6.

PUBLICPORTENTS,
RELIGIO-POLITICS,
AND
THE CONSTRUCTIONOF ROMANIDENTITY
This study'has focused on rhe *'af in s'hich public porrenrs interacted *.ith
Roman societ\',analvsing and discussingthe interrelations betu,een taking,
reporting, rejectir-rg, and expiating portents. It has examined the various con-
sulting practices and procedures estabiishedand applied in the'arious con-
texts, as u'ell as the communication channelsbet\\'eencitizens,consuls,Senate.
and priesthoods.It has also consideredthe question of portents occurring our-
sideagerRoraanttsand the incorporation of ne*, cults b' meansof public por-
tents. NIv findings concerning this interaction betu'een public divination and
Roman societvindicate that certain contexts.structures,and cornponenrst)'p-
ifving public porrenrs plal,ed an import^nt role in the ongoing process of
(re)constructingRoman identitf in religio-politicalaffairs,both internallv and
in relation to non-Roman cultures.

The basisof this assumprionis that, like any orher socierr,.Roman sociervq,as
a sociologicallyfragile construcrion,consranrlvat risk of collapsinginto chaos.
Avoiding such social anarchv requires constant reproduction of a collectir,e
identitv, I believe the mechanism of dir,inatior-rplaved a significant role in this
processof identitl' construction through its abilitv to crearea coherenrg.hole,
ivhich - as demonstratedeariier- comprisedpast, present,and future, therebv
linking contemporarl' societv to its predecessorsand successorsin an institu-
tionalized, orderll', and rneaningful totalit-v.
Over and above their relevanceto the frailtl' of societalconstructions and
the latent threat of collapse,public porrents naturallr,operated on an individ-
ual level as u'ell. Here various ps1'chologicaiand emotional elemenrsrelating
to the future played an obvious role. Unfortunatell',hou,ever.the sourcescon-
tain little information that rnight shed light on rhese personal psvchological
factors,rvhich is u'hr'(as menrioned in the ir-rtroduction)I have been unable to
engagein any systematicinvestigationof these facrors.Nevertheless,as far as
the psychologicalaspectis concerned,I am occasionallvinclined to agreeu,ith
Lucian, u'ho in his *'ork or-rAlexander of Abonuteichos claims that oracles.
such as the one at Delphi, exist b1' r'irtue of the trvo grear t\rrantsof human
life: hope and fear.62s

The concept of Roman identity is defined in this contexr as socierv'sconstruc-

tions of norms, r,alues,and modes of action, t,hich are characterizedas unique
and fundamental to Roman societr'.\xihat q'e are ciealingu.ith here, tl-ren,is a
societv's self-perception, or perhaps more accuratelr,the contents of its
Selbstblltl. This term emphasizesthe fbcus on the coilective, ofTicial picture a
societl' paints of itself, and ivhich is used to identifi, that societl',its distinctive

6lf Luc. A1i,f g.

) t-)

characteristics.and its members in relation to other cultures,ol')It shoulc'lbe

stressed.hou'ever. that due to the nature of the solrrces, this Se/brtbi/d prina-
rill'portral's the Roman eiite.
One of the most important elementsin forming a Se/hstbt/Jis cornparing
oneselfl'ith other cultures. In this connection, Cicero expressesa significant
attitude in De ntturtr t/eoruttt:Roman society'mav be either equal or inferior in
ail other aspects,bur in matters of religion, the Romans are clearlv superior to
other cr-rltures,6rr)This attituc'leis also reflectedin tlie author's previouslvmen-
tioned comparisoninDe Jluirttttzr.,zre, u'her-ehe refersto Rornanougrrta as a sci-
ence n'hile referring to foreign ouguria as tupc,rstitio.(.)l
The sameSelbstbill is traceablein exarnplesof ancient insistenceon distin-
guishing betn'een,lor instance,Greek and Roman religious componenrs,or
Etruscan and Roman componenls, despite the existenceof a definite. signifi-
cant. and long-standing cultic s)'ncretism.6l:Although \\'orthv of note. it is
irrelevant in this context that the Romans' identitl'-relateddistinctions in this
question do not necessarilvagreeu'ith the obsen'ationsmade b1' rnodern his-
torians and archaeologists. It is, of course,not crucial to Roman self-perceprion
that archaeologicalevidence testifies to, for instance, a verv eariy' Etrusco-
Roman acculturation.6ir\Vh'lt is clucial, hon'ever,is that various sourcesmain-
tain a distinction betu'een Roman and Etruscan religious ideas, priesthoods,
and cults, even though a number of Etruscan components - not ieast those
relating to divinatiorl - ha.l in practice been incorl-roratedlong before into
Roman r-itualsand iclentity'as fixed ingredients.Discussingthe role of public
portents in constructingRoman identitv admittedlv invoivesthe Etruscan sci-
ence of interpreting extt and proJigia as elementsin Rome'scu/tust/eorunt,but
theoreticalll'this remained separatelrom the Roman science,u'hich dealt s'ith
ttuspicitt.Still. the Etruscan scienceenjol'ed considerablerespectas an imtrror-
tant t,vpeof religious expertisethat plaved a necessarvpart in maintaining the
pax tleorurttand thereby'sustainedRome'ssocial identity
This also shol's that the concept of identitv is not an irnmutablecomponent
in anv socialstructure,btrt one that is closeivlinked to attitudes- rvhich are, of
course,notoriousl,vsusceptibleto ch(/nge.Thus, the conceprof identity must be
seenin the light of historicaleventsand shifting interactionaland organization-
al patterns.On the basisof the inr,estigations and conclusionsin the preceding
chapters,the relationship betrveenRoman divination and identity rvill be further
clarifiecl,both theoreticalll'andrvith empirical examples,in the follorring.

( ' l ' ' N , r t u r a l h ,t h e i u s t i r u t i o no f c l i v i n a t i o na n t l p u L . l i c

l ) o r r e n r si s o n l l r r n e r r f n r a n v c u l r u r a l c o n -
structionsriefinrngRoman identitr'.
6 i ' r C i c .N a l D . 2 . E : E t s t c o t l a r r t t ' o / t t l u r st / t ) s / r iL t u ) tc ' \ t e r l t i \c, c l t n r r c ' h t t n
s i ! t p d i e tt t r l e l h n t n f t '
rt:ores
rept'rletntrr,rcligiottt'r'l t'stttrlttr J(onfitt tt:r/lo s:rpertrtrt's.
Ci. Cic. Dit 2.16.
'r Cre.Dl r2..h):f\1,ttt,tttltr/.ttr,ttt'tJ tltr.tt\r!tt''t,tt/t.t'tt,trlttt\ttt\,tq:tr"t\;!ltt't,tt":,t ti.lrt'tttl
('rl Cl.. tor eranrple. the cpisocieinloh'irrg T (]racchus ancl tlre l',ir,rrprri'.rin section2. j.
( ' r ,C f . C o r n e l l L 9 c ) 5 ) p p1. 1 7 - 1 - l E1: 6 2 - 1 6 1 : C o a r r e( l1l 9
i E5)r'o1
l . . p . 1 7 7 .S e ea l s o\ \ ' i s e m a n{ 1 9 8 9 )
i o r c l e t a i l so i R o m e ' st l ' o p e r i o d so f H e l l e n i z a t i o n..l u r i n g t h e A r c h i r i ca n d t h e H e l l e n i s t i cp e r i o d so t
( ] r e e k c u l t r r r e r. e s p e c t i v e l r .
 z+)

As mentioned earlier, "identitv" is defined here in a stricrlv sociological sense,

that is, as a social phenomenon.Additionalll', I intend to keep an appropriate
distancefrom conceptslike the Durkheimian school's "collective conscience"or
the term "mentalitr"', considering that such terms have certain personal-psy-
chological conr-lotationsthat u'ould prove poir-rtlessto the discussionat hand.6i'l

A simplified schematic presentation of m1' h1'pothesison divination and

public portents as an identit),-constructinginstitution might look like rhis'6rt

DI\/Ii{ATIO

past present future

17/OS Dld/Or//17/ respublicd prtxcleorunt

tradition identin' continuit)'

sanctions/ consolidations/ legitimizations/

regulations institutionalizations innovations

This schematicillustration presentscentral elementsand mechanismsat u'ork

u'ithin the social contexts and dialectic relationshipsthat t1'pif1,theinteracrion
betl'een divination and societl'.In short, I have tried to illustrate the process-
es that make the social construct of divination a functional and meaningful
institution.
It is lundamental to mv h1'pothesisthat the establishedprocedures,obser-
vations, and interpretationsplal' a significant role not oniy in linking the pro-
fane and the sacredspheres,but also (culticalll')in melding the past. present,
a r t d [ u t u r e i n t o o n e c o n t i n u o u se n t i t r ' .
The identitl'h,vpothesisand the schematicpfesentationshou'hou' divination
operated in tu.o directions - backrvardsand fonvards. Their backu'ard opera-
tion lies in the \\'av interpretations and rites constantl),'reconstruct the past
u'hile s-vstematicalll'organizing contemporan',empirical observationsin rela-

('l'lAnexhar:stir,ediscussionoftl.rescholarship'snumerousinterpretationsoftheconcept'collective
identrtv" lies outside the scope oi this stuclv.I rvould neverthelesslike to emphasizethe contributions
i r . r B e r g e r & L u c k n a n n ( 1 9 6 6 ) . N l o r e r e c e n t s c h o l a r h c o n t r i b u t i o n so n c u l t u r a l t h e o r r " i n c l u d e
A s s m a n n ' sm o d c l i n A s s m a n n1 1 9 c ) 2 )) n
. d e d n 1 9 9 9 .p . 1 i 1 . r ' h i c h i s a p p l i e dt o a n c i e n tm a t e r i a li r o m
Egvptian, Ser.r.ritic.
ar.rclGreek culturcs {ci. pp. 16i-2c)l ). For more on the concept oi iclentin'.sce
H e i n r i c h( 1 9 7 9 ) .
l'lt C)ne can onh make a purelv analrtrcal clistinctionbetl'een the various schematiccomponents.
s i n c ee m p i r i c a l l vt h e v a r e t o o c l o s e l vi n t e r r e l a t e c l .
')tl

tion to the reconstructionsof past experie-nce. Their fonvlr'.1operation lies in

the u'av cultic activities are carrie.i or-rtu'ith the ,rinr of pelperr-ratingsocial
prosperin' and continuitv. That is u'hv the main conpclnent in divination and
the constructionof identitv is the ternpolal dimension:p,ut, pt'csetlt,and.t'uture,
as describedin chapter -{.

'pilst =
In this particular conte\t. tire equation present = tuture" characterizes
the lrr.riqueten.rpor,tlperception in tl-rc religious sp''l.rere surroundir-rgRoman
obse'n'atiorrand interpretationof portents.A temporal perception arisesas the
result of interaction.and in this casethe temporal perspectiveis a result of the
ritual and religro political ir-rteraction piltterns and proceduresused u'hen com-
municatir-rg u.ith the gods via portents. The identin'hvpothesis therefore relies
'past =
o r r r h e a s s u m p t i ( ) rrrh , r t t h . r ' c l i g i o i r st r . ' n r p o l ' aple r s p e c t i v c p r e s c u t=
future" is tundamental to the portent institution that r.r.rust constanth'(re)inter-
pret and (re)constructRoman ider-rtitvand ensure Roman societl"scontinued
prosperitr'.
V'ithin this process.the temporal climensionis bouncl in a dialectic rela-
tionship rvith the religio-politicaldimension. creating three ke1'elementscru-
cial to Roman ider-rtitr://t()! t//tt()tlut, t'L'.\pub/tt'a. ar-rdpa.r t{eortrut.These
conceptsare lundamental to the role o1'divinationanclpublic portents as a sus-
tained, identitl'-reproducingrnechanisrn,since present observations,interpre-
tations. and ritual actions are deeplr'rooted in the continuous reconstnlction
of tttt,t ntrtictrtutt the par t/ec-,tunt,
aimeclat n-raintainir.rg and therebl'saleguard-
ing the res ptrblitzt.

Tradition - is ernbodiedin the institution'sdeep roots in tnosnt,uorurttand the

religio-politicalmeasuresinstituted b1'socien'to maintain, and potentiallv rein-
lorce. Ron.re'scollectiveidentitv.The relerences)'sremsupporting this tradition
is containeclin variouslists and libri.rt'hich contain svstematicpresentationsof,
and reterencesto. rhe cuitic activities.portent obsen'ations,and interp.'r'etations
of the past.

Identity - means the religio-proliticalidentin' constructed b1, the institution's

various social,religious.and political relationsand communication structures.
These leaclto the constnrction of Ronan societl"sSelbstbllJand its relation to
r.ron-Romancultures.u'hich tie in t'ith tradition and u'ith the future interestsof
the cornmunifi'.

Continuity - lies in establishingcohelence and agreementbetu'een the past.

the plesent, and the future rvith the pufpose of maintaining the rvelfare of
Roman societr'.Cclntinuitr an.l the []n.\'tl.()ft//7?are guaranteedb\' means of
practising the appropriate re/igtrt anclJit'inatn.

The identin,-generatingprocessaiso includesthree sub-elementsthat are close-

lv ir-rte-rtu'ined
: sanctions,consolidations.and legitimizations.
 La/

Sanctions- are an absolutell,fundamelrtaimechanismin the institution of pub-

lic portents. As described previousl.vin this studr'. taking auspices,reading
entrails,and obsening prodigiescar-rlead to social,religious,political, an.l mil
itarv sanctions.Public sanctionsoften follos'ed breachesof socialand religious
norms or actions,as seen,for example, in cor-rnection $'ith \\'omen'simpudici-
tt'dor the iucestutaof VestalVirgins. as discussedir-rchapter 2.1. Regardingthe
question of identitv, portents can lead to sanctionsrelating, lor instance,to
Roman societ.v'ssocial and religio-political stratification.An example of this
rvould be an interpretation of a portent that declarestu'o plebeians cannot
ser\/eas consulssimr-rltaneouslv,as discussedin chapter 2.3.

Consolidations- are generallvestablisheclbv mezinsof ritual repetitions,reli-

gio-political procedures, and patterns of interpretation, The communication
irnd interaction patterns connecteclrvith taking, interpreting, and expiating
portents serve to (re)createand ensure the basic relatior-rsand structures of
societr'.Significantaspectsof this afe the consolidationof the traditional prac-
tices,and the Senate'sauthoritv anclstatusas the central clecision-makingbody
in matters concerningportents - in other u'ords, all of the various social.reli-
gious, political, and rnilitarl'rarnificationsupon rvhich divination as an institu-
tion exerted a decisiveinfluence.

Legitimization - is also an absolutelv fundan-rentalmechanism, most clearl.v

seen, for instance,in connection rvith acculturation Lrrocesses and the intro-
duction of nerr' cults. The legitimizing function is also obr,iousin connection
rvith the obsen,ation oi dtrspicittand c.rla. the interpretation of l'hich could
legitimize,for instance,military engagements

In relation to public portents' interaction rvith socien, the institution helps

generateidentity in that it lunctions as a generalll' accepteclinterpretational
model 1or,s'hat Berger and Luckmann's sociologicalterminologl'u'ould ref-er
r o d s t h e s o c i a l l rc o n s r r u c r e ,o. lb i c c t i r c r e a l i t l ' . " ' 'T h r o u g h s o c i e t r ' ' cs o n t i n u o u s
processesof internaliztrtion. socialization, and institutionalization. and bi'
virtue of the prevaiiing religio-political definitions and frames of reference,
p o r t e n t su ' e r ee m p i r i c a l h , r c c e s s i b lien R o m a ne r e l l ' J a r l i f e .T h e e m p i r i c , r vl e r -
ification and the scienceof portents l'as administratedb1' the Senatein con-
junction l'ith the relevantreligiousspecialists.In this context. "empirical veri-
fication" and "science" are to be understood as the religiousknou'ledgeborne
b1'experiencegained through obsen'ations,and subsequentlyorganized s1,s-
tematicallyand transferredto the next generationof speciaiists,as describedat
length in chapters2,3, and -1.This body of knou'ledgeu'as absolutell'cer-rtral
to the institutionalizationof public portents, and to society'sreligio-political
activitiesand identitl' construction.

{'}{-Berger c\ Lr.rcknrann ( 19(16)

z+t'\

The institution of public portents externalizeditself by' meansof s1'stematic

social and religio-political activities aimed at maintaining a balanced society
and a social order. In that sense,it seemsnatural to regard the concept of p,rr
deorutnas an expressionof the socialorder human societl'must constantlycre-
ate and recreatein relation to both the past and the future, B,vu'a1'of exten-
sion, it must thereforebe concluded that the Senate,u'ith its supreme authori-
ty to accept or reject prodigies, s'as, in a sense,able to decide the degree of
imbalanceRoman societyu'ould experience.

In the foliorving, I aim to substantiate the hypothesis outlined above and the
schematicmodel presentingpublic portents as an identity-generatinginstitu-
tion. I shall do so b1'empiricalll'anal1'sing t\\'o note\\'orthyexamples:the intro-
duction of the Magna Nlater cult and the Venus Er.vcinacult.
I have chosen these examplesbecausethel clearly reflect the hypothesis's
components of Roman identit,v construction, both inu'ardl1' (in the mainte-
nance of traditional patterns of actions, norms, and values) and outu'ardly
(regardingloreign polic.vmatters and the incorporation of foreign cults). The.v
also clearl,villustrate the establishment of links betu'een the profane and sacred
spheres,as u'ell as links bets'eenthe past, present,and future. Both examples,
therefore, document major aspectsof public portents' significanceto Roman
identit-vand religio-politics.

As noted in the prodigl' table, a number of lbreign cults u'ere incorporated into
official Roman religion as a consequence of prodigies and the subsequent
instructions taken from the lrbri Sibt'lltnt. C)neprominent example is the cult of
Cvbele from Asia Minor, u'hich rvasincorporated into Roman religion in 20'{ ec
through the libri Sibt'llini and the Delphic Oracle (PT 19). This example not
onl,viliustrates crucial characteristicsin the construction of Roman religio-polit-
ical identity',but also shedslight on certain aspectsof the acculturation process
that came to influence Roman religion from the third century BConu'ards.
The background information contained in the sourceson the introduction
of this cult and consultingthe Delphic Oracle emphasizesthe socialunrest,the
hardships, and the many prodigies occurring during the Second Punic lil/ar.
Hannibal moved from Spain acrossGaul, successfullvcrossingthe Alps. Verv
earl1,in the u'ar he had alreadl''\\'on great victories in the Po valler''.This suc-
cess\\,asfollorvedbi Hannibal's triumph at Lake Trasimene(PT l6), u'herehis
forces utterly destroyed the army' of Flaminius. Then came the Roman defeat
in the disastrous Battie of Cannae QT 37), and the follorving years also sas'
numerous Roman legions def-eatedrvhile the enemy advanced into Itaiy'.
In 216 sc, Rome's mislortune in battle and the ominous prodigies that
accompanied it (PT l-1-51) led to the consultation of the libri Sibt,llini and the
Senatedecided to send Q. Fabius Pictor to the Delphic Oracle.6iTThe choice

t ' r ; L i \ a ? 7 . 5 - . + - ) : P l u t . r ' z t .F d h .' ) L t t . 1 8 . 1 rc f . L a t t e ( 1 9 6 7 )p p . 2 5 8 - 2 6 ) : G r u e n ( 1 9 9 0 )p p . ( r - i i

o n Q . F r b i u s P i c t o r a n c lG r a e c o - R o n r ahni s t o r i c , g r a p l rsre' ,eN l o m i g l i a n o( 1 9 6 2 ) .1 9 9 0e d n . p p . 8 0 - 1 | ) E
 211

of Fabius Pictor underscoresthe religio-politicalimportirnceof the enterprise.

Besidesbelonging to the prominent gcl.t of Fabia. he possessedconsiderable
miiitary and political experience.and ir-rhis capacitl' as Senarorhe must have
been tl-roroughll, famiiiar rvith Rome's toreign and domestic poli.' conccrns
during this difficult periocl. and rvith the relevant Senarediscussions.He s'as
also renou.ned for his diplomatic skills and his comprehensive knou'ledge of
Greek lar-rguage ancl cultule.
Here it should be noted that Fabius Pictor's Aunoles Graect mar,have been
arnong Li',-r"ssources, potentiallv giving him accessto a contemporary source
u'ith first-hand knol'ledge of the situation from a central religio-political vanrage
point.cis\Weknorv lrom Appian that FabiusPictor himself describedl-risjournev
to Delphi.t'i't It is moreover evident that in choosing sourcesfor his l'ork. Lin'
consideredthe issueof contemporarvsolrrces.Not onlv did Lirl' prefer Fabius
Pictor as his source lor the number of dead in the Battle of Lake Trasirnene
becausePictor's u'ork u'as contenrporar\'6r()Li\\r also larnented his inabilitv to
flr-rdanv contemporarv statementsregalclir-rgthe " uir opttnttrs" chosen to Leceive
the gocldesst']l(see belorv). Fabius Pictor returned to Rome ivith a responslltlt
from the Delphic C)racle,6rlrvhich he translatedirom the Greek. and ufiich con-
tained instructions on hol', and to u'hich deities,sacrifices\\'ere ro be made if the
Romans ivished to u'in the u'ar. Accordine to Lin"s quote from this rt'spcttrsutn,
gifts taken out of the u'ar bootv u'ere also to be sent to rhe Pvthian Apollo:

Lirl' (23.11.2-3): St it,r .fuxitts, Routatti, u(strae rcs tuelrctresfdci/ioresclue

erunt, magisqtle ex setttartttldre.r puhltco uestra uc.,bisprocet/et, L,ictortaqtre
tluel/i populi Ronttttti erlt. P11l;11., tlpo/liti rt'publtca ucstro bere gest0 ser-
udtitqu€ e ltrcr/s nteritis dottunt tttittitctte Jeque praedrt, rnonubiis spoltttque
hon o retn h trb c'tot e, lt scI t't,rtn o t,obis p rohibe,/ ot e.

T h e m e n P l u t a r c l . r e f e r st o a s " n r ; r n t e i s "( 1 8 . 1 )\ ' h o u ' e r e c o n s u l t e di n t h i s s i r u a r i o nr r e r e o r o b a b l v

l:trttspicesand not. as the Loeb transhtion srLqgesrs. lhe ttrgtrr,'s.
6 t s C f .L i r r L l - t . 2 : 2 . - { ( t . l 0Pro i v b .1 . 9 . 1 - 5 P
r l i n .H N 1 l ( t . l1 .
t rj e A p p . H a r t n .2 7. 1 1 6 :2 J . 1 6 6 .
6 1 0L i \ . \ . 2 2 . 7 . +
6 J l L i \ a 2 c ) . 1 + . 9T. h e c i r c u m s t a n c ct h a t F a b i u sP i c t o r g i r c s L i v r i i c c e s sr o r r c o n t e m p o r a r vs o u r c e
d o e sn o t m e a n ,o f c o u r s e t. h a t t h i s f i g u l e . h o l c l i n gs u c ha n i m p o r t a n tl o l e , m i g h t n o t a l s oh a v ei d e a l i z e d
irncldranrarizt'dprrrticularurttrives,urd episc'.lesin the srrmerv'.rvLin hrmself tlitl maur ve.rrslalcr.
6 r l F o r m o r e o u t h e D e l p h i c C ) r a c l ec, i . P a r k e& \ \ ' o r m e l l t 1 9 6 5 ) : R o u x( 1 9 7 7 ) :R o u g e m o n r s( 1 9 7 7 ) :
F o n t e n r o s e( 1 c ) 7 8 )N
: I a a s st 1 9 9 1 ) .A c c o r d i n gt o t h e t r a d i t r o n .t h e f r r s r o f l l c i a l c ( ) n r a c r\ \ ' i r h t h e o r a c l e -
regarclingthe Rel.trbiics prodigies took placc rs earh rs l!)S B(..namL.hin connr.cion with the I-acus
Albanus prodigv. ci, cl.rapter2. 1. PT 1i , lOn the period bctirre tl.rcRepublic. seeLin l .16.-1-11 . ) Latte
( i 9 ( r 7 ) P P .2 2 ) - 2 2 1 c l , r t e R s o m e ' sf i r s r c o n t r c t w i t h r h . ' D e l p h i c ( . ) r a c l er o r p e r i r i o ni n 2 1 c .e r . .r e f u t i r . r g
i r l l p r e v i o t r se x a m l - l e sa s b e J o n g i n gt o " c l a sR . ' i c hc l e l F a b e l " t p . 2 2 { . n o t e 1 ) , I m u s t s a r ' h . o l ' e v e r .r h r t
t h i s r e a s o n i n gd o e sn o t s e e n t o h a . . ' r r u c h b e a r i n go n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h e o r a c l eh e l d i n R o m a n r e l i -
g i o - p o l i t i c s \. \ ' h e r h e r r h e o r , r c l e\ \ ' a s i r c t u i l l \ c o n s t r l t e di n i 9 E B ( . o r n o t . t h e , r c c o u n t o i t h e L r r c u s
Albanusprodiglcontirnrsseverdlassumptions:1)itlinkstheoccurrenceofprocligiestoconsultationof
t h e o r l c l e . 2 ) i t t e s t i f i e st o t h e o r a c l es l u t h o l i r r ' .a r . r cI lI i t d e m o n s t r r r e sr h e s i g n i i i c : r n coe1 . r c o n t l c r i n i -
t i L r t e cblr t h e R o n , r n S e n a t et o r h e D c l p h i c L ) n c l e .
218

Lir1"s narrativeemphasizesthat Fabius,u'ho had also receiveda iaurel garland

that he \\'2lsto \\'ear on his joumev back to Rome, there prlacingit on the altar
of Apollo, painstakinglvfollorved all instructions,and that the Senateordered
suppIicatt'otte5.a4)
After rhe RomansdefeateclHastrubal in 201 B(--, \\'on vicroriesin Spain. and
made peaceu'ith Philip V of lvlacedonia in 2()5/20-{ec, they complied ri'ith the
ans\\.erfrom the Delphic Oracle - gir,en eleven vears earlier - and sent a lega-
tion bearing gifts for the Pr,thian Apolio taken from the u'ar booty. Having
made an animal sacrilice to this same Apollo, the legation found the entrails
favourable (lttettt extd), and a res'pr,,tt-rl/z/
presaged a victoly surpassingthe one
from s'hose spoils thev l'ere bestou'ing gifts upon the deity'.r'-l'l
When rhe libriSibylllni\\'ere once irgain cor-rsultedin 205 rc follou'ing cer-
tain prodiuies.the repll' \\'asthat if an enemv sought to make \\.ar on Itaiic soil.
he could be defeatedif the Idaean Nlother of Pessinusu'as taken to Rome. This
\\'asseento be confirmed b1'the above-mentionedomens from Delphi, and the
Senatether-eforedecided to introduce the cult of C1'beleinto Rome bv exploir-
ing their good connectior-rs u'ith King Attalos. A legation \\'as senr to Attalos.
consulting the Delphic Oracle about the matter on the rval'.The oracle replied
that the undertaking rvould be successfuiand prescribedthat the goddessu'as
to be receivedbv the t,ir optimus Np1n17s.61i The members of the legationu'ere
given the cone-shapeclcultic stone identified rvith Cvbele,/h'lagnaMater and
the Senate appointed the y'oung Publius Scipio Nasica as "uir optiluus" to
receir,ethe goddess.Sheu.asinitiallv carried up to the temple of Victoria on rhe
Palatine,but the Senatelater ruleclthat she should have her ou'n temple. After
the u'ar, a teniple to the Nlagna Nlater u'as therefbre constfucted (also on the
Palatine).It u'as consecratedin l9l (or 191) ec, and gamesu'ere instituted in
her honour.6+r,The annual NlegalesiaFestir,al featuring /ectisternium and lur/i
\\.asthus a "Romanized" celebrationof the Magna Mater, u'ith no direct cop\'-
ing of the original contents of the Cult of Cvbele.
Furthermore. as resardsthe introduction of the cult, it is u'orth1,of note that
the Senateplaced restrictionson l{omans u'ishing to participatein it. The god-
dess had been accompanied bv l-rerou'n eunuch priests, u'ho ran the cult.
Accorclir-rgto Dionvsius of Halicarnassus,Roman citizens u.ere forbidden ro
take oatl-rsas priests and priestessesof the goddessand s'ere barred from tak-
ing part in the cult's pecuiiar rituals. The Senilteonlv granted permissionfor a
feu' ritual public processionson specialholida\,s.617 Apparently even the slaves
of Roman citizens rvere prohibited 1i'om participating in some of the Phrygian
cultic activities.This is eviderrtfrom the fact that a slar,e'sself-castrationin 101
BC\\'aslisted and expiated as a prodigl'(PT 111), the action being categorized

( . r rL i \ a .1 1 . 1 1 . 16 .
6 r .L
t 1 \ , \ , 2 9 . 1 0 .61.
6 r t L i \ \ . 2 9 . 11 . 5 _ 8 .
6 + 6L r \ , \ .2 9 . l J . S _ 1 5 l 6 . l ( r . i - 5 : a n a l t e r n a t i v et o t h i s . r c r t r u n ti s p r e s e n r c riln L ) r ' .F , r s / 1 . 2 1 i - 1 2
6 + ;D i o n . H r r l ., 4 r z l .R r t t t t). 1 c 1 . 3 -. 1
 219

as inappropriate human behaviour. Such behaviour \\'as in breach of rrtosntcio-

ntm, and the Senatecould decide to treat it as an unfavourableportent requir-
ing expiation in the same\\'ay as other prodigies (seechapter 2.1).
Several sources incidentall-vreveal a Roman aversion to such self-castrated
gd//i ttith their outlandish garb and their ritual oriental music u.ith its noisy
drums, pipes, and cymbals,t'+s
The historical circumstances are a significant factor in clarif,ving rvh.v this
cult, highly deviantb1'Romanstandards,\\'asnonethelessincorporatedinto the
citv's religion follorving the oracular instructions. The events clearl.vinvolr,e
fbreign policy issues,as the cult n'as "borrou'ed" from King Attalos, Rome's
alll' during the u'ar againstPhilip of N{acedonia,Bearing in mind the legend
that the Romans u'ere descended from Ilion, it is also possible that certain
mvthical or historical traditions plaved a role in the cult's introduction. This
mvthical relationshipmight have been consideredbeneficial to Rome'spoliti-
cal relationsu'ith Asia. Indeed, the idea that the Romans originailv came from
Tro,vexisted at the time and u'as respectedon both sides.According to Livy's
account of consul Publius Scipio'sarrival at Ilion in 190 BC,6re he l.as received
there as an honoured guest,and the Romansu'ere celebratedas descendantsof
the Trojans, rvhile the1,in turn took pride in their origin. Ovid and Virgil also
refer to the idea of Rome's Trojan ancestry,but it must still be acknou'ledged
that there is no solid evidenceof such links playing a role in the actual intro-
duction of the lvlagna Mater cult into Rome in 20;1BC.6t{) Finally, Lirl under-
scoresthe importanceof Rome'sprestige:the distinguishedlegationsent to col-
lect the goddess had been assignedfir'e quinqueremes, allou'ing them to travel
in a style that u'ould reflect the Roman cltgnttdsand earn respect for the cit)'.bs1

To recapitultrte,the introduction of the Magna Mater cult is an example of horv

innovationsu.ereinstitutionalizedby meansof public portents and legitimated
- in this case- by the occurrenceof prodigies.
The foreign cult rvas,hou.ever,incorporated in a Romanizedversion,that is,
in accordanceu'ith Roman tradition, and it q'as consolidated b1,regulating the
Roman citizens'participation in the cultic activities.The example of the slave's
self-mutilation being registered and expiated as a prodigy' illustrates hou' a
Roman sanction could be managedby means of public portents, and thus bv
the Senate,ttith mos mdlorunt and pax deorutn as the legitimating factors.
Consequentlyi the introduction of this cult estabiished links betu'een the
profane and sacred spheres,as l'ell as connections bets.een the past (rnostnaio-
rutn), present(the prodigies and the cult's introduction), and future (ensuring
the pox deorutnand guaranteeingthe continuitv of Roman society).

{'rEFor instanccJur'.J,r/ 6 . 5 1 . 1 . - 5 2 r .
{ ' r eL i n l 7 . J 7 . 2 .
6)ilO\,. F//rl. .{.251I \rerg , . l e r . c ) . 8 0 - 8 1O
. n N l o u n t I d a a st h e b i r t h p l a c eo f A e n e a ss. o n o i A p h r o c l i t e
r r r - r e nt 1 9 9 2 )p p . 6 - 5 1 .
and Anchises.seeHom. 11.2 . 8 2 0 - E 2 1 G
611Li\,?
\ .9 . 1 0 . + .
250

Another foreign cult that u'as integrateclin oftlcial Roman religion via the libri
Sibt'//ittiand could be used to exemplifi'the religio-political(re)constructionof
Roman identitr'- both inrvardll' and outu'ar.llv - is the cLrltof \/enus Ervcii.ra
(PT l6). This cult u'as introduceclas ar-rexpiation follorving the Roman defeat
at Lake Trasin-rer-re, rvhich s'as ascribed to divine anger s'ith consul C.
Flaminius' )tL'glcgL')tltdL',t('t'ttnt))tiLtt'tttlt
dusPiclortunqtre."')Originating on
Nlount Er1'-rin Sicily,this cult n'as adopted in Rome vhen the city built a tem
ple on the Capitoline. Here, too. it is necessar\ito consider the historical con-
text in order to understand the introduction of this cult. its s1'ncretisticlbrm,
and its identitr'-constructingfunction.
The sources shou' that lvlount Ervx u'as a proninent religious and
militarv/political locationo;; 1161belonged to the Carthaginianslrom the late litth
centurvBConu'ards.The stronglr'lortifiedtemple cornplexr.s+ becamea particu-
larlv irnportant strategic prositior-r
for the Roman troops seeking to take the area
in 211 BC uncler the leadership c-,fconsul L. Junius Pullus. Hamilcar, hos'er,er.
recaptured Ery'x, sparking an orlgoing struggle to regain the area until the deci-
sir,eRcrmanvicton' in212/11gg,c;; 2f1sprvhich Sicilv became a Roman province.
Polvbius provic'leseviclerrce of the Romans'earlicstencountersrvith the cult,
describing the tenrple of Eryx as Sicill"s richest and most magnificenl.{,5t'
Diodorus also olfers certain informatior-rthat shedslight on the acculturation
process and the cluestion of Roman identitt', This ir-rtbrmation testifies to
Roman participation in the cult and the Senate'selTortsto adapt to customs
that u,ere rathef unusual u'hen compared u'ith normal Ron-ranpractices.
Accorclingto Diodorus. Roman consuls.praetors.and other magistratesactive-
ly took part in the Er.vxcult not onlv b1'making traclitionalsacrificesand offer-
ings, but also b1' "indulging in pleasuresand dealinssu'ith u'omen u'ith much
frivolousness,becausethel' belier.ethat onl1'b1'doingso could thev ensurethat
their presencepleased the goddess,"t';;ffiis is doubtless a relerence to the
comrnon practice of ritr-ralprostitution linked to the temple of Eryx.r';sBesides
briefing his readerson this highlv agreeableform of cross-culturalintercourse.
Diodorus establishesthe great religious and militarf importance of the placc-

o:l f1a1 ll.9.l: O Fahtts .\ldtintt,lir'1,tlr,r t/i'r;lu tTtrtttlte n,t7:.tlr,tltttuit:iit tot'ttlctsrntlir. th l:'
O|!1/sCt!/iet/oc.tttsst'tpdlrespltt:tltg|egt'ltlt|dCier||/lUilnn||//
ll,t Peccnt//il/,tC. Fl,tiltitit. coil\illc'e\\(. tlitne4ia pltt-ulrt trrt'Jt'tttti t'ssent ipsosJeos rrtsuleutlos t':t,
p(,rf1c.itr|t'.|/|O|t|/O1/lft)]|edec,'r,tllttr.tiistt.ttltt
,tcli re I rrbt'rt'n I r r.
6 t i ' f h u c . ( r . 2 . 1H: e r o r l o r u s5 . l l J 5 r D i o d . S i c . l - i . 8 0 . 6 lrJ . - l E :1 1 . 5 5 . 71; 5 . 7 1 . 22:( 1 . 1 0 . 1 .
{'t+(,i. ancient coins depicting the tenrple oi Ervx and cheencrrclingrvall: Babelon { 1E85) vol. 1. 1'
) / b . 1 \ ( r1 .
t ' t i D i o c l .S i c . 2 - 1 . 1 . 121-11:. ' ) - l ( P
) :o l v b .l . j i . i : L . i E . 1 .
6 5 rP. o h . b .1 . 5 5 . 8 _ 9 .
n ; ' D i o d . S i c .- 1 . 8 i . 6 - 7 .c f . S t l a b o ( r . 2 . 6 .
( ' 5 \R i t u a lp r o s t i t u t i o ni s p r o b r b l v l f e , r t u r eo r i g r n a t i n gs i t h t h e P h o e n i c i a nc u l t o f A s t a r r c .l ' h i c h L .

i d e n t i f i e dr v i t h t h e l o c r l E r v x c u l t . c f . t b e P h o e n i c i a ni n s c r i p t i o n t o t h e m i s t r e s sA s t a r t ef r o m E n r
c i . L I S I t u 1 ( l ) t r p . 1 i 5 - 1 - { 0 .o l i g i n a lt r a n s l a t i o ni n t c ,I t a l i r n : L a g u n r i n a( 1 t i 7 7 iv o l . ) . P . ) 9 6 . C o n c e r n i n '
V e n r : sE r v c i n a ,c f. C I L 1 t 2 ) 2 2 2 1 : 2 2 2 2 :n d 2 2 2 ) .
 25r

u'ith evidenceof Rome'spronounced religio-politicaiinterest in the Er,vx cult.

One oi the detailsconfirn-ringthis is his subsequentirrformationthat according
to a Senatedecree,Sicill,'sseventeenmost faithful tou'ns \\'efe to make contri-
butions of gold to the goddess,and the temple \\'asto be guarded by tu,o hun-
dred soldiers.
As previousl)'mentioned, the annexationof the Venus Eri'cina cult is linkecl
to C. Flaminius'r'iolatior-r of Roman religior-rin2ll sc, u'hen he disregardedthe
unfavourableor.r'rens from the gods. Flaminius ignored unfavourable ar-rspices
and unfavour-ableprocligies:u'hen he s'as adr,ancingrvith his legions against
Hannibal, he and his horse tumbled to the ground suddenlv and for no appar-
ent reason,and a standardbearer rvascompletell'unableto mo\/e the standard.
Flaminius paiclno heeclto theseornens,and u'ithin hours he himseif u'askilled
and his armv annihilatedin the Battle of Lake Trasirnene.According to Cicero,
u'hose source u'as Coelius Antipater, r'iolent earthquakes also occurred
throughout Italy u'hile the battle s'as being fought.t';'r
Back in Rome, Quintus Fabius lv{aximus brought the issue of Flaminius'
religior-rsviolation before the Senatein216 BC,and it is notes'orth1,'thatRome's
defeat at Lake Trasimeneu'as attributerl to Flaminius' relisious infringement
rather than to any incompetenc)'on his part,66() The caseended u'ith the con-
sultation oi the libri Slbt'llini, and the expiations prescribed @T 36\ included
the construction of a temple to Ver-rusErvcirraon the Capitoline. A t,oltrtnon
the issue n'as made b.v Q, Fabius Maximus, justified b.v a re.rprttsutnfromthe
libri fdta/es indicating that the man u'hose itttperiutn in the starte\\'as qreatest
\\'asto make the L'ot//17/.The resportrtunfurther underscoresthe importar-rce of
the correlation betl'een militarv/political status and religious pou'ers and
duties. The Venus Er,vcinatemple \\.asconsecratedin f l) gc.60t

A parricularly'identity-generatingcharacteristicthat rnerits note in connection

u'ith the Ervx cult's role in official Roman religion is the link betu'een the
Aeneaslegend and Venr:s Er,vcinaas a cultic figure u'ho corlld be mvtl-ricallv
establishedas the origir-ralancestressof thc-Roman people.('(-2 Her plorninent
position in the religious centre on the Capitoline may have been intended to
highlight this aspect,and at an),rate it shou'e'dthat Venus Er1'cina(like N{agna
Mater) \\'as not regarded as a t1,'picalintroduction of a foreigr-rcult, since sucl-r
cults n'ere generalll'relegatedto the areaoutside the pomerium.
With the incorporation of the Ervx cult into official Roman religion, the
stateacceptedan alreadi'syncretisticcult that held considerableimpoltance in

6 j ' )C i c . D 1 r . 1 . 7 7 :P l u t . \ ' l t . F a b , \ I d - t 1 . 2 :c f . L i v r 2 2 . 1 - 7 f b L a d c s c r i p t i o no f t h e b a t t l e .
b o O L i v v 2 2 . 9 . ; ' P l uIt' .z l .F r h . , \ 1 d x' .l . l : c f . C i c e r o s r e n r a r k o n t h c d e a t h o i t h e g e n e r r r l s P C l a r , r c l i u s .
Itrr-rius, and C. Fhminius in Cic. N,zl.D.2.8: Qtrr,rtrn estto tnte/legipo/e\t eontlr tnperlls rentpub/r'cdtu
J ' , t I I t I t , ,. t ) ' / , 1 t r, i. I r . r , , , t r h lr,,!,t ; t / \ \ tt t I
6 6 rL r \ a 2 2 . 1 0l l l t 2 1 . 1 0 . 1 3 - l 12r1 . 1 1 . ' . t
(r6iDiod. Sic..l.,Si.i: Or'. F,r.v.-l.E76rAccording to Tluc. 6.2.1.Errx tas forurdedbv the Elvnrians.a
tojan peoplervho hrcl settledirr Sicrlr.cf. \'erg. r1rri. i.75c)-60.rvhich presentsAeneasas the tbunder oi
l r :l a l i n s k v ( 1 9 ( r 9 ) : G r u e n ( 1 9 912-)lp- 1. 5 .
r h e r e m l . l c o f E r v rc:i . L . r t t e L l c ) ( r 7 ) p1p8.1 l 8 t ' :S c h i l l i n g t l 9 5 - C
2t2

the Sicilian region. Its incorporation led to the associarionberri'een \/enus

Ervcina and the Aeneaslegencl.both being central elenents in legitimizir-rg the
adoption of a fbreign cult. anc'lin (re)constructingRoman identitlr
Some veiirsl?lter,a reinterfrretrltionivas made of the extensiverituai prosti-
tution linked to the cLrltolr Nlounr Er1'x:in another version of the cuit in Rome,
\renus Ervcina became the dertv of the cit1"sprostitutes.The temple of this
\tenus Er1'cinacult u'as buiit in 181 sc not far from the Porta Collinami - in
other n.ords, tl-ristenple u'as located outside th,epoutartutz. \\/e do not specif-
icallv knol'u'hv the templc t'as built, nor do u'e have anv testimonv of actual
ritual prostitution in connection s.ith the Roman cult. There neverrheless
seemsto be little dor-rbtthat the liturrl prostitution originally'associatedu'ith
the En'r cult is u'hat linked rhis partrcular Venus Ervcina culr near the Porta
Collina n'ith Rome's nteretrit'es.or.'l ,\1 an\r rAre ir is especialh'notable l'ith
respectto the construction of Rornan identitv that Venus Ervcina as the origi-
nal ancestressis situateds'ithin the porrtt'riur;2, u'hile in her crrpacitvas protec-
tressof the prostitutes.she is situatedoutside ir.
All in all, the adoption of the Eryx cult into otficial Roman religion in the
guiseof \tenus Ervcina indicatesan elementof intentionaiidentitv consrrucrion
that had a bearing on Rome'sreligio-politicaland rrilitarv profile.
What occasionedthe introcluction of the cult u'as a combiniltion of serious
disturbances in the pox t/eorum and a severe militarv defeat.This provides
examples of irnportant sanctionstbr rlilitarl' ancl reliuio-political action rhat
disregardntos tudlortrrzr and causeimmediate violation of the prr.vtleorum.The
militarv histor,vand significanceof the E,rvx cult therelore cAme to hold par-
ticular relevancetbr the expirrtionof the eventsthat took place in 2I7 Bc.
At the same tinre tl-reinnovatior-rof the Ervx cult could be legitimated bv
means of t.ving the legend of Aeneas ir-ru'ith Venus En,cina, lbllorving the tra-
dition of Venus as the original ancestressof the Roman people.
As u'as the caseu'hen the Nlagna N,latercult u'as established,tl-risneu' culr
also linkecl the profane and sacreclspheres.as s'ell as linking a mvthical past
(Aeneasand Venus Ervcina) u'ith present reiigio-politicalinterests(the prodi-
gies and their expiations, and the legitirnizationc'rfRome's relations to Sicilv)
and the futlrre (the restolation and m.lintenance of the pa.r tleey11717, meaning
the u'elfareof Roman societr.).
The adoption of the Er1'x cult into official Rornan religion could therefbre
be seenin the light of the Senlte'sreligio-politicalinterestin cr-rltically and "his
toricalll"' linking Sicilv and the En'x cult l'ith Rome, r,rsingthis to jtrstifv their
assumedinterdependence,
L-r short, public portents sened to legitimize the introduction of the Venus
Er1'cinacult on the Capitoline. This representsa manifestationand consolida-
tion of Roman po\\'er and a religio-political,identitv-relateddocumentarionoi
S i c i l r ' ss t a t u sa s a R o m a n p r o v i n c e .

6 6 rL i \ . \ ,J 0 . ' l J .
6 6 rO \ ' . F . / . r l- l . E 6 i - E 7 6 :r e t / t t ' i r tr r t t , , r t ti - 1 9 :S t r a b o( . . 2 . ( r
 25)

Another note\\'orthvexampie of hou' Roman identitr.u'asassertedby meansof

public portents \\'asthe ritual sacrificingof Greeks and Gauls that took place
in connectionrvith prodigl'expiations IPT )2,18, and 106).These lir,e burials
at tl-reForuur Boariurn have fr-equenth'beer-rthe subject of scholar]vdebate.So
iar r-roone has been able to present a satisfacton'religio-politicalexplanation
for them,b6tand this stuc11'u'ill contribute no further attenpts in that direction,
It seemssensibleto link the sacrificesto militarv threats (as CassiusDio does,
cf. PT 32). but the issueis shroudeclin uncertaintl',and Rome does rlot seerr
at anv tinre to have be.r threatened bv Gauls and Greeks simultaneouslr,l
Certain sources allude to a conlrection betu'een the sacrificesand prodigies
irrvolr'irrgthe ittt'estttutof Vestal\/irgins (PT l8 and 106), u'ho are also buried
alive as punishment.cr,tJhq ke1'element in both situationsis tlrat the fbuncla
tion and continuit)'of the Roman rt'spttbltc,L,and thereby'Rolnarridentity, is
seriousll' jeopardizeclb1' Vestal Virgins comr.nittingittcesttrtttand b1, threats
f r o n t e r t e r n , r ]e n e n r i c s .

Asserting Rorlan identitf is aiso rr significant issue in the above-menrioned

Bacchanaliaaffair of 18(r tst-,as u'ell as in the Senare decreesbanning the
Chaldaeans(119 ec) and the Greek philosophers and rhetors {1(-'1st.) fron-r
fton1s.rrtr7 Although the ex,rct circumstlnces remain unclear. this must l-rave
been a matter of clemonstratingancl reinforcing Roman tradition ar-rdidentitv
rather than svstematicalh'attempting expulsion - at least s'hen it came to the
philosophersand rl.retorsu'ho convergedon Rome in increasingnumbers, par-
ticularlv after the N,lacedonianWars. At ail events,the measurehardlv targeted
the man1,Greek philosophers and teachersu'ho ,.verepri'.'areh'employed in
Rome. N{oreoverit seernsclear that there s,as no u'idesprerrdor deep aversion
to the Greek philosophers:just six vears later, three of Greece'smosr promi-
nent philosophersr,ns \\'ere sent as envovs frorn Athens to the Senate in Ron-re.
f'his rvould hardlv have been a q'ise move if Rorne u'ere officialh', consistently,
e n t i r e h o p p o s e dt o C l e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s . ' ' " "

A final example of the internal sanctior-rs

and consolidationof Roman norms
and behaviour - in this casein relation to feminine cost/ttrs- is found in the
introduction of the Venus Verticordia cult,
The sourceson Venus Verticordia must be consideredin the light of trvo dif
ferent cultic e\rents: the consecration oi a s/tuu/dcrtttzzto Venus Verricordia
around the tirr-reof the SecondPunic lVar, and the consecrationof a temple to

( ' ( 'C
j f . C i c h o r i u sr l c ) 2 2 ) p p . 7 - 1 0H: o f i r l a r r n( l 9 l l l p . 2 6 i f . :
L . , r t trel c X r Opl p . 2 t 6 - 2 1t . B k c h r 1 g 6 ; t
p p . 1 0 1 - l 0 i : B r i q u e lt 1 9 , ! 1 )B: e a l de t r l . 1 1 9 9 8 )r r r l .I . p p . 8 0 - 8 2 .
t't'oAlthough not at the t'onur lr,,rrttrtl. but rt the Li/l[)t/\ \(c/('tnttt\,
o o ;C t . ( l e l l . , \ r l 1 j . 1 1 ; L i n P e r :l - l ; \ ' a l . ; \ l a r . 1 . i . 1 . A c c o r d i n gt o a S e n a t cd e c r e - er .u ' o E p i c u r e a n
p h i l o s o p b e r lsc r e a i s ob a r . r i s h ci cnl 1 7 - ll o r 1 ) - l ) B L lb. u t t h c r e a s o nr e n t d i n sL l t k n o \ \ ' n ; A t h .1 2 . 5 - l 7 a : A e l .
\ ' I J 9 . 1 2 r( l l u e n { 1 9 9 ( )p) p . 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 .
t ' t ' sI i p g e n e s t l r . -S r o i c .( ] a r n e a . l e tsh t ' A c i r . l e n r i cr.n t l ( i n r o l a r r st h e P t ' r i p a r e t i c .
( ' 6 'D ) e s p i t eC , r r o ' sh o s t i l eb e h r t i o r r t ' o ut h i s o c c r s i o n .
c i . G r u e n l l ! ) c ) 0 )p p . I I J - 1 7 1 : ( - i c . I r r r r - 1 . i .
t)4

her in 11-{ sc. \ilhether there \\.as anv cultic connection bets'een situtr/acrurn
and temple is unknou'n, as the literarv evidenceon theseeventsis verv limited.
What is significantin this connection,hou'ever,is that accordingto Valerius
lVlaximus,t;trduring the Second Punic Vlar the Senate addressed the Xuiri
regarding the imptrt/icittn of certain Roman \\'omen. The ltbri Stbt'lltni tt,ere
consulted,and a decisionu'as made to consecratea statuein honour of Venus
Verticordia u'ith a vieu'to turning the minds of the Roman \\'omen, "a libldine
ttl pudtcitidtzz",as Valerius Nlaxirnusput it. Unfortunatelv the sourcesdo not
touch upon the specilic circumstancessurrounding the introduction of the
cult, but as it turned out, the problem resurfacedabout a centurv later.

Basedon the different analy,ses in the preceding chapters,and on this chapter's

empirical examples,Roman dir.inationand public portents seem,from a theo-
retical,sociologicalperspective.to have been an identitv-generatinginstitution
dealing rvith religio-politicalmatters relevant to the state'sdomestic and for-
eign policy lv{ore detailed examinationsin this studv have found further that
this identitl'(re)construction had a dual function. Not onlr,did the interaction
of public portents u'ith Roman societl' serve internalll' as a factor that pre-
sen,ed traditional values and u'as used to ensure and maintain social balance.
and to assertRoman identitv in accordancervith tuosmdtorutz.Public portents
and divination also lunctioned externallv as a dvnamic factor used to help
incorporate and consoiidateforeign cults ar-rdpromote Rome'spolicl' of expan-
sion. It should be noted, hou'ever, that the "innovations" did not tvpicailv
involr,e replacing old ideas u'ith neu' ones. The integration of neu. cults u.as
handled in an ongoing processin u'hich. r'ia interpretationsin the present,the
institution of dir,inationreconstructedthe past anes'u'ith a vieu. to the future,
From the perspectiveof identitr'.the stresshvpothesestreated earlier in this
study are relevantin the ser-rse that particularlv difficult and violent times can
make it extraordin:rrilvnecessarvto (re)createand establisha social identitr'.
Nevertheiess.crisisand stresshl.pothesesdo not constitutean adequateexpla-
nation. as a number of other situationscan also call for the assertionof a reli-
gio-political ider-rtit1'.
Exarnples alreadr.'mentioned include acculturation scc-
narios, both peacefuland hostile.
Thus, the identitv h1'pothesispresented in this chapter makes for greatcr
coherencein the sources:unlike the stressh1'pothesis,it explains such factors
as the taking 1'ear-rour-rdof porter-rtsto guaranteeand iegitimizevarious social.
religious, political, and militan' situations.It explains the manv conrinuolrs.
annually'recurring prodigies and expiations that also took place in times of
peace and \\'ere sorretimes reported from non-Roman territories. Finallr.

6i') \ral. NIax. E.15.12: ,\ltrito L'tr)n///i cotTtlt('ntortttioni Strlprcfu Ser. P,ttcrctrll .ftltd. Q. Fu/L.i L
ttror.,tt{lct:/ttr't|||tte.Ct//)/st'tt,ttttsltbrtsSt1lt//t'ttspe,Jcct'lltt.lrostttspt'c1lsct,ttsttt:ssel
sirnttltcrttn
dt'xrltltnthttst)]d1rOi1!(e||1|1||/'(,\L.c'1|tt||//d1ttt.1)ldt'censor|t,Jttc./dt'Jt'sattt.tttsttltl
.r.nl. L'ut/Llts tit.slttdteprael,ttrL erl. Cf. Solin. 1.12(r.
 255

applving the identitv h1'pothesisunco\/ers a rnechanisln that fuifilled Roman

societr"sdemand for socialorder, stabiltl', and continuit\,- a demand that also
prevailecloutside tin-reso[ crisis. In this light, divination and public portents
\\'ere part of an aptr-raratusthat guaranteedRoman norms, r'aiues,and actions,
and indeed the continuitl' oi Ron-iansocietf itseif.
A final conclusion,once again based on empirical e.xarnples and the identi-
ty hvpothesis, is that the acculturation processesnot onll' pla,veda role in
changingRoman religion bv adding nes'elements.but also thres'Roman iden-
titf into relief. This becornesevident, fol instance,ir an examination of the
Magna lVlater cult's introduction into Rome: on the one hand, the cult u'as
adopted and incorporated at the highest official level. rvhile on the other, the
Senatesought to curb the cult b1'limiting Rornan participation in its originally
Pl-rr1'gianrituais.
A similar approach is fcrund in Rome'sadoption of the Venus Erycina cult,
u'ith a temple on the Capitoline on the one hand, and the non-inclusionof the
Ert,x cult's rituai prostitution on the other. Here. hou'ever.\\'e also seea sort of
reinterpretation in connection s'ith the introduction of an alternativeVenus
Ervcina cult for Rorle's prostitutes.
In closing,I believe tl-ratdir,ination and public portents could and did plav
an important roie in demonstrationsof po\\'er and assertior-r of Roman identity
in connection rvith the Senate'svarious religio political decisionsand controls
concerningfbreign intluenceson Roman religion. This aspectmust be legartl-
ed as a significantpalt of the acculturationthat unfolded in Roman societl'.The
processesoi acculturationrrresometimessimplified and misrepresentedas pas-
sivelr.'receptir,eand stricth,'"positive" assimilation.
In connection rvith such misrepresentations,scholars sometimes tend to
emphasizea deteriorationor a decline in the importance of Roman religion in
the l:rter I'errs of the Republic.(';rA detailed examination of the substantial
efforts (and pages)scholarshave devoted to this topic u'ould be far too exten-
sive to be inciuded in the present stud-v.Even so, it is noteu'orth.vthat sources
like the prodig,vlists seem to contain little or no convincing evidenceto back
the common perception of Roman religion'sqlgmi5s.bTl
Despite the minor decreaseir-rthe r-rumberof public prodigies, and despite
Lirry'sand Cicero'sremarks on, and complaints about, the u'aning significance
of pubiic portents,6/j the conclusionbasedon the manv exalnl)lesin this study
is that the institution of public portents does not seemto have deterioratedsig-
nificar-rtlydurir-rgthe Late Republic.n;+Thus. u'hen it comes to divination and

t ; t f i . s f i l ss r u d v .c h a p t e rL F o r o t h e r v i c u ' s ,h o l e v e r , s e eL- i e b e s c h r . r ert1z9 7 9 ) R

: o s c n b e l g e (r 1 9 9 E )
c h a p r e rI \ ' : B e r r d e t , r / . t 1 9 c l E t .
6;r cf, PT 80_150.
6;iL.i\\'{l.li.l:Cic.Dir, 1.21:Cic,N'rt.D.2.9r(iic.Llg.2,2i.,{lthoughLirr'.Crcelo.andothelspoinr
oul thiu somr of thr public i)ortentshave l.all.n into obscuritl. as erplained earlierthev did passon trag-
oi public porteutsasit operatedthroughout the Re;rublic.
menls that clirrifi tbe otTrcialRoman rr.rstitutior.r
L';'lPlirl\' does. hou'ever. give a goocl esanrple of horv certain ide'asrelating to public poftents
changed.cf. Plin. 11I 7.)1: Olt'ntiltlrog\'n()! rordtos (l t:npro,llgttshrlrtl,ts.ttttrtt'terutr'ult'ltuts.
256

public portents, the deterioration so ollen mentioned b1' modern scholars

should be seen as more of a transformation. This transformation did not
become clearuntil the beginning of the Roman Empire, a period that u'itnessed
a shift from public portents - relevant to societv as a rvhole - to private (and,
increasingly,favourable)portents - relevantto the emperor'spersonallif'e and
situation.The transformarionwas contingentupon the existenceof a neu'polit-
ical order, manifested in the changeover from one lorm of llo\/ernment to
another, the shift from Republic to Empire. Unfortunatel,v,hou'ever, the vari-
ous perspectivesthis era offers for studf ing portents and their significanceto
Roman identin' and religio-politics fall outside the scope of this s'ork and u'ill
have to be oursued elseu'here.