Four way Security System with person counting

Contents

1. Abstract & Introduction…………………………………2-3

2. Block Diagram…………………………………………..3-4

3. Working Principle……………………………………....4-6

4.Components Details………………………………………6-7

5.Circuit Description……………………………………… 7-71

6. Advantages and Disadvantages…………………………71-72

7.Conclusion………………………………………………72-72

8.Reference………………………………………………….73

Abstract

Introduction :-
The security system is one of the major focus areas in the present social and

industrial environment. In the industries society security system is one of the

1
important part. The growth and economy all depends on this. The traditional

security system is not at all full proof and also very much expensive. To safe guard

the industrial area, the most important aspect to be considered is the trace passing.

It is also required to safe guard the industry ,Home, Bank and office. In certain

industries it is required to protect the raw material from theft . In this project the

care is taken to design an general purpose security system for general application,

this can be installed at small office home and general areas, in which a security

against Trace passing, door opening / interlock is provided. This trace-passing

sensor is designed with a principle of Infra Red signal. There are four sensors

connected to the system if there is a security detection at any of the channel the

automatically the system detect the same and gives indication to the local

indicators and alarms. The system is interfaced to a computer to keep the log of

the security brakes. In these systems the security break is not only available to

local access but also this can be accessed from the remote terminals through

Internet or local area network. This type of security system is quit useful in the

small office, home, industries the different sensors can be implemented to make the

system more versatile

This type of devices are designed and marketed by the different multinational

companies.

2
Four way security system with person counting project consist
of three basic modules. First is IR transmitter and receiver
module which works for the safety of doors at night or in case
we are out of home. When the IR sensors are interrupted, a
buzzer is turned ON that’s indicating someone is entered into
house. By the help of this project we can secure office,
industries, bank and Home easily through electronics security
system.

This project contains the below section that is

1. Power supply section
2. IR transmitter
3. IR receiver
4. NOT gate section
5. Mother Board section
6. Relay driver section
7.Indicator section
8. Buzzer driver.
9.Counting Section

3
****BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FOUR WAY SECURITY
SYSTEM*****

Fig-1

Working Principle:-
Four way security system with person counting project consist
of three basic Sections. First is IR transmitter , IR receiver
Section and Mother Board Section which works for the safety of
doors at night or in case we are out of home. This project works
in two mode i.e
1.Normal Condition

4
2.Faulty Condition.
1.Normal Condition:-
In this mode the output of this project is Normal that means here
we used IR transmitter and IR receiver these two section act as a
sensor section which sense the someone enter the gate .But in
normal condition suppose anyone doesn’t enter through gate
then IR transmitter transmits the IR beam to IR receiver so that
receiver output is zero which indicate anyone doesn’t enter
through gate ,if sensor output is zero then indicator and buzzer
are OFF condition that indicate right now Normal condition
occurs.
2.Faulty Condition:-
In this mode the output of this project is ON that means here we
used IR transmitter and IR receiver these two section acts as a
sensor section which sense the someone enter the gate .But in
this condition suppose anyone enter through gate then IR
transmitter transmits the IR beam to IR receiver but due to
obstacle receiver cannot receive the IR beam so that receiver
output is one /High which indicate anyone enter through gate ,if
sensor output is one/High then indicator and buzzer are ON
condition that indicate right now Faulty condition occurs also at
that moment calculator counts how many peoples are enter to
the restricted place.
COMONENTS DETAILS
COMPONENTS USED IN POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS NAME SPECIFICATION

5
 Diode IN4007
Capacitor 1000µf,25V
Resistor 1.5k Ω quarter watt
Regulator IC 7812,7805

COMPONENTS USED IN IR SENSOR

COMPONENTS NAME SPECIFICATION
Transistor BC 547
IC LM393
Resistor 1K Ω,10K
PHOTO DIODE
LED

COMPONENTS USED IN RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT

COMPONENTS NAME SPECIFICATION
Transistor BC 547
PCB PRINTED CKT BOARD
Resistor 1.5k Ω
Diode IN4007

RELAY
COMPONENTS NAME SPECIFICATION
Relay 12v,10amp
6
TRANSFORMER
COMPONENTS NAME SPECIFICATION
Transformer Step down 230V-12V
0-12,1A

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

4.1 POWER SUPPLY:-

Circuit connection: - In this we are using Transformer (0-12) v,

1Amp, LED & resistors. Here 230V, 50 Hz ac signal is given

as input to the primary of the transformer and the secondary of

the transformer is given to the bridge rectification diode.

Circuit Explanations: - When ac signal is given to the primary

of the transformer, due to the magnetic effect of the coil

magnetic flux is induced in the coil (primary) and transfer to the

secondary coil of the transformer due to the transformer action.”

7
Transformer is an electromechanical static device which

transformer electrical energy from one coil to another without

changing its frequency”. Here the diodes are connected in a

bridge fashion. The secondary coil of the transformer is given to

the bridge circuit for rectification purposes. During the +VE

cycle of the ac signal the diodes D2 & D4 conduct due to the

forward bias of the diodes and diodes D1 & D3 does not conduct

due to the reversed bias of the diodes. Similarly during the –VE

cycle of the ac signal the diodes D1 & D3 conduct due to the

forward bias of the diodes and the diodes D2 & D4 does not

conduct due to reversed bias of the diodes. The output of the

bridge rectifier is not a power dc along with rippled ac is also

present. To overcome this effect, a capacitor is connected to the

o/p of the diodes (D2 & D3), which removes the unwanted ac

signal and thus a pure dc obtained. Here we need a fixed

voltage, that’s for we are using IC regulators. The o/p of the

8
bridge rectifier is given as input to the IC regulator through

capacitor with respect to GND and thus a fixed o/p is obtained.

The o/p of the IC regulator (7805 & 7812) is given to the LED

for indication purpose through resistor. Due to the forward bias

of the LED, the LED glows ON state, and the o/p are obtained .

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

Fig-2

9
 FIG- POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM

Fig-3

4.2 LED INDICATOR

The indicator section consists of a light emitting diode and its

driver circuit is designed on the basis of current required to

glow the light emitting diode. Here the driver circuit is required

10
for the following functionality. The Microcontroller cannot

provide adequate current for glowing the LED. The LEDs

requires a current between 10mA to 20mA of current to glow.

The driver circuit provides current to the load from a

separate source, so the load current used not pass through

the Microcontroller.

Fig-4

11
IR TRANSMITTER (transmitter zone)

The IR LED is also light emitting diode but the junction is

made out of such material that the transition of electron
between the bands emits quanta of energy (E=h) having a
particular frequency which is having a particular
characteristic. When a diode emits a particular characteristic
signal having frequency in the range of infrared then, that
diode is called a infrared emitting diode. The IR data
transmitter is a high intensity IR signal transmitter. There are
two diodes connected in parallel to increase the intensity to
avoid data corruption receiver end. In this section our aim is
to protect the zone/door/cupboard etc. from the unauthorized
entry or interruption, for that we need some element that
should not be visible to the unauthorized person. For that we
have taken elements as IR LED as a source and photo diode
as a destination. Generally, we have taken IR because IR is
invisible to the eye, where as in case of LASER, which is
easily visible to the human eye by which will, alert the
unauthorized person. That is why we have taken IR as a
transmitter which will transmit a continuously IR signal. At

12
 the receiver end the photodiode will receive the IR signal. if
somebody tries to interrupt the IR signal at the transmitter
end, the receiver will decide the absence of the IR signal at
the receiver end.

Operation

IR transmitter consist of resister ,IR diode and connected

according above the fig. when the +VE 12 V is fed to the IR
diode through 150E resistor IR diode get +VE from DC supply
and also IR diode get –VE from –VE terminal of DC voltage.
When IR diode gets +VE and –VE then it transmit a IR beam

DATA SHEET

13
14
When a diode is reversed biased, minute current flows in the diode due to minority carriers. These carriers
exit because of thermal energy which dislodges the valence electrons from their orbits producing free
electronics and holes in the process.

When light energy falls (or bombards) on a PN junction, it also imparts energy to dislodge valence
electrons. In other words, the amount of light striking the junction can control the reverse current in a
diode.

A diode that is optimized for its sensitivity to light is known as photodiode.

In photodiodes a window is provided in the package which allows the light to fall
on the junction. The magnitude of the reverse current depends upon the intensity of light falling on the
junction i.e. stronger the light larger the reverse current.

TRESSPASSING ALARM:

Circuit section description:

In this section, the IR detector is configured as a voltage divider network and a high gain
amplifier which is configured as a Comparator and a LED indicator as shown in below figure.

V c c +

P H O T O
D IO D E

V o

R 2
1 0 0 K

PHOTO DETECTOR

15
PHOTO DETECTOR:

As shown in the above figure calculate the voltage (Vth) across the photodiode, assuming the
internal resistance (10k) at the maximum light/ IR signal and (50k) at the minimum light / IR signal .

Vth = Vcc (R2 / R1 + R2)

Because the photo diode sensor which has an internal resistance according to the incident light
on it. When the maximum light / IR signal is incident on it, its resistance decreases (say 10kΩ) and thus
its reverse current increases (say 100µA).

V=I*R

= 100µA * 10kΩ = 1v

V = 1v.

Similarly, when the minimum light / IR signal is incident on it, it’s internal resistance increases (say
50kΩ) and thus its reverse current decreases (say 10µA).

V=I*R

= 10µA * 50kΩ = 0.5v

V = 0.5v.

VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:

Comparator is nothing but which compares the two voltage at the input i.e. inverting (-) and non-
inverting (+). If the inverting (-) terminal is greater than the non-inverting (+) terminal, the output of the
comparator goes to – Vsat (0V). Similarly, if the non-inverting (+) terminal is greater than the inverting
(-) terminal, the output of the comparator goes to V cc = + 12 v

+ Vsat (12V).
8

3
V 1
V +

+
1
16 O U T V o
2
V 2
V -

-
L M 393
4
 If V1 > V2, Vo = +Vsat = 12V

If V2 > V1, Vo = -Vsat = 0V

Ckt Operation:

V cc = + 12v
10k

P H O T O
D IO D E
LED
10k

15k
8

3
+
V +

1
15k
V cc = + 12v O U T B C 547
100K

2
-
V -

L M 393
10K

OUTPUT
4

17
 At normal condition, the incident light / IR signal is falling on the photo detector which detects
the signal / light / IR availability at the input. Here the photo detector section is configured as a voltage
divider; say at normal condition the voltage at the detector stage is 10V. That output voltage is fed to the
one terminal i.e. non-inverting terminal (+) of the comparator which is a reference voltage (say 10V) and
another terminal i.e. inverting terminal (-) of the comparator which is a set voltage (5v). Here at normal
condition, the output of the comparator goes to +Vsat (ON i.e.12v) state because here non-inverting
terminal (+) is greater than the inverting terminal (-), the output remains high as long as the signal / IR is
incident on it. That output signal is fed to the LED indicator, to indicate the availability of the signal.

Similarly if somebody tries to interrupt / breaks the signal / light / IR means at abnormal
condition, the incident light / IR signal does not fall on the photo detector which detects the signal / light /
IR unavailability at the input. Here the photo detector section is configured as a voltage divider; say at
abnormal condition the voltage at the detector stage is 1V. That output voltage is fed to the one terminal
i.e. non-inverting terminal (+) of the comparator which is a reference voltage (say 1V) and another
terminal i.e. inverting terminal (-) of the comparator which is a set voltage (5v). Here at abnormal
condition, the output of the comparator goes to -Vsat (OFF i.e.0v) state because here inverting terminal
(-) is greater than the non-inverting terminal (+), the output remains LOW as long as the signal / IR is
interrupted/breaks on it. That output signal is fed to the LED indicator, to indicate the unavailability of the
signal.

YARD LIGHT CONTROL / STREET LIGHT CONTROL

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTO DIODE:

18
 When a diode is reversed biased, minute current flows in the diode due to
minority carriers. These carriers exit because of thermal energy which dislodges the valence electrons
from their orbits producing free electronics and holes in the process.

When light energy falls (or bombards) on a PN junction, it also imparts energy to dislodge valence
electrons. In other words, the amount of light striking the junction can control the reverse current in a
diode.

A diode that is optimized for its sensitivity to light is known as photodiode.

In photodiodes a window is provided in the package which allows the light to fall
on the junction. The magnitude of the reverse current depends upon the intensity of light falling on the
junction i.e. stronger the light larger the reverse current.

Circuit section description:

In this section, the IR detector is configured as a voltage divider network and a high gain
amplifier which is configured as a Comparator and a LED indicator as shown in below figure.

V c c +

P H O T O
D IO D E

V o

R 2
1 0 0 K

PHOTO DETECTOR

PHOTO DETECTOR:

As shown in the above figure calculate the voltage (Vth) across the photodiode, assuming the
internal resistance (10k) at the maximum light/ IR signal and (50k) at the minimum light / IR signal .

19
 Vth = R2 / R1 + R2 (Vcc)

Because the photo diode sensor which has an internal resistance according to the incident light
on it. When the maximum light / IR signal is incident on it, its resistance decreases (say 10kΩ) and thus
its reverse current increases (say 100µA).

V=I*R

= 100µA * 10kΩ = 1v

V = 1v.

Similarly, when the minimum light / IR signal is incident on it, it’s internal resistance increases (say
50kΩ) and thus its reverse current decreases (say 10µA).

V=I*R

= 10µA * 50kΩ = 0.5v

V = 0.5v.

VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:

Comparator is nothing but a high gain amplifier which compares the two voltage signal at the
input i.e. inverting (-) and non-inverting (+). If the inverting (-) terminal is greater than the non-inverting
(+) terminal, the output of the comparator goes to –Vsat (0V). Similarly, if the non-inverting (+) terminal
is greater than the inverting (-) terminal, the output of the comparator goes to +Vsat (12V).

V cc = + 12 v

If V1 > V2, Vo = +Vsat = 12V

8

3
V 1
V +

+
If V2 > V1, Vo = -Vsat = 0V 1
O U T V o
2
V 2
V -

-
L M 393
4

20
Ckt Operation:

V cc = + 12v

10k
P H O T O
D IO D E

L ED
10k
15k

8
2

V +
-
1
15k
V cc = + 12v O U T B C 547
100K

3 V -
+
L M 393

OUTPUT
10K

At normal condition, the incident light / IR signal is falling on the photo detector which detects
the normal light / day light at the input. Here the photo detector section is configured as a voltage divider
as shown in the above diagram; say at normal condition say day light (6AM), the internal resistance of the
diode decreases and thus voltage at the detector stage is increases (say10V). That output voltage is fed to
the one terminal i.e. inverting terminal (-) of the comparator which is a reference voltage (say 10V) and
another terminal i.e. non-inverting terminal (+) of the comparator which is a set voltage (5v).

Here at normal condition i.e. day light, the output of the comparator goes to -Vsat (OFF i.e.0v)
state because here inverting terminal (-) is greater than the non-inverting terminal (+), the output remains

21
LOW as long as the normal light / day light is incident on it. That output signal is fed to the LED
indicator, to indicate the availability of the day light.

Similarly, if the normal light / day light fades (during night) or decreases (6PM) means at abnormal
condition, in which the photo detector internal resistance increases thus the voltage decreases (say 1V) at
the input. Here the photo detector section is configured as a voltage divider; say at abnormal condition the
voltage at the detector stage is 1V. That output voltage is fed to the one terminal i.e. inverting terminal (-)
of the comparator which is a reference voltage (say 1V) and another terminal i.e. non-inverting terminal
(+) of the comparator which is a set voltage (5v). Here at abnormal condition, the output of the
comparator goes to +Vsat (ON i.e.12v) state because here non-inverting terminal (+) is greater than the
inverting terminal (-), the output remains HIGH as long as the light fades (during night) falls on it. That
output signal is fed to the LED indicator, to indicate the unavailability of the light.

4.2. IR RECEIVER

Introduction

A PHOTO DIODE is light sensitive device the junction of the

photo diode is such that it generates carriers when the light
falls on it. There are different type of diodes, which generates
carriers in different magnitudes at different frequency this
depends on the nature and doping of the junction. The liberation
of carriers are very small in magnitude which is very much
22
dependant on the frequency and intensity of the light signal
falling on the junction. In the forward biased condition the
majority carrier current is so high that the current generated due
to fall of light signal is very negligible. The photon
bombardment cause the avalanche break down of the junction
and generate current which is in the order of 100s micro ampere
to few 10s of mA, due to the above mentioned causes the photo
diodes to connected in the reverse biased condition. In the
reverse biased condition the normal current is always in the
order of few microamperes, the current generated due to fall of
light signal on the junction is also in the order of microampere
so the net current through the diode is appreciably increased.
The same current pass through the resistance connected in series
and drop across the resistance is increased. There are two types
of arrangements very much widely used in the circuits, as shown
in the Fig.1 and Fig.2.

23
 VCC VCC

R D1

D1 Vout R Vout

Fig.1 Fig.2

If the diode junction is exposed with visible light or invisible

light like Infrared / Laser in the circuit shown in fig.2, the diode
current will rise, possibly to as high as 1mA, producing a
significant output across R. In use, the photodiode is reversed
biased and the output voltage is taken from across a series-
connected load resistor.

Operation
In this project in the data receiving section, the photodiode is
used as signal (data) detector purpose to detect the IR signal
(data) from the IR transmitter LED section.
Whenever the signal is transmitted from the IR transmitter LED,
the signal is received at the photodiode receiving section. The
receiving signal is very weak in strength, for that we used an

24
amplifier. The output of the photodiode is given as input to the
amplifier
(Op-amp LM351) through a filtering capacitor (0.01uF) which is
configured as an comparator and the reference voltage is set at
non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. There is a
10K variable resistor which is connected between +5 Volt and
Ground and the variable terminal are connected to the OP-AMP
for providing the threshold value.

The output of the LM351 swing in between +VSAT and –

VSAT even for small variation of signal across the threshold
value. That output signal is not compatible with the Micro
controller because of the high current; that output from the
Op-amp is given to the signal conditioning i.e. the signal is
given to the base of the transistor through a base resistance
between 1K –43K and the collector is connected to
Vcc = +5Volt in series with a 10K resistance and the output is
taken from the collector.
The emitter is grounded. The transmitted data is received at the
receiving section. The transmitted signal must fall pin pointed to
the photodiode junction in order to receive the signal.
25
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR RECEIVER

Fig-5
Operation

In this project in the data receiving section, the photodiode is used as

signal (data)
26
detector purpose to detect the IR signal (data) from the IR transmitter
LED section .Whenever the signal is transmitted from the IR transmitter
LED, the signal is received at the photodiode receiving section. In this
project this sensor circuit have two condition one is Normal condition
and second is fault condition. In Normal condition output of sensor is
low that means LED is OFF .in this condition any one doesn’t come
within IR transmitter and receiver .so IR beam easily fall on photo diode
so resistance of photo diode is low and voltage on pin no-2 is greater
than reference voltage which is set in pin no-3 . The principle of this op-
amp which is used in this project if pin no-3 voltage is greater than pin
no-2 then output of this op-amp on pin no-1 is high so in normal
condition doesn’t satisfy the condition of op-amp for this purpose pin-
no-1 o/p is low and also LED is OFF position .In faulty condition if any
one come within IR transmitter and receiver .so IR beam doesn’t fall on
photo diode so resistance of photo diode is high and voltage on pin no-2
is less than reference voltage which is set in pin no-3 . The principle of
this op-amp which is used in this project if pin no-3 voltage is greater
than pin no-2 then output of this op-amp on pin no-1 is high so in fault
condition op-amp condition satisfy for this purpose pin-no-1o/p is high
and also LED is turn ON.

27
 NOT GATE

Fig-6

NOT GATE

28
SIGNAL CONDITIONING
The output form the input signal i.e. comparator or any other
external circuit must be compatible with the  -controller, because the 
-controller can takes 5V as input voltage and gives a 5V as output
voltage. That for we need a signal conditioning circuit as given in the
below figure.

VCC= +5v VCC= +5v

INPUT 10k
1.5k OUTPUT
BC547 INPUT
1.5k
BC547
OUTPUT
10k

(1:1) (1:0)

(SIGNAL CONDITIONING)
Fig-7

In the fig1: 1, whenever the base voltage is HIGH the

transistor comes to saturation condition i.e. the collector current flows to
the emitter which gives a high voltage at the output corresponding to
Vcc given at the collector. The output is taken from the emitter junction
through a current limiting resistance and the output signal is given to the

29
 - controller or any other circuit which needs a compatible (5V)
voltage. Similarly, whenever the base voltage is LOW the emitter current
flows from the emitter junction of the transistor, which gives a low
voltage at the output corresponding to GND. The output is taken from
the emitter junction through a current limiting resistance and the output
signal is given to the  - controller or any other circuit which needs a
compatible (5V) voltage.
fig..1:0

In the fig1: 0, whenever the base voltage is HIGH the

transistor comes to saturation condition i.e. the emitter current flows to
the collector which gives a low voltage at the output corresponding to
GND. The output is taken from the collector junction through a current
limiting resistance and the output signal is given to the  - controller or
any other circuit which needs a compatible (5V/0V) voltage. Similarly,
whenever the base voltage is LOW the collector current flows from the
collector junction of the transistor, which gives a high voltage at the
output corresponding to Vcc. The output is taken from the emitter
junction through a current limiting resistance and the output signal is
given to the  - controller or any other circuit which needs a compatible
(5V/0V) voltage.

30
 VCC

10K

DATA 1.5K
INPUT BC547

( SIGNAL CONDITIONING / NOT GATE

V cc = +5V
Vi Vc
Rc
5v 5v
O UT
0v Rb Q 1 0v
t IN t
31 B C 547

(a)
 IC (mA)

IB = 80µA
IC sat = 6mA
IB = 60µA
IB = 40µA
IB = 20µA
IB = 10µA
IB = 0µA
VCE
Vcc = 5V
(b)

Fig-8

OPERATION:-
Proper design for the inversion process requires that the operating points

switch from cut-off to saturation along the load line depicted in above

32
figure (b). For our proposes we will assume that I C = ICEO = 0mA, when

IB = 0µA (an excellent approximation in light of improving construction

techniques), as shown in above figure (b). In addition, we will assume

that VCE = VCE sat = 0V.

When Vi = 5v, the transistor will be “ON” and design must insured that

the network is heavily saturated by a level of I B greater than that

associated if the IB curve appearing near the saturation level. In the

above figure (b), this requires that IB > 50µA.

The saturation level for the collector current for the circuit is defined by,

IC = VCC / RC
The level of IB in the active region just before saturation results can be
approximated by the following equation,
IB max ≈ IC sat / βdc
For the saturation level we must therefore insure that the following
condition is satisfied:

IB max >IC sat / βdc

33
For the network of the above figure (b), when Vi = 5v the resulting level
of IB is

IB = Vi – 0.7 / RB
= 5v – 0.7 / 1.5k
= 2866µA

IC sat = VCC / RC
= 5v / 10kΩ
= 0.5mA
Testing the above equation gives:
IB =2866µA > IC sat / βdc = 0.5mA / 300

Which is satisfied. Certainly any level of I B greater than 2866µA will

pass through a Q- point on the load line that is very close to the vertical

axis.

INVERTER EXAMPLE

34
At saturation,
IC sat = VCC / RC
10mA = 5V / RC
RC = 5V / 10mA = 500Ω

At saturation,
IB ≈ IC sat / βdc = 10mA / 300 = 33 µA

Choosing IB = 60µA to ensure saturation and using,

IB = Vi – 0.7V / RB
RB = Vi – 0.7V / IB
= 5v – 0.7v / 60µA or 80µA
= 716kΩ or 537kΩ
Choose RB = 720k or 560k which is a standard value. Then,

IB = Vi – 0.7V / RB
IB= Vi – 0.7V / 720k or 560k
= 4.3V / 720k or 560k
= 59µA or 76 µA

35
MOTHER BOARD SECTION:

36
 Fig-9
This circuit is the brain of the project by this circuit we can control
the device by the help of the mobile and here we used Athmel company
37
microcontroller which is the family of the intel 8051 microcontroller and
it has 40 pin ic which is operates on +5V dc power supply this consume
low power so it is the one advantage of this microcontroller 4 port that
is p0,p1,p2,p3 and pin number 9 is the reset pin which is reset by the
help of reset switch here the reset circuit is consist of one micro switch ,
10uf capacitor and 8.2k resister which is connected according the above
diagram .when we will press the micro switch then the microcontroller is
reset reset means its SP,PS,ACC, etc are reset that means it comes its
original position and here the 31 pin of the microcontroller is connected
to the VCC that specifies the microcontroller use its on chip ROM and
pin no 18and 19 that is XTAL which is connected parallel to the crystal
oscillator through 22pf after that that is connected to the ground and pin
no 20 is grounded and pin no 40 is connected to the +5VDC power
supply and its input and output port is used according to our use .this is
all about microcontroller section.

Features
• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products
• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources

38
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Description
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit
microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read
only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the
industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout.
The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-
system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the
Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-
flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control
applications.

Pin Configurations

39
 Fig-10
The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of
Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five
vector two-level interrupt architecture,a full duplex serial port, on-chip
oscillator and clock cir-
40
cuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for
operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable
power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the
RAM,
timer/counters ,serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.
The
Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator
disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

Pin Description

VCC
Supply voltage.

GND
Ground.

Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port,
each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins,
the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs.Port 0 may also be
configured to be the multiplexed loworder address/data bus during
accesses to external pro-
gram and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull ups.Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code
41
bytes during program verification. External pullups are required during
program verification.

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 1
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to
Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used
as inputs. As inputs,Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 1 also receives
the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 2
output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 2
pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 2 emits the high-
order address byte during fetches from external program memory and
during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses
(MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pullups
when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-
bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special
Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals
during Flash programming and verification.

42
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port
3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to
Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used
as inputs. As inputs,Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the pullups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features

The motherboard of this project is designed with a MSC –51 core

compatible micro controller. The motherboard is designed on a printed

circuit board, compatible for the micro controller. This board is

43
consisting of a socket for micro controller, input /output pull-up

registers; oscillator section and auto reset circuit.

Micro controller core processor:

Introduction

Despite it’s relatively old age, the 89C51 is one of the most popular

Micro controller in use today. Many derivatives Micro controllers have

since been developed that are based on--and compatible with--the 8051.

Thus, the ability to program an 89C51 is an important skill for anyone

who plans to develop products that will take advantage of Micro

controller.

Many web pages, books, and tools are available for the 89C51

developer.

The 89C51 has three very general types of memory. To effectively

program the8051 it is necessary to have a basic understanding of

these memory types.

44
The memory types are illustrated in the following graphic. They are: On-

Chip Memory, External Code Memory, and External RAM.

Fig-11

On-Chip Memory refers to any memory (Code, RAM, or other) that

physically exists on the Microcontroller itself. On-chip memory can be

of several types, but we'll get into that shortly.

External Code Memory is code (or program) memory that resides off-

chip. This is often in the form of an external EPROM.

External RAM is RAM memory that resides off-chip. This is often in

the form of standard static RAM or flash RAM.

Code Memory

45
Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8051 program that is

to be run. This memory is limited to 64K and comes in many shapes and

sizes: Code memory may be found on-chip, either burned into the

Microcontroller as ROM or EPROM. Code may also be stored

completely off-chip in an external ROM or, more commonly, an external

EPROM. Flash RAM is also another popular method of storing a

program. Various combinations of these memory types may also be

used--that is to say, it is possible to have 4K of code memory on-chip

and 64k of code memory off-chip in an EPROM.

When the program is stored on-chip the 64K maximum is often reduced

to 4k, 8k, or 16k. This varies depending on the version of the chip that is

being used. Each version offers specific capabilities and one of the

distinguishing factors from chip to chip is how much ROM/EPROM

space the chip has.

However, code memory is most commonly implemented as off-chip

EPROM. This is especially true in low-cost development systems and in

systems developed by students.

46
Programming Tip: Since code memory is restricted to 64K, 89C51

programs are limited to 64K. Some assemblers and compilers offer ways

to get around this limit when used with specially wired hardware.

However, without such special compilers and hardware, programs are

limited to 64K.

External RAM

As an obvious opposite of Internal RAM, the 89C51 also supports what

is called External RAM.

As the name suggests, External RAM is any random access memory

which is found off-chip. Since the memory is off-chip it is not as flexible

in terms of accessing, and is also slower. For example, to increment an

Internal RAM location by 1 requires only 1 instruction and 1 instruction

cycle. To increment a 1-byte value stored in External RAM requires 4

instructions and 7 instruction cycles. In this case, external memory is 7

times slower!

47
What External RAM loses in speed and flexibility it gains in quantity.

While Internal RAM is limited to 128 bytes (256 bytes with an 8052),

the 8051 supports External RAM up to 64K.

Programming Tip: The 8051 may only address 64k of RAM. To

expand RAM beyond this limit requires programming and hardware

tricks. You may have to do this "by hand" since many compilers and

assemblers, while providing support for programs in excess of 64k, do

not support more than 64k of RAM. This is rather strange since it has

been my experience that programs can usually fit in 64k but often RAM

is what is lacking. Thus if you need more than 64k of RAM, check to see

if your compiler supports it-- but if it doesn't, be prepared to do it by

hand.

On-Chip Memory

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, the 89C51 includes a

certain amount of on-chip memory. On-chip memory is really one of two

types: Internal RAM and Special Function Register (SFR) memory. The

48
layout of the 89C51's internal memory is presented in the following

memory map:

Fig-12

As is illustrated in this map, the 8051 has a bank of 128 bytes of

Internal RAM. This Internal RAM is found on-chip on the 8051 so it is

the fastest RAM available, and it is also the most flexible in terms of

reading, writing, and modifying it’s contents. Internal RAM is volatile,

so when the 8051 is reset this memory is cleared.

The 128 bytes of internal ram is subdivided as shown on the memory

map. The first 8 bytes (00h - 07h) are "register bank 0". By manipulating

49
certain SFRs, a program may choose to use register banks 1, 2, or 3.

These alternative register banks are located in internal RAM in

addresses 08h through 1Fh. We'll discuss "register banks" more in a later

chapter. For now it is sufficient to know that they "live" and are part of

internal RAM.

Bit Memory also lives and is part of internal RAM. We'll talk more

about bit memory very shortly, but for now just keep in mind that bit

memory actually resides in internal RAM, from addresses 20h through

2Fh.

The 80 bytes remaining of Internal RAM, from addresses 30h through

7Fh, may be used by user variables that need to be accessed frequently

or at high-speed. This area is also utilized by the Microcontroller as a

storage area for the operating stack. This fact severely limits the 8051’s

stack since, as illustrated in the memory map, the area reserved for the

stack is only 80 bytes--and usually it is less since this 80 bytes has to be

shared between the stack and user variables.

SFR Descriptions

50
There are different special function registers (SFR) designed in side the

89C51 micro controller. In this micro controller all the input , output

ports, timers interrupts are controlled by the SFRs. The SFR

functionalities are as follows.

This section will endeavor to quickly overview each of the standard

SFRs found in the above SFR chart map. It is not the intention of this

section to fully explain the functionality of each SFR--this information

will be covered in separate chapters of the tutorial. This section is to just

give you a general idea of what each SFR does.

P0 (Port 0, Address 80h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 0.

Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the

Microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 0 is pin P0.0, bit 7 is pin

P0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on

the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low

level.

51
Programming Tip: While the 8051 has four I/O port (P0, P1, P2, and

P3), if your hardware uses external RAM or external code memory (i.e.,

your program is stored in an external ROM or EPROM chip or if you are

using external RAM chips) you may not use P0 or P2. This is because

the 8051 uses ports P0 and P2 to address the external memory. Thus if

you are using external RAM or code memory you may only use ports P1

and P3 for your own use.

SP (Stack Pointer, Address 81h): This is the stack pointer of the

Microcontroller. This SFR indicates where the next value to be taken

from the stack will be read from in Internal RAM. If you push a value

onto the stack, the value will be written to the address of SP + 1. That is

to say, if SP holds the value 07h, a PUSH instruction will push the value

onto the stack at address 08h. This SFR is modified by all instructions

which modify the stack, such as PUSH, POP, LCALL, RET, RETI, and

whenever interrupts are provoked by the Microcontroller.

52
Programming Tip: The SP SFR, on startup, is initialized to 07h. This

means the stack will start at 08h and start expanding upward in internal

RAM. Since alternate register banks 1, 2, and 3 as well as the user bit

variables occupy internal RAM from addresses 08h through 2Fh, it is

necessary to initialize SP in your program to some other value if you

will be using the alternate register banks and/or bit memory. It's not a

bad idea to initialize SP to 2Fh as the first instruction of every one of

your programs unless you are 100% sure you will not be using the

register banks and bit variables.

DPL/DPH (Data Pointer Low/High, Addresses 82h/83h): The SFRs

DPL and DPH work together to represent a 16-bit value called the Data

Pointer. The data pointer is used in operations regarding external RAM

and some instructions involving code memory. Since it is an unsigned

two-byte integer value, it can represent values from 0000h to FFFFh (0

through 65,535 decimal).

53
Programming Tip: DPTR is really DPH and DPL taken together as a

16-bit value. In reality, you almost always have to deal with DPTR one

byte at a time. For example, to push DPTR onto the stack you must first

push DPL and then DPH. You can't simply plush DPTR onto the stack.

Additionally, there is an instruction to "increment DPTR." When you

execute this instruction, the two bytes are operated upon as a 16-bit

value. However, there is no instruction that decrements DPTR. If you

wish to decrement the value of DPTR, you must write your own code to

do so.

PCON (Power Control, Addresses 87h): The Power Control SFR is

used to control the 8051's power control modes. Certain operation

modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a type of "sleep" mode,

which requires much, less power. These modes of operation are

controlled through PCON. Additionally, one of the bits in PCON is used

to double the effective baud rate of the 8051's serial port.

54
TCON (Timer Control, Addresses 88h, Bit-Addressable): The Timer

Control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the

8051's two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two

timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each

timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are

located in the TCON SFR. These bits are used to configure the way in

which the external interrupts are activated and also contain the external

interrupt flags which are set when an external interrupt has occurred.

TMOD (Timer Mode, Addresses 89h): The Timer Mode SFR is used

to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this

SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, an 8-

bit auto reload timer, a 13-bit timer, or two separate timers. Additionally,

you may configure the timers to only count when an external pin is

activated or to count "events" that are indicated on an external pin.

TL0/TH0 (Timer 0 Low/High, Addresses 8Ah/8Ch): These two SFRs,

taken together, represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how

55
the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always

count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value.

TL1/TH1 (Timer 1 Low/High, Addresses 8Bh/8Dh): These two SFRs,

taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how

the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always

count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value.

P1 (Port 1, Address 90h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 1.

Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the

Microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 1 is pin P1.0, bit 7 is pin

P1.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on

the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low

level.

SCON (Serial Control, Addresses 98h, Bit-Addressable): The Serial

Control SFR is used to configure the behavior of the 8051's on-board

serial port. This SFR controls the baud rate of the serial port, whether the

serial port is activated to receive data, and also contains flags that are set

when a byte is successfully sent or received.

56
Programming Tip: To use the 8051's on-board serial port, it is generally

necessary to initialize the following SFRs: SCON, TCON, and TMOD.

This is because SCON controls the serial port. However, in most cases

the program will wish to use one of the timers to establish the serial

port's baud rate. In this case, it is necessary to configure timer 1 by

initializing TCON and TMOD.

SBUF (Serial Control, Addresses 99h): The Serial Buffer SFR is used

to send and receive data via the on-board serial port. Any value written

to SBUF will be sent out the serial port's TXD pin. Likewise, any value

which the 8051 receives via the serial port's RXD pin will be delivered

to the user program via SBUF. In other words, SBUF serves as the

output port when written to and as an input port when read from.

P2 (Port 2, Address A0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 2.

Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the

Microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 2 is pin P2.0, bit 7 is pin

P2.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on

57
the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low

level.

Programming Tip: While the 8051 has four I/O port (P0, P1, P2, and

P3), if your hardware uses external RAM or external code memory (i.e.,

your program is stored in an external ROM or EPROM chip or if you are

using external RAM chips) you may not use P0 or P2. This is because

the 8051 uses ports P0 and P2 to address the external memory. Thus if

you are using external RAM or code memory you may only use ports P1

and P3 for your own use.

IE (Interrupt Enable, Addresses A8h): The Interrupt Enable SFR is

used to enable and disable specific interrupts. The low 7 bits of the SFR

are used to enable/disable the specific interrupts, where as the highest bit

is used to enable or disable ALL interrupts. Thus, if the high bit of IE is

0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of whether an individual interrupt

is enabled by setting a lower bit.

58
P3 (Port 3, Address B0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 3.

Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the Micro

controller. For example, bit 0 of port 3 is pin P3.0, bit 7 is pin P3.7.

Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the

corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.

**********SOURCE CODE FOR THIS

PROJECT********************

$mod51

org 0000h

mov p1,#0ffh

mov p0,#00h

mov p3,#00h

mov p2,#00h

start:

ch0: jb p1.0,ch1 ;over

59
 acall task1

ch1: jb p1.1,ch2 ;under

acall task2

ch2: jb p1.2,ch3 ;fire

acall task3

ch3: jb p1.3,ch4 ;tempar

acall task4

ch4: jb p1.4,ch5 ;water

acall task5

ch5: jb p1.5,ch0 ;current

acall task6

sjmp start

60
task1:

setb p0.0

setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

task2:

setb p0.1

setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

61
 task3:

setb p0.2

setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

task4:

setb p0.3

setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

task5:

setb p0.4
62
setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

task6:

setb p0.5

setb p2.0

setb p2.1

ret

end

RELAY DRIVER :
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an
electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism, but other operating
principles are used. Relays find applications where it is necessary to
control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
63
 controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and
re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of
relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric
motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device triggered by light
to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protection
relays".

Fig-13
Relay Switch Characteristics

 Relays provide a way for one electric current to control

another electric current.
64
 Switches control the flow of electricity, and relays are switches that are
operated by the flow of electricity. Relays are devices whereby one
electric current can control another electric current. The control part of a
relay is just an electromagnet. The switch part of the relay is a metal
piece that can be moved by the electromagnet to close a circuit. Relays
can be characterized by poles and throws like any switch, as well as by
other characteristics.
 Poles and Throws
 Like all switches, relays are characterized by poles and throws.
Throws is really a way of saying how many different circuits the relay
can control. If there is one throw, the relay opens and closes one switch,
and controls one circuit. Two throws indicates that the relay opens and
closes two mechanically linked switches, and so controls two circuits.
Poles are the number of current carrying positions the switches can be
in. A single pole switch only opens and closes a circuit. A double pole
switch diverts a current into one of two possible paths. Both poles and
throws are usually only one or two, but higher numbers are sometimes
seen.
Normally Open or Closed

 Single pole relays are characterized as normally open or normally

closed. This refers to the position of the switch when the electromagnet
is not activated. If the relay is normally open, activating the
electromagnet will close the switch and activate another circuit. If the
relay is normally closed, some circuit is active and activating the
electromagnet will deactivate this previously active circuit. Normally
open relays are found when a tiny current is used to control a bigger
current; activating the electromagnet closes the switch that carries the
larger current. Normally closed relays are found in burglar alarms, with
the circuits that control the electromagnet that holds the switch open
running through the doors and windows of a home. When a door or
window is opened, it stops the current to the electromagnet which causes

65
 the switch to close and sets off an alarm. Cutting the wires to this relay
also sets off the alarm.
Latching Relays

 Latching relays are a way of making a switch with memory. The

circuit that is controlled by a latching relay also runs through the
electromagnet. When the electromagnet operates the normally open
switch, it controls some circuit, but it also energizes the electromagnet.
If the electromagnet is activated, even by a single pulse, it latches so it
stays closed even when the original circuit that activated the switch is no
longer active. The only way to unlatch the switch is to break, even
temporarily, the circuit that includes the electromagnet. Latching relays
are used when machines are turned on and off by push buttons.

Relay driver section

Relay driver is consists of capacitor 10µf, diode IN4007, resister and
NPN transistor BC547 which is connected according the above diagram.
Before going to the relay driver first we should know that about Relay.
Relay is an electrical and electronics SWITCH which is ON and OFF by
the help of voltage and current which depends upon transistor switching
circuit and digital IC. Here transistor acts as a switching circuit .when
the high voltage is fed to the base of the transistor through resister then
the transistor is ON that means it conducts and the relay coil get +12V
from the 12V power supply but it does not get the –ve power supply so it
can’t be ON. When the transistor is ON then the relay gets –VE power
and the relay is ON. After getting –VE power relay come out from its
normal condition to the ON condition , which ON the device which is
connected through the relay in other words which depends on relay for
ON and OFF. Here diode and capacitor works for freewheeling purpose.

66
 Fig-14

The above circuit is the relay driver by this above circuit we can on or
off the relay easily.
Overload Relays

Fig-15
SIRIUS overload relays with screw-type, spring-loaded or ring cable lug
connections reliably protect loads as well as other switching and
protective devices in the respective load feeder against overload, phase
imbalance and phase failure. Thanks to ATEX certification, they can be
used in many different applications, even under the particularly harsh
conditions of the process industry. The over load relays can easily be
67
used with the contactors of the modular SIRIUS system .There are two
versions of overload relays: thermal and electronic.
In the main circuit, the SIRIUS 3RU thermal overload relays are
responsible for current-dependent overload protection of electrical loads
(e.g. motors). The 3RU2 overload relays are available with spring-
loaded, screw-type and ring cable lug connections - for a particularly
flexible implementation. In the 3RU2 overload relays, the power losses
are 5 to 10 % lower than for the previous models thanks to a new
bimetal technology. Therefore, the temperature within the control
cabinet can be reduced as well.
The 3RB electronic overload relay ensures real commercial added value:
In the main circuit, the electronic overload relays for standard
applications are responsible for current-dependent overload protection of
electrical loads (e.g. motors). Due to the wide current setting ranges,
complete series of motors are covered with just a few types. An
electrical remote reset has been added to the already extensive basic
functions of the 3RB31 version.
For demanding applications, a modular variant of the electronic overload
relay even offers full motor protection by also sensing the temperature of
the motor.
In addition, optimized, uniform accessories are available for 3RU2 and
3RB3. This reduces the costs for the ordering process and for
maintaining stocks.
Electronic overload relay SIRIUS 3RB24 for IO-Link
With the new communication-capable electronic overload relay SIRIUS
3RB24 for IO-Link you can easily connect your load feeder to a higher-
level control and therefore its integration in your automation

68
environment. As the electronic overload relay supports the transmission
of analog process variables like currents, system processes can be
optimized, e.g. through load monitoring.
Moreover, you will profit from an increased system availability and
easier system documentation – thanks to integrated diagnostic functions
and readable parameter assignment. In combination with contactors, the
overload relay can also be employed as direct, reversing and star-delta
starter.

69
 B U Z Z E R D R I V E R

V C C

B U Z Z E R

1 .5 K
D A T A
I N P U T B C 5 4 7

Fig-17

PIEZO ELECRTIC BUZZER:

It is a device that converts electrical signal to an audible signal (sound signal).The Microcontroller
cannot drive directly to the buzzer, because the Microcontroller cannot give sufficient current to drive the
buzzer for that we need a driver transistor (BC547), which will give sufficient current to the
buzzer.Whenever a signal received to the base of the transistor through a base resistance (1.5k) is high,
the transistor comes to saturation condition i.e. ON condition thus the buzzer comes to on condition with
a audible sound. Similarly, whenever the signal is not received to the base of the transistor, thus the
transistor is in cut-off state i.e. is in OFF state thus the buzzer does not gets activated.

ADVANTAGES:-
70
1.This project is very convenient .

2. Easy to installed.

3.Very Sensitivity.

4.Cheaper.

5.Less consumption.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1.If Microcontroller is failed then the total system is damaged.

CONCLUSION:-
By the help of this project we can secure office, industries, Bank
and Home easily through electronics security system.

71
REFERENCES:-
[1] Radar communication systems by Sharma and Sinha Tata
Mc-Graw Hill publication.
[2] Wireless Communication by Kennedy
[3] Infra Red systems by Robert L. John
[4] Microcontroller and microprocessor by Bhupendra Singh
Chabra ,Dhanpat raj publishers.
5.Electronics principle By V.K Meheta.
6.Op-amp Principle By Gaykward.
7.Electronics For You Magazine
8.Transistor Theory By Boylstude
[1] www.efy.com
[2]Www.aircraftindia.com
[3] Www.drdo.in
[4] American radar systems Wikipedia files.
[8] Infra Red systems IEEE materials.pdf files
[9]www.8051project.com

72