoparticles addition leads to an increase of
improves the mechanical properties of concrete elements with strength by 15-20 % [14].
mixtures consisting of Portland cement. CNTs also have the Concrete is attacked by carbon dioxide and chloride ions,
potential to effectively hinder crack propagation in cement resulting in corrosion of the steel bars. Nanosensors have been
composites. When cracks form in self-healing concrete, designed and created for the reinforced concrete components
embedded microcapsules rupture and release a healing agent of a structure to monitor and determine acidity and chloride
into the damaged region through capillary action (Fig. 3). This ions, which are the primary reasons for deterioration and
agent contacts an embedded catalyst, polymerizing to bond the failure by the corrosion. These nanosensors can be embedded
crack face closed. This characteristic has the potential to in the concrete mixture to enable, quality control and
increase the life of the structural components as much as two durability monitoring where these can be designed to
or three times [26]. (i) measure concrete density and viscosity, (ii) monitor
concrete curing and measure shrinkage and (iii) measure
certain key parameters affecting the durability of these
structures such as temperature, moisture, chlorine
concentration, acidity, carbon dioxide, stresses, reinforcement
corrosion and vibration.
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is another innovative
structural material by the advent of NT, and does not need
vibration in order to level off and consolidate. This
significantly reduces the energy needed to build concrete
structures thus making this material sustainable. In addition
SCC can offer benefits of up to 50% in labour costs, due to it
being poured up to 80% faster and having reduced wear and
tear on formwork. The material behaves like a thick fluid and
is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates. In addition,
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
while long-term strengths of conventionally superplasticized to develop completely a new material, thus introducing light
concrete are very high, the very early strengths, especially in weight, economical, multifunctional, biobased one, competing
winter, are not high enough for a quick and safe removal of with steel, concrete and other. Although CNTs are a new
formwork and steam curing is therefore used to accelerate the discovery of our time, wood, as a very old structural material,
hydration of cement. This can be eliminated in the precast is composed of nanotubes or nanofibrils, that have
industry through the use of the latest generations of approximately 25 % the strength of CNTS, and twice as strong
polycarboxylates resulting in further time and energy savings. as steel. If these cellulose nanofibrils could be extracted from
Steel, being a major component of reinforced concrete wood, it would be cheaper than manufacturing carbon
structures, as well as a primary construction material, is nanotubes [31]. Wood-based construction materials function
another material benefiting from innovations in NT. Steel has extremely well under a variety of end-use conditions.
been widely available since the 2nd Industrial Revolution and However, they can be prone to decay, mold, and insect attack
has played a major role in the construction industry, which can under wet conditions. Wood can be protected from
today benefit from the application of NT. Actually, NT is not deterioration by treatments using toxic chemicals or by
new for steel. Researchers recently discovered that Damascus maintaining low moisture content in wood. Achieving control
swords, made in the 8th century and known for their unusual of moisture is a major opportunity for NT. New non- or low-
hardness and sharpness, incorporated naturally occurring toxicity nanomaterials such as ZiO2, silver, TiO2 nanoparticles
nanoparticles including iron carbide nanowires and CNTs into and even clays might be used as either preservative treatments
their structure [29]. or moisture barriers. In addition, resistance to fire might be
Corrosion resistance is very important in steel structures, as enhanced by use of nanodimensional materials like TiO2
well as steel reinforcing bars in concrete structures. Today dioxide and clays.
there are several forms of steel incorporating NT innovations. Some developers have speculated that building functionality
Two of these new products are now marketed as MMFX and onto lignocellulosic surfaces at the nanoscale could open new
MMFX2 steel. MMFX steel is five times more corrosion- opportunities for such things as self-sterilizing surfaces,
resistant and up to three times stronger than conventional internal self-repair, and electronic lignocellulosic devices.
steel. MMFX steel products are used in structures across These non-obtrusive active or passive nanoscale sensors
North America including bridges, highways, parking would provide feedback on product performance and
structures, and residential and commercial high-rise buildings. environmental conditions during service by monitoring
The added strength of MMFX steel results in a decrease in the structural loads, temperatures, moisture content, decay fungi,
amount of conventional steel necessary to accomplish the heat losses or gains, and loss of conditioned air. Currently,
same task [30]. Although both products have corrosion however, research in these areas appears limited [20].
resistance, have different mechanical properties and are the NT is foreseen as a cornerstone for advancing the biomass-
result of different applications of nanotechnology [20]. based renewable, sustainable economy. Nanocatalysts that
High-rise structures require high-strength joints induce chemical reactions and make wood even more
necessitating high-strength bolts. The capacity of high- multifunctional than it is today, nanosensors to identify mold,
strength bolts is realized generally through quenching and decay, and termites, quantum dot fiber tagging, natural
tempering and the microstructures of such products consist of nanoparticle pesticides and repellents, self-cleaning wood
tempered martensite. By the addition of vanadium and surfaces, and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants are all
molybdenum nanoparticles, the steel microstructure of the envisioned by today’s wood engineers [32]. In the broader
bolts can be improved and thus increasing their strength. sense, NT represents a major opportunity for the wood
Although CNTs are an innovative and exciting material industry to develop new products, substantially reduce
with tremendous properties of strength and stiffness, due to processing costs, and open new markets for bio-based
their graphitic nature, they have found little application as an materials.
addition to steel as their inherent slipperiness, thus making
B. Non-Structural Materials
them difficult to bind to the bulk material and they pull out
easily, rendering them ineffective. In addition, the high Glass is one of the non-structural materials inevitably used
temperatures involved in steel manufacture and the effects of in buildings, and the sustainability of the buildings is largely
this on CNTs presents a challenge for their effective use as a affected by the properties of glass as a glazing material, since
composite component. it forms the most of the barrier between outside and inside,
Wood is another structural material, which has been used impacting the indoor air quality. Most of the heat gain and lost
since the ancient times. Two basic strategies incorporate NT occurs on the glass surface, as well as impacting the level of
into wood and wood-based materials. The first strategy uses daylighting. NT helps to improve the properties of glazing,
nanomaterials and nanosensors developed in other industries especially the heat gain and loss, by thin-film coatings,
and adapts them to the forest products, thus improving thermochromic, photochromic and electrochromic
existing product performance. These products range from technologies. Thin film coatings are spectrally sensitive
sheeting and siding with barrier coatings for water resistance, surface applications for window glass. They filter out infrared
to high-performance composites of wood and wood fiber. The light to reduce heat gain in buildings. Thermochromic glass,
second strategy is to exploit the nanoscale properties of wood for instance, change transparency in response to temperature
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
and it is very useful to control overheating for passive solar means by efficient insulation methods and materials. In the
heating applications. The temperature of the glass, which is a EU, over 40% of total energy produced is consumed by
function of solar intensity and outdoor and indoor temperature, buildings, and households are responsible for one quarter of
would regulate the amount of sunlight reaching the thermal EU carbon emissions, roughly 70% of which comes from
storage element. Thermochromic glass would be particularly meeting space heating needs [23].
appropriate for skylights because the obscured state would not By the innovations in NT, insulation materials and
interfere with views as much as with a typical window glass. applications will be more efficient and less reliant on non-
A thermochromic window can also be activated by a heating renewable resources. Manufacturers estimate that insulating
element in the window, making it operate like other materials derived from NT are roughly 30 % more efficient
switchable glazings, but this tends to be less energy efficient. than conventional materials [35]. Nanomaterials or
Photochromic glass, another sensitive glass, changes its nanoparticles can be applied to substrates using chemical
transparency in response to light intensity. It has been used in vapor deposition, dip, meniscus, spray, and plasma coating to
eye- glasses that change from clear in the dim indoor light to create a layer bound to the base material. These materials have
dark in the bright outdoors. Photochromics may be useful in the ability to trap still air within them, thus increasing their
conjunction with daylighting, allowing just enough light surface-to-volume ratio. These nanoscale insulation materials
through for lighting purposes, while cutting out excess may be sandwiched between rigid panels, applied as thin
sunlight that creates glare and overloads the cooling system films, or painted on as coatings.
[33]. One of the unique insulation materials developed by the
The most promising adaptable glass technology, improved advent of NT is the Aerogel, which is a highly porous solid
by the advent of NT is the electrochromic glass, which is material with extremely low density with large, open pores,
composed of a five-layer coating about one micron thick, and and highly specific surface area (Fig. 4). This material,
is deposited on a glass substrate. The electrochromic stack nicknamed “frozen smoke” is a gel in which liquid component
consists of thin metallic coatings of nickel or tungsten oxide has been replaced with gas. Despite its lightness, it can
sandwiched between two transparent electrical conductors. support over 2000 times its own weight. Its unique physical
When a voltage is applied between the transparent electrical properties result with low thermal conductivity and low sound
conductors, a distributed electrical field is set up. This field velocity, as well as high transparency. Since nanoporous
moves various coloration ions reversibly between the ion aerogels can be sensitive to moisture, they are often marketed
storage film through the ion conductor and into the sandwiched between wall panels that repel moisture.
electrochromic film. The main advantages of this glass are that Architectural applications of aerogel include windows,
it requires low-voltage power, remain transparent across its skylights, and translucent wall panels.
switching range, and can be modulated to any intermediate
state between clear and fully colored.
All these applications are intended to reduce energy use in
cooling buildings and could help bring down energy
consumption in buildings [20].
Plastics, which are another group of non-structural
materials, are widely used in construction industry, especially
for finishings. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is used in
door, windows, flooring, and etc., are mostly sensitive to fire
and have been cited to have health effects on people because
of the phthalates, used for flexibility of PVC components.
New alternatives to many conventional plastics will be
available in the market by the advent of NT researches. Fig. 4 Aerogel as an high-performance insulation nanomaterial
Naturally occurring nanoscale aggregates can also be used in
making nanocomposites. The crystalline structure of these Nanocoatings can also be manufactured as thin films, and
ceramic materials allows them to be easily separated into applied on glass and fabrics. For example fiber sheets, coated
flakes or fibers. Nano-reinforced polyester provides excellent with stainless steel films can absorb infrared rays and blocks
thermal and electrical insulation, while remaining strong and out sunlight, thus lowering room temperatures in summer by
lightweight. The material is corrosion resistant, has a high 2-3°C or more than conventional products [36]. Heat
fatigue limit, good impact strength, and fine surface finish. It absorbing films can be applied to windows, offering cost
can also be used as a load-bearing structural material and has effective control of heat and energy loads in buildings and
been used in bridges, doors, windows, facades, and structural solar performance. These thin film coatings utilizing SiO2 and
systems [34]. TiO2 nanorods can control exterior reflectivity. These coatings
have the lowest reflectivity ever reported [37].
C. Nanomaterials for Insulation Insulation can also be applied as a painting or spraying in
An important aspect of sustainability in buildings is the the form of a coating, thus having tremendous advantages
efficient use of energy, and this can be achieved in passive when compared with the conventional bulk insulators, such as
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
fiberglass, cellulose, and polystyrene boards, which often

necessitates the removal of building envelop for installation.
Insulation nanocoatings trap air at the molecular level, thus
increasing their performance dramatically.
D.Coatings for Other Tasks
Besides the nanomaterials used for insulation, some others
are developed to be used as coatings for other tasks, such as
self-cleaning, depolluting, scratch-resistance, anti-icing/anti-
fogging, antimicrobial, UV protection, corrosion-resistance
and waterproofing.
Self-cleaning surfaces, which were the first architectural
Fig. 7 The 40 Bond Street in London
applications of NT, can be achieved by photocatalytic coatings
containing TiO2 nanoparticles, which initiates photocatalysis
Self-cleaning surfaces offer energy savings by reducing the
process by breaking down dirt by exposure to sun’s UV rays.
energy consumed in cleaning building facades, as well as
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are oxidized into
depolluting and removing organic and inorganic air pollutants
carbondioxide and water, then washed away by rain. These

like nitrogen oxide from the air and breaking them down into
surfaces are made by applying thin nanocoating films, painting
relatively benign elements. Depolluting nanocoatings show
a nanocoating on or integrating nanoparticles into the surface
considerable promise in cleansing indoor air and reducing
layer of the substrate, such as concrete walls. Jubilee Church
instances of sick building syndrome (SBS). The World Health
in Rome by Richard Meier and Partners, the Marunouchi
Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 30 % of new or
Building in Tokyo, and the 40 Bond Street Apartment by
renovated energy-efficient buildings may suffer from SBS
Herzog & de Meuron in London are the remarkable examples,
[38]. A drawback of self-cleaning coatings is that they require
which utilize the state-of-the-art technology in self-cleaning
sunlight for activation, reducing their effectiveness indoors.
façade systems (Figs. 5-7).
As an alternative for indoor applications, coatings using
layered double metal hydroxides, air-cleaning nanocrystals,
can be applied to indoor surfaces to improve the indoor
climate and reduce ventilation requirements, thereby
improving the building’s energy efficiency [39].
Researchers at Yale University have also found that CNTs
can kill Echerichia coli bacteria. In their experiments, roughly
80 % of these bacteria were killed after one hour of exposure.
According to the researchers, CNTs could be incorporated
during the manufacturing process or applied to existing
surfaces to keep them microbe-free. However, since CNTs can
kill bacteria, they could have a major impact on ecosystems,
Fig. 5 Jubilee Church in Rome so the EPA now regulates nanoproducts sold as germ killing,
believing that they may pose unanticipated environmental
risks [40].
E. Solar Energy Applications and Energy Storage
Utilizing solar energy as a renewable source, is one of the
main approaches to achieve a sustainable building. In fact, sun
is the primary source of the energies and other raw materials
on the Planet Earth and it offers the cheapest and cleanest
source, when utilized efficiently and economically. Current
silicon-based solar cell technologies, however, have only
achieved modest conversion efficiencies at relatively high
costs. But technologies utilized for the conversion of sunlight
to electric energy are improving, and the total market is
growing rapidly.
NT offers innovative solutions to the expense of current
Fig. 6 Marunouchi Building in Tokyo silicon-based solar energy. For example, a company has
developed a technology that has the potential to greatly reduce
the cost of silicon-based solar cells. They have developed a
silicon nanocrystalline ink that could make flexible solar
panels as much as ten times cheaper than current solutions
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
(Fig. 8). Their silicon process lends itself to low cost and high A new technique proposed by Norris et al. monitors the
efficiency [41]. moisture level and temperature by the utilization of
While NT is leading to advances in silicon-based solar nanotechnology/microelectromechanical systems sensors
energy, it also supports silicon wafer technology as the (MEMs) to measure temperature and internal relative humidity
primary technology behind solar cells with new [43]. One advantage of these sensors is their nano scale
nanocrystalline materials, thin-film materials, and conducting dimensions (10-9 m to 10-5 m), enabling them to be embedded
polymeric films. Revolutionary thin-film and organic solar into the structural components during the construction process
cells are now entering the market and are expected to be (Fig. 9). These MEMs successfully monitor the behaviour of
significantly less expensive than current silicon-based solar concrete at early age of measuring the temperature and
cells. Organic thin-film, or plastic solar cells, use low-cost internal humidity during the hydration process. However,
materials primarily based on nanoparticles and polymers. An more tests are required to evaluate the effect of different
advantage of organic thin films is their flexibility, which will concrete mixtures on the MEMs response.
enable their integration into building applications than
conventional flat glass panels. This will open new possibilities
and overcome the aesthetic problems that architects have with
rigid flat panels, which can hardly be integrated into building
facades.
Fig. 9 Nano sensors embedded in concrete components
Smart aggregate, another sensoring device of a low cost,

multi-functional, piezoceramic-based material can also be
used for reinforced concrete buildings for structural health
monitoring. According to Song et al., as well as Saafi and
Fig. 8 Flexible solar panels for energy generation used in buildings Romine the disclosed system can monitor internal stresses,
cracks and other physical forces in the structure during the life
Storing the energy produced from sun is also an important span [44]-[47]. It also has the ability of providing early
issue of the future and improvements in this area with the help indication of the health of the structure before a failure can
of NT can reduce the dependence on fossil fuels, contributing occur.
to the sustainability of buildings. Currently, energy for homes
and offices is not stored onsite. NT’s possible contributions to G. Adhesives
the future of energy storage include improved efficiency for An interesting application area of NT in construction
conventional rechargeable batteries, new supercapacitors, industry is the adhesives, which have revolutionized from the
advances in thermovoltaics for turning waste heat into past to the current. Although many of the formerly used
electricity, improved materials for storing hydrogen, and more adhesives contained environmentally harmful substances, such
efficient hydrocarbon based fuel cells [42]. as formaldehyde, NT offers many opportunities for
environmentally conscious ones [45].
F. Nano Sensors for Structural Applications
Much of the inspiration for nano-enhanced adhesives comes
Monitoring the environmental conditions and controlling from nature. Adopting principles and mechanisms of nature is
the material and component performance in contemporary referred to as biomimicry. Examples of biomimicry can be
structures are a current topic of research in our time. In found in the water-repellent properties of nanocoatings, which
reinforced concrete structures, for instance, concrete strength take their lessons from the hydrophobic lotus leaf, and in a
and durability largely depends on the temperature and the new generation of nano-adhesives now under investigation,
moisture transport within the components. Temperature and which are based on the remarkable feet of the gecko that
high moisture content can promote deterioration process, and enable it to climb walls and even ceilings (Fig. 10). The
jeopardize the integrity and long-term durability. The gecko’s toe is soft and smooth, and not sticky. If a gecko toe is
monitoring of temperature and moisture level provides crucial pressed onto a hard surface it does not stick. The toe only
information about the hardening and setting process of adheres when the microfibers (setae) are engaged, by dragging
Portland cement concrete as well as the progress of or sliding the toe parallel to the surface. If toes were sticky
deterioration mechanisms such as corrosion of steel barst, like tape, it would be difficult for a gecko to walk or run, as it
freeze–thaw cycles, carbonation and alkali-aggregate reaction.
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
would be too hard to pull its feet up. Today there are many economic development has gained worldwide attention. Since
groups working on gecko-inspired adhesive materials for a the construction industry is heavily involved in the economic
sustainable construction industry [46]. development and consumes great amount of resources and
energy, its impact on environment is significant. Therefore, it
V. CHALLENGES IN THE ADOPTION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY is necessary and urgent to regulate the construction and its
In the last decade, NT products and applications showed related performance to sustainability. More research and
significant environmental benefits including energy savings practice efforts are needed to save energy, reduce resource
and reduced reliance on non-renewable resources, as well as consumption, and avoid impacts on the built and natural
reduced waste, toxicity and carbon emissions. The benefits of environment.
NT for a sustainable construction industry will accrue first
from coatings and insulating materials available today, VI. ISSUES RELATED WITH THE HEALTH OF
followed by advances in solar technology, lighting, air and HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT
water purification, and structural materials and fire protection, Although the integration of NT with the construction
as well. industry is very recent, it has already raised issues related with
its potential impacts on human health and environment. As the
production and use of nanomaterials increase, the possibility
of their release also increases, thus raising up the potential

adverse impacts.
Manufactured nanomaterials enter the environment during
the production, transportation, use and disposal [47]. Exposure
to nanomaterials and nanoparticles during these processes is
the primary reason for the increase in adverse impacts on
human health. Impact of nanomaterials during manufacturing
and use may occur through three mechanisms: Inhalation,
dermal contact and ingestion. Nanomaterials embedded in
construction materials or used in other applications and
products can cause cellular toxicity via multiple groups (Fig.
Fig. 10 The gecko toe and the setae, which are adhesive [46]
11). The important mechanisms of cycotoxic nanomaterials
include disruption of cell wall integrity (e.g. single-walled
Increasing demand for more sustainable buildings nanotubes), nucleic acid damage (e.g. multiple-walled
necessarily require the integration of new and environmentally nanotubes), generation of reactive oxygen species that exert
conscious technologies and materials. As with most oxidative stress (e.g. TiO2), release of toxic heavy metals or
developing technologies, NT has many challenges and other components, and direct oxidation upon contact with cell
limitations during adoption due to cost of production, as well constituents. Grassian et al. [48] studied the effects related to
as accurately defined environmental and health impacts. The the inhalation of TiO2 particles with a primary particle size
application of NT to a market as broad as the construction between 2 and 5 nm, reporting lung inflammation. Ultra-fine
industry poses many challenges for manufacturer, SiO2 nanoparticles also have been reported as human
professionals and government agencies. According to G. Elvin carcinogens [49]. Hallock et al. [50] recommend that the use
the primary obstacles that limit the adoption of NT in the of nanoparticles should be made with the same care already
industry are; (i) high cost of nanomaterials and nanoproducts; used in institutions for materials of unknown toxicity, i.e., by
(ii) the resistance of construction industry to innovations; and using air extraction devices to prevent inhalation and gloves to
(iii) public rejection of this technology due to the potential prevent dermal contact. Singh et al. [51] mentioned the
health impacts [23]. possibility of DNA damage resulting in later cancer
The rapid adoption of NT into the construction industry is development. Other authors [52] believe that the nanotoxicity
being slowed down by the mismatch between the short-term risk depends on the nanoparticles types, sizes, characteristics
financial benefits and the high cost of nanoproducts relative to and concentration volume. Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al.
conventional building materials. Although most of short-term [53] have recently carried out an extended literature review on
on developing the production techniques, very small quantities this subject. These authors mentioned that Environment
of nanomaterials can be produced relative to the quantities of Protection Agency has considered that CNTs are a new form
conventional building materials, due to the inefficient of carbon that must be treated under the toxic products Act.
fabrication infrastructure. In addition, although NT based They also mentioned that nanoparticles may be responsible for
construction products provide many advantages to the design a new kind of problem, the appearance of nanowastes. They
and construction of buildings, the production of these products suggest that products containing nanoparticles should be
require a lot of energy. In this context, it creates an labeled in order to facilitate future separation and recycling
environmental challenge to the construction industry. procedures.
Sustainability and environmental issues caused by growing Currently, due to the lack of case studies, information on
dominant exposure routes, potential exposure levels and/or
Vol:8, No:8, 2014
material toxicity is not adequate. Research is continuing to sustainability.

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World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

International Journal of Architectural and Environmental Engineering

Nanotechnology Innovations for the Sustainable

 a) Emissions into the air,

C ONSTRUCTION industry is the largest single contributor

devices. One of the most noteworthy features of NT is that it

durability. When elements can be manipulated in nanoscale,

fiberglass, cellulose, and polystyrene boards, which often

carbondioxide and water, then washed away by rain. These

Fig. 9 Nano sensors embedded in concrete components

Smart aggregate, another sensoring device of a low cost,

of their release also increases, thus raising up the potential

material toxicity is not adequate. Research is continuing to sustainability.

Delivery, New York: Wiley Inc, 2008.

Nanotechnology-40503.shtml Accessed on April 2014.

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