Metal Casting processes

3.1 Introduction of casting process:

Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques. A metal casting
may be defined as a metal object produced by pouring molten metal into mold
containing a cavity which has the desired shape of casting, allowing the molten
metal to solidify in the cavity, and then removing the casting. The solidified object is
called casting and the process is called founding or casting process. (Fig.1)
Simplified flow diagram of the basic operations for producing a steel casting

Fig. 1

The important factors in casting process are:

1. The flow of molten metal into mold cavity.
2. Solidification of metal from its molten state
3. Heat transfer during solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold
4. Influence of type of the mold
3.2 Advantages of casting processes
1. Casting can produce complex shapes and can incorporate internal cavities or
hollow sections.
2. Very large parts can be produced in one piece.
3. Casting can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by
other means.
4. The casting process can be economically competitive with other
manufacturing processes.
3.3 Good or sound casting producing
Producing a good or sound casting requires a design effort to:
 Create a gating system (which consist from: pouring basin , sprue, and runner)
to bring molten metal into the mold cavity
 Provide a riser (feeder) which is a reservoir to feed molten metal to the casting
as it solidifies to prevent internal and external shrinkage in the casting. The
riser may have to provide up to 5-7% by volume for the casting as it solidifies.
The risers should be designed keeping the following in mind (1- the metal in
the riser should solidify in the end of the process .2- the riser volume should
be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage in the casting.
 Control heat flow , in order to make the last liquid to solidify is in the riser
 Control the rate of heat flow so as to control the nature of the solidified product
(microstructure , mechanical properties)

3.4 Significance of fluidity

Fluidity of molten metal helps in producing sound casting with fewer defects. It fills
not only the mold cavity completely and rapidly but does not allow also any casting
defect like “misrun” to occur in the cast object. Pouring of molten metal properly at
correct temperature plays a significant role in producing sound castings. The gating
system performs the function to introduce clean metal into mold cavity in a manner
as free of turbulence as possible. To produce sound casting gate must also be
designed to completely fill the mold cavity for preventing casting defect such as
misruns and to promote feeding for establishing proper temperature gradients.
Prevent casting defect such as misruns without use of excessively high pouring
temperatures is still largely a matter of experience. To fill the complicated castings
sections completely, flow rates must be high but not so high as to cause turbulence.
It is noted that metal temperature may affect the ability of molten alloy to fill the
mold, this effect is metal fluidity. Often, it is desirable to check metal fluidity before
pouring using fluidity test. Fig. 2 illustrates a standard fluidity spiral test widely used
for cast steel.

Fig.2
“Fluidity” of an alloy is rated as a distance, in inches, that the metal runs in the spiral
channel. Fluidity tests, in which metal from the furnace is poured by controlled
vacuum into a flow channel of suitable size, are very useful, since temperature
(super-heat) is the most Significant single variable influencing the ability of molten
metal to fill mold. This test is an accurate indicator of temperature. The use of
simple, spiral test, made in green sand on a core poured by ladle from electric
furnace steel melting where temperature measurement is costly and inconvenient.
The fluidity test is same times less needed except as a research tool, for the lower
melting point metals. In small casting work, pouring is done by means of ladles and
crucibles.

3.5 classification of casting processes:

Foundry processes can be classified based on whether the molds are permanent or
expendable. Similarly, Sub-classifications can be developed from patterns, that is,
whether or not the patterns are expendable. A second Sub-classification can be
based on the type of bond used to make the mold. For permanent molding,
processes can be classified by the type of mechanism used to fill the mold. Below
one possible classification system for the molding and casting processes.
Permanent pattern, expendable pattern, and permanent mold processes, are
summarized below:
Expendable Mold Processes
 Permanent patterns 1. Sand casting
2. Shell-mold-casting
3. Plaster-mold-casting
4. Ceramic-mold-casting
5. Vacuum casting

 Expendable patterns (1) Expendable- pattern-casting(lost foam)

(2) investment casting(lost- Wax process)

Permanent Mold Processes

A. Slush casting D. Centrifugal casting
B. Pressure casting iv) Vertical centrifugal casting
C. Die casting v)Horizontal centrifugal casting
i) High-pressure die casting E. Squeeze casting
ii) Low-pressure die casting F. Semisolid metal casting (rheocasting)
iii) Gravity die casting (permanent G. Casting technique for single- crystal
mold)(a) components
H. Rapid solidification
3.6 sand casting molds:
Sand casting is by far the most important casting process. A sand-casting mold will
be used to describe the basic features of a mold. Many of these features and terms
are common to the molds used in other casting processes. Figure 3 shows the
cross-sectional view of a typical sand-casting mold, indicating some of the
terminology. The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag. The cope is the upper
half of the mold, and the drag is the bottom half. These two mold parts are
contained in a box, called a flask, which is also divided into two halves, one for the
cope and the other for the drag. The two halves of the mold separate at the parting
line. In sand casting (and other expendable-mold processes) the mold cavity is
formed by means of a pattern, which is made of wood, metal, plastic, or other
material and has the shape of the part to be cast. The cavity is formed by packing
sand around the pattern, about half each in the cope and drag, so that when the
pattern is removed, the remaining void has the desired shape of the cast part. The
pattern is usually made oversized to allow for shrinkage of the metal as it solidifies
and cools .The sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain its
shape. The cavity in the mold provides the external surfaces of the cast part. In
addition, a casting may have internal surfaces. These surfaces are determined by
means of a core, a form placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry
of the part. In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand, although other
materials can be used, such as metals, plaster, and ceramics. The gating system
in a casting mold is the channel, or network of channels, by which molten metal
flows into the cavity from outside the mold. As shown in the figure, the gating system
typically consists of a down sprue (also called simply the sprue), through which the
metal enters a runner that leads into the main cavity. At the top of the down sprue,
a pouring cup (pouring basin) is often used to minimize splash and turbulence as
the metal flows into the down sprue. It is shown in our diagram as a simple cone-
shaped funnel. Some pouring cups are designed in the shape of a bowl, with an
open channel leading to the down sprue. In addition to the gating system, any
casting in which shrinkage is significant requires a riser connected to the main
cavity. The riser is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid metal for
the casting to compensate for shrinkage during solidification .The riser must be
designed to freeze after the main casting in order to satisfy its function. As the metal
flows into the mold, the air that previously occupied the cavity, as well as hot gases
formed by reactions of the molten metal, must be evacuated so that the metal will
completely fill the empty space. In sand casting, for example, the natural porosity of
the sand mold permits the air and gases to escape through the walls of the cavity. In
permanent metal molds,
small vent holes are drilled
into the mold or machined
into the parting line to permit
removal of air and gases.

Fig 3
 Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold
is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it
is referred to by various names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope -
upper molding flask, cheek - intermediate molding flask used in three piece
molding.
 Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made
with the help of pattern.
 Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that
makes up the mold.
 Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is
used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
 Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which
the molten metal is poured.
 Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin,
reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the
mold.
 Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue
to the gate.
 Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
 Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to
take care of its own weight.
 Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it
shrinks and solidifies. Also known as feed head.
 Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
 Chill: in casting, a metallic chills are used in order to provide progressive
solidification or to avoid the shrinkage cavities fig 4.

Metal chill

Shrinkage
cavity

Fig 4
3.7The properties that required in molding materials are:

1. Refractoriness: it is the ability of molding material to withstand the high

temperature of molten metal.
2. Green strength: it is refers to the stress required to rupture the sand
specimen under compressive loading
3. Permeability: is the property of molding sand which enable air or gas to
escape through the sand.

3.8 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF POURING

There are several relationships that govern the flow of liquid metal through the
gating system and into the mold. An important relationship is Bernoulli’s theorem,
which states that the sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetic, and friction) at
any two points in a flowing liquid are equal. This can be written in the following form:

(3.1)

where h:head, cm (in), p:pressure on the liquid, N/cm2 (lb/ in2); ρ : density; g/cm3
(lbm/in3); v = flow velocity; cm/s ً(in/sec); g = gravitational acceleration constant,
981 cm/s/s (32.2x12= 386 in/sec/sec); and F= head losses due to friction, cm (in).
Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate any two locations in the liquid flow. Bernoulli’s equation
can be simplified in several ways. If we ignore friction losses (to be sure, friction will
affect the liquid flow through a sand mold), and assume that the system remains at
atmospheric pressure throughout, then the equation can be reduced to
(3.2)

This can be used to determine the velocity of the molten metal at the base of the
sprue. Let us define point 1 at the top of the sprue and point 2 at its base. If point 2
is used as the reference plane, then the head at that point is zero (h2 = 0) and h1 is
the height (length) of the sprue. When the metal is poured into the pouring cup and
overflows down the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is zero (v1 = 0). Hence, Eq.
(3.2) further simplifies to

(3.3)

Where v=the velocity of the liquid metal at the base of the sprue, cm/s (in/sec);
g=981 cm/s/s (386 in/sec/sec); and h = the height of the sprue, cm (in). Another
relationship of importance during pouring is the continuity law, which states that the
volume rate of flow remains constant throughout the liquid. The volume flow rate is
equal to the velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the flowing liquid. The
continuity law can be expressed:
 (3.4)

Where Q = volumetric flow rate, cm3/s (in3/sec); v = velocity as before; A = cross

sectional area of the liquid, cm2 (in2); and the subscripts refer to any two points in
the flow system. Thus, an increase in area results in a decrease in velocity, and vice
versa.
Assuming that the runner from the sprue base to the mold cavity is horizontal (and
therefore the head h is the same as at the sprue base), then the volume rate of flow
through the gate and into the mold cavity remains equal to vA at the base.
Accordingly, we can estimate the time required to fill a mold cavity of volume V as

T= V/Q or V/ A.v (3.5)

Where T=mold filling time, s (sec); V=volume of mold cavity, cm3 (in3); and
Q= volume flow rate, A= cross- sectional area of gate (area of sprue base or choke
area), v= velocity of liquid metal at the gate, as before. The mold filling time
computed by Eq. (3.5) must be considered a minimum time. This is because the
analysis ignores friction losses and possible constriction of flow in the gating system;
thus, the mold filling time will be longer than what is given by Eq. (3.5). we an
calculate the area from:

A = W/Cρt√2gh (3.6)

Where W = casting weight, C= flow efficiency factor (0.4-0.9) for various systems,
ρ= density of the metal, t= pouring time

Example1:

1560 cm3 at this flow rate

:
Example2:
A mould 60cm x 30 cm x 16 cm is to be filled by liquid metal during sand casting
process the sprue head 16 cm. Determine the time taken to fill up the mold cavity?
(The cross-sectional area of gate is 6 cm2)

Solution:
L = length of mould =60 cm
b =width
t = thickness of mould
v = volume of mould
=60x30x16
=28800 cm3
A= area of gate =6 cm2
H = head =16 cm

Vg= velocity of liquid metal of gate

=√2gh
= √2x981x16
= 177.2 cm/sec
T =time taken to fill up the mould
=

= 27 sec

Sprue can be of circular or rectangular cross-section.it is tapered downwards to

avoid aspiration of air. The cross –sectional area of the bottom is usually the choke
area A .therefore the area at the top A1 can be calculated from a sprue taper
formula:
(3.7)
Where A=is the choke area, h= height of metal from top of the pouring basin to the
bottom of the sprue, and h1 =is the height from the top of the pouring basin to the
top of the sprue

A1 h1

A
 Example 3:
A sprue is 12 in. long and has a diameter of 5 in. at the top, where the metal is
poured. The molten metal level in the pouring basin is taken as 3 in. from the top of
the sprue for design purposes. If a flow rate of 40 in3/s is to be achieved, what
should be the diameter of the bottom of the sprue? Will the sprue aspirate? Explain.
Assuming the flow is frictionless, the velocity of the molten metal at the bottom of the
sprue (h = 12 in. = 1 ft) is

For a circular runner, the diameter would then be 0.73 in., or roughly 3/4 in.
Compare this to the diameter at the bottom of the sprue based on Eq. (3.7), where
h1 = 3 in., h = 15 in., and A1 = 19.6 in2. The diameter at the bottom of the sprue is
calculated from:

A= = = 8.8 in2

D= = 3.34 in2
thus, the sprue confines the flow more than is nessessary, and it will not aspirate

3.9 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

Solidification involves the transformation of the molten metal back into the solid
state. The solidification process differs depending on whether the metal is a pure
element or an alloy.
Pure Metals:
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point, which is
the same as its melting point as shown in the figure below. The melting points of
pure metals are well known and documented
Alloys:
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single temperature.
The exact range depends on the alloy system and the particular composition.

Solidification of an alloy can be explained with reference to Figure above which

shows the phase diagram for a particular alloy system and the cooling curve for a
given composition. As temperature drops, freezing begins at the temperature
indicated by the liquidus and is completed when the solidus is reached.

3.10 Solidification Time:

Whether the casting is pure metal or alloy, solidification takes time. The total
solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring. This
time is dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship
known as Chvorinov’s rule, which states:
n
Solidifiction time (T)= (3.7)
Where C = mold constant depend on mold material, metal properties and temperture,
n=exponent usually taken 2

Example4:

3.7
3.11 Defects in castings
The various defects commonly observed in castings are as follows:
Defect Causes solutions
Hot tears: these are through Abrupt sectional changes Proper directional
or surface cracks in the body and incorrect pouring solidification and even rate of
of casting,they may be temperture cooling can prevent it
straight or windig form
Open blow or blow: Low permeablitiy of sand, Sand should have proper
holes:small holes below the excessive moisture in sand, quantity od moisture
surface of casting insufficiant venting of
sand,and sand is rammed to
hard
Cold shuts or misruns:its Imporer gating system Designe proper gating system
incomplete casting results and ,damaged pattern, slow and use theof hotter metal
mould cavity not filled pouring, and poor fluidity of
completely metal
Cold shots which result from splattering Pouring procedures and
. during pouring, causing the gating system designs that
formation of solid globules avoid splattering can prevent
of metal that become this defect
entrapped in the casting.
Internal air pockets: it’s a Pouring the boiling metal or Use a proper pouring velocity
small holes inside the casting rapid pouring of the molten with proper meling
metalin the mould tempreture
Scales :they are the patches Slow running of metal, sand Proper ramming of sand and
having low permeability and proper feeding liquid metal
moisture, and uneven
ramming of sand
Shifting Core misplacement, mis Proper alignment of pattern
matching of top and bottom and moulding boxes
of casting
Warpage: undesirable Different rate of Proper desgin can reduce this
deformation in a casting solidification in different defect
sectionof the casting
Fins :thin projections of metal Moulds and cores Correct assembly of moulds
not required as a part of incorrectly assembled and cores
casting,usually at parting line
Swell : it is an enlargement of Defective ramming of sand Sand should be properly
the mould cavity by metal rammedkk
pressure
Gas porosity: Hydrogen in molten metal, Reduce hydrogen content
dissociation of water inside
mould cavity
Shrinkage porosity: cavity Non uniform solidification Proper solidification of metal
in castings of metal
3.12Shrinkage in casting
Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metals usually shrink (contract)
during solidification and while cooling to room temperature. Shrinkage, which
causes dimensional changes and sometimes warping and cracking, is the result of
the following three sequential events:

l. Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification.

2. Contraction of the metal during phase change from liquid to solid (latent heat of
fusion).
3. Contraction of the solidified metal (the casting) as its temperature drops to
ambient temperature.
Liquid contraction

Solidification contraction

Volume Solid contraction

Solidification range

TS TL
Temperature

The largest potential amount of shrinkage occurs during the cooling of the casting to
ambient temperature. Note that some metals (such as gray cast iron) expand. (The
reason is that graphite has a relatively high specific volume, and when it precipitates
as graphite flakes during solidification of the gray cast iron, it causes a net
expansion of the metal.)
3.13 risers (feeders) design
As described earlier, a riser, Figure 3, is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid
metal to the casting during freezing in order to compensate for solidification
shrinkage. To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a riser that will satisfy this
requirement. The following example illustrates the calculation.

Example5:
A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The casting itself is a
steel rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous
observations have indicated that the total solidification time (T) for this casting = 1.6
min. The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio=1.0. Determine the
dimensions of the riser so that it’s T = 2.0 min.
Solution:
First determine the V/A ratio for the plate. Its volume V = 7.5 x 12.5 x .0= 187.5 cm3,
and its surface area A= 2 (7.5 ً x 12.5 + 7.5 x 2.0 + 12.5 x 2.0) = 267.5 cm2. Given
that T = 1.6 min, we can determine the mold constant C from Eq. (3.7), using a
value of n = 2 in the equation

Next we must design the riser so that its total solidification time is 2.0 min, using the
same value of mold constant. The volume of the riser is given by
The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part and
remelted to make subsequent castings. It is desirable for the volume of metal in the
riser to be a minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to
maximize the V/A ratio, this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
Note that the volume of the riser in our example problem is V = πً4.73/4 = 81.5 cm3,
only 44% of the volume of the plate (casting), even though it’s total solidification time
is 25% longer. Risers can be designed in different forms. The design shown in
Figure below is a side riser. It is attached to the side of the casting by means of a
small channel. A top riser is one that is connected to the top surface of the casting.
Risers can be open or blind. An open riser is exposed to the outside at the top
surface of the cope. This has the disadvantage of allowing more heat to escape,
promoting faster solidification. A blind riser is entirely enclosed within the mold, as
in Figure below