Ignou CFN 1 Solved Assignment 2018 - 2019
Ignou CFN 1 Solved Assignment 2018 - 2019
Ignou CFN 1 Solved Assignment 2018 - 2019
Assignment-1 consists of two parts and is of 100 marks. The weightage given to each
part is indicated in the brackets.
a) Descriptive type question
b) Practical exercise
PART A: DESCRIPTIVE TYPE QUESTION
1) Write a short note on the followings
i) Role of protein in our body
ii) Source, function, food sources and deficiency of vitamin A
iii) Moist heat method of cooking and nutrient losses occur in these
iv) Causes of food spoilage
v) Physiological functions of food
Ans i) role of protein in our body
Protein is an important substance found in every cell in the human body. In fact, except
for water, protein is the most abundant substance in your body. This protein is
manufactured by your body utilizing the dietary protein you consume. It is used in
many vital processes and thus needs to be consistently replaced. You can accomplish
this by regularly consuming foods that contain protein.
Repair and Maintenance
Energy
Protein is a major source of energy. If you consume more protein than you need for
body tissue maintenance and other necessary functions, your body will use it for
energy. If it is not needed due to sufficient intake of other energy sources such as
carbohydrates, the protein will be used to create fat and becomes part of fat cells.
Hormones
Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones. These substances help control
body functions that involve the interaction of several organs. Insulin, a small protein, is
an example of a hormone that regulates blood sugar. It involves the interaction of
organs such as the pancreas and the liver. Secretin, is another example of a protein
hormone. This substance assists in the digestive process by stimulating the pancreas
and the intestine to create necessary digestive juices.
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body. In fact,
most of the necessary chemical reactions in the body would not efficiently proceed
without enzymes. For example, one type of enzyme functions as an aid in digesting
large protein, carbohydrate and fat molecules into smaller molecules, while another
assists the creation of DNA.
Protein is a major element in transportation of certain molecules. For example,
hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen throughout the body. Protein is also
sometimes used to store certain molecules. Ferritin is an example of a protein that
combines with iron for storage in the liver.
Antibodies
Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and disease. These proteins
identify and assist in destroying antigens such as bacteria and viruses. They often work
in conjunction with the other immune system cells. For example, these antibodies
identify and then surround antigens in order to keep them contained until they can be
destroyed by white blood cells.
Ans. ii) Source, function, food sources and deficiency of vitamin A
“Through its role with cell growth and division, vitamin A has an important role in the
normal formation and maintenance of the heart, lungs, kidneys and other vital
organs,” Dr. Sherry Ross, women’s health expert at Providence Saint John’s Health
Center in Santa Monica, California, told Live Science.
Sources
There are two types of vitamin A. Preformed vitamin A, also called retinol, is found in
animal products. Good sources are fortified milk, eggs, meat, cheese, liver, halibut fish
oil, cream and kidneys. Pro-vitamin A is found in plant-based foods such as fruits and
vegetables, according to the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). The most common
type of pro-vitamin A is beta-carotene, a carotenoid that produces dark pigments in
plant foods. Beta-carotene can be found in these brightly colored foods:
● Cantaloupe
● Pink grapefruit
● Apricots
● Carrots
● Pumpkin
● Sweet potatoes
● Winter squash
● Broccoli
Vitamin A Deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency is a major health problem that affects around one third of children
aged under five years. Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in about 250,000–500,000
children from developing countries every year and the highest prevalence is in
Southeast Asia and Africa. According to the Global Alliance for Vitamin A, several
strategies should be encouraged to help manage this problem and some of these are
described below.
● Breastfeeding should be encouraged as the only form of nourishing the new
born.
● Women in the immediate post-partum period are advised to take high-dose
supplementation.
● Vitamin a supplementation of children aged under five is encouraged.
● Vitamin A food fortification is being researched but is not currently adopted as
an approach to deficiency.
Vitamin A deficiency can be either primary or secondary. Primary deficiency is seen in
children and adults who do not consume enough foods rich in Vitamin A such as
yellow/orange fruits and vegetables (mangoes, pumpkin) or animal sources such as
liver. Babies who are weaned off breast milk too early are also at an increased risk of
Vitamin A deficiency.
Secondary vitamin A deficiency occurs as a result of gastrointestinal abnormalities that
lead to poor absorption of the vitamin available in food. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble
vitamin meaning it is absorbed after it has dissolved in fats. A low-fat diet can
therefore hinder the adequate absorption and use of vitamin A. Zinc deficiency may
also disrupt the absorption and transport of vitamin A. Other factors related to
secondary vitamin A deficiency include the abnormal production and release of bile,
chronic exposure to cigarette smoke and chronic alcoholism.
Vitamin A Functions
Vitamin A is required for several vital functions in the body. Some of the most
important functions of Vitamin A are described below.
Vision
Vitamin A is required for the maintenance of normal vision. A deficiency in vitamin A
can lead to visual disturbances. In the eyes, a form of vitamin A called retinal is
combined with a protein called opsin to give rhodopsin, an essential light absorbing
molecule needed for color vision and seeing in dim light.
Immune system
Cell growth
One form of Vitamin A, retinoic acid is, a key hormone-like growth factor for epithelial
cells and other cell types in the body.
Skin health
Retinoic acid also maintains skin health by activating genes that cause immature skin
cells to develop into mature epidermal cells. The exact mechanism behind this is
currently being researched to help develop treatments for dermatolgical diseases.
Currently, the retinoic drug isotretinoin is the most commonly prescribed agent in the
treatment of acne. This drug decreases the size of sebaceous glands and reduces their
secretions. The agent also reduces the amount of bacteria present in the ducts and
surface of the skin, which occurs as a result of reduced sebum, which bacteria rely on as
a source of nutrients.
Vitamin a food sources
ii) Moist heat method of cooking and nutrient losses occur in these
Ans
WATER AND MOIST HEAT AS MEDIUM OF COOKING
It’s the process in which heat is generated in water to enable the cooking process.
BOILING
This is done by immersing food in boiling water maintain the temperature at
100-degree Celsius till food is cooked in the water. Water is boiled due to conduction
and convection of heat. Foods that are usually cooked by boiling are rice, potato, pasta,
sage, etc. Boiling is one of the simplest methods of cooking and widely used all over the
world.
● Water which has to be used for boiling should be just sufficient since a
large quantity would leach all the nutrients
● Boil the vegetables with their skin, or cut them into big pieces which
prevent them from nutrient loss.
● Use the boiled water as stock in soups and making curries so that the
nutrient lost in the water can be conserved
● Boiling food vigorously consumes a lot of fuel and makes the food mushy,
soft and spoils its texture.
EXAMPLES
SIMMERING
Food is immersed in water and cooked in a covered pan at 98-degree Celcius. This
method is used for the food that takes long to cook like meat, fish. Especially used for
fishes as they don’t disintegrate easily while cooking.
● Should not rush otherwise the food may break down and may turn mushy.
● It is a time and fuel consuming method.
● While simmering, heat sensitive nutrients are lost.
POACHING
Poaching is done by cooking the food item with a small amount of water at 80-85
degree Celsius. Foods which are generally poached are eggs, fruits and sometimes, even
certain types of fishes.
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHILE POACHING
● Water-soluble nutrients are lost, so one should try and use that water in
making gravies or soups.
STEWING
Stewing is done in a covered pan with a small quantity of liquid and once the liquid
reaches the boiling point the flame is set to sim mode which makes it a slow and long
process. Fruits and vegetables can be cooked by this method and no nutrient loss is
observed as 1-2 tablespoon liquid is left which is served along the food but this process
is highly time and fuel consuming.
BLANCHING
Food is blanched by immersing the food items in hot water and then cooling them under
cold water. Usually, food items that need to be frozen, for example, peas are blanched.
This process helps in preserving the natural colour of the vegetables and fruits and to
reduce the microbial load on the food.
STEAMING
Steam generates heat, this heat is used as a medium to cook and so it takes a longer
time as compared to boiling. It’s of 2 types:
● Wet-steaming: Food is cooked by being in direct contact with the steam.
For example, while cooking idlis, dhokla, dumplings this method is used.
● Dry-steaming: Food is cooked by using steam to provide heat to a utensil
in which food is being cooked, without any direct contact of food with the
steam. For example, double boiling in the case of chocolate.
PRESSURE COOKING
Food is cooked under pressure. With an increase in pressure, the temperature, also
increases. Thus, the food is cooked very fast. Actually, it is a type of steaming in which
water is boiled under high pressure, thus raising the temperature and reducing the
cooking time. The equipment used for this purpose is a pressure cooker.Foods which can
be cooked in a pressure cooker easily are pulses, rice, vegetables and meat.
Water soluble nutrients are lost in pressure cooking the food so one should use the
water in making gravies.
FRYING
SHALLOW FRYING
In this method, the oil submerges only half of the food product and then food is
browned. one has to be careful not to burn the food because the food is cooked at a fast
pace. For example, Parantha (Indian bread) is made this way.
DEEP FRYING
In this, the food item is completely immersed into hot oil in a large quantity. Foods
cooked using this method are pakoras, samosas, French fries, etc.
● Overheating and re-heating of oil for a long time can decompose it. When
oil begins to smoke, chemical breakdown of oil begins and Acrolein and
free fatty acids are formed from Glycerol. If this happens repeatedly, then
the Acrolein formed causes irritation in eyes and nostrils. This breakdown
is known as pyrolysis. so prolonged frying should be avoided. It may form
aldehydes and other by-products that are harmful to the health and may
cause cancer. Oil that has been used once shouldn’t be used again for the
same reason mentioned above.
● Use only MUFA rich oil like olive oil for cooking
● Also, never mix the used oil with fresh oil.
BRAISING
It is a combination of using moist and dry heat to cook. This method helps in retaining
the moisture or JUICE WITHIN THE FOOD PRESENT. For example, while making
Vermicelli Kheer, Vermicelli is first roasted and then cooked in simmering milk.
GRILLING AND BROILING
BAKING
The food is kept in the center of an oven and the food is cooked by radiation. It makes
the food brown, crisp and soft inside. The temperature at which food is usually
prepared is 120-250 degree celsius. Used to make cakes, cookies, vegetables, poached
eggs, sweet dishes, etc.
This process consumes a lot of electricity. Other than electric ovens, conventional oven
method or microwave ovens are also used.
MICROWAVE OVEN
It works on the principle of electromagnetic waves which are produced by power source
magnetron and are absorbed by the food.
● It is the best method for retaining the antioxidant activity in garlic and
mushrooms
● About 20-30% of vitamin c in green vegetables is lost during microwaving,
which is less than most cooking methods as less water is used.
● On the whole, it is the best method as nutrient retention is the most in this
method.
● Even enhancement of flavour and uniform cooking is seen in less time.
1. Don’t throw the water used to soak the dal and rice as it can be used to
cook food again
2. Never use soda to hasten the cooking of pulses as it destroys the nutrients
present in them especially vitamin B.
3. Boil the vegetables with peel so that nutrients are not lost.
4. One can also use the vegetables and fruits with peel to cook as they have
the most of the nutrients present in them.
5. Always cook the green leafy vegetables in an open lid for initial five
minutes as it helps to retain colour
6. Always cut the vegetables and fruits in bigger pieces as in smaller pieces,
greater the total surface area of the food exposed therefore is greater and
so is the loss of nutrients due to leaching and oxidation.
7. Do not fry and overheat the oil as Acrolein would be formed and can cause
harmful diseases like cancer.
iv) Causes of food spoilage
Ans
Causes of Food Spoilage
The food may become unacceptable due to the following factors:
a) Growth and activities of microorganisms principally bacteria, yeasts and moulds
(this is by far the most important and common cause of food
b) Activities of food enzymes (enzymatic browning is a common example);
c) Infestation by insects, parasites and rodents;
d) Chemical changes in a food (i.e. not catalyzed by enzymes of the tissues or of
microorganisms); For example: The chemical oxidation of fats producing rancidity as
well as non-enzymatic browning reactions in foods like Maillard browning.
e) Physical changes or damages such as those caused by freezing (freezer burn), by
drying (caking) etc.;
f) Presence of foreign bodies; and.
g) Contamination with chemical agents.
v) Physiological functions of food
Ans
Physiological functions of food:
Foods rich in carbohydrates and fats are called energy yielding foods. They
provide energy to sustain the involuntary processes essential for continuance of life, to
carry out various professional, household and recreational activities and to convert
food ingested into usable nutrients in the body.
The energy needed is supplied by the oxidation of foods consumed. Cereals, roots and
tubers, dried fruits, oils, butter and ghee are all good sources of energy.
Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. Milk, meat, eggs and fish are rich
in proteins of high quality. Pulses and nuts are good sources of protein but the protein
is not of high quality. These foods help to maintain life and promote growth. They also
supply energy.
Foods rich in protein, minerals and vitamins are known as protective and
regulatory foods. They are essential for health and regulate activities such as
maintenance of body temperature, muscle contraction, control of water balance,
clotting of blood, removal of waste products from the body and maintaining heartbeat.
Milk, egg, liver, fruits and vegetables are protective foods.
Food has always been the central part of our community, social, cultural and
religious life. It has been an expression of love, friendship and happiness at religious,
social and family get-togethers.
In addition to satisfying physical and social needs, foods also satisfy certain emotional
needs of human beings. These include a sense of security, love and acceptance. For
example, preparation of delicious foods for family members is a token of love and
affection.
Food Group
Bengal gram, Black gram, Green gram, Red gram, Lentil (whole as well as dhals)
Cowpea, Peas, Rajmah, Soyabeans, Beans.
Fats : Butter, Ghee, Hydrogenated oils, Cooking oils like Groundnut, Mustard,
Coconut.
2) What points would you keep in mind while selecting/purchasing the following:
a) Flesh foods
b) Spices
c) Milk
Ans a) check the colour: The colour of the meat says a lot about its freshness.
Poultry meat must be white or light pink. Check that the meat does not have a green
tinge, especially under the wings. There should not be any bruises or blood clots on the
surface. In the case of red meat, it must be bright red in appearance. If the meat is
vacuum packed, it may appear slightly brown. This is also good quality meat and will
last longer in the refrigerator.
Check the odour: Poultry meat is generally odour-free but may have a slightly meaty
odour on rare occasions. The smell of red meat is very specific to the type of meat and
there should not be any variance from the typical smell of a goat or lamb. One should
make sure there is no foul or pungent odour to any kind of fresh meat being purchased.
Prefer skinless: The skin of the meat has saturated fatty acids, which are high on
calories and can potentially increase the risk of cardiac ailments. Hence, it is always
recommended that meat is consumed after removing the skin.
Ensure food safety standards: It is absolutely essential that every packaged meat
product has a Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) certified label on it
to ensure that all food safety standards are met. This is also the primary reason why
you should avoid buying meat from a butcher shop, since there is no guarantee of food
safety.
The traceability factor: The traceability of meat and understanding how it was sourced
and bred is important to determine the quality of meat. The history and ancestry of the
animal are also significant indicators of quality. It is always advisable to check farm to
fork details on the package while buying meat, whenever the information is available.
Remember, meat is a great source of nutrition, if consumed in the right manner. Also
remember that buying the right of meat is important.
Ans b) The Look
You should look at the package and the colour of your spices. For peppercorns for
example, if they’re not bright and black, if they’re going grey and looking broken, avoid
them.
The Packaging
I prefer things that are packed in containers vs bags. It just extends their shelf life,
bags, even if they’re the best bags on the earth, they’re not 100 percent sealed to air
and air is the enemy of spices.
The Price
This is also a factor, as much as I like bargains and deals, I stay away from cheap
spices. You’re paying more because they’ve been sourced better and packaged better –
with a better quality product you should be able to use less so it all balances out.
The Smell
If you can smell the spices, you want to make sure you can actually smell something
when you put it near your nose. If there is no smell at all, this is a sign it’s too old.
Bulk
I would always stay away from the places where you can scoop up your own spices -
there are only a few places in the world where I would do it. The challenge with these
bulk places is that the spices are exposed to the air and the scoops are being mixed.
Storage
As long as it’s in a container that has a lid, it’s not exposed to humidity, no extreme
heat, no extreme cold, you will be fine.
Final Tip
If you’re lazy and you don't have the time, buy ground spices, just make sure you get
good quality and keep them rotated in the cupboard.
Ans c) 1. Choose organic
Organic, whole milk dairy products have more healthy omega-3 fats than
conventional dairy.(1) And when you’re buying organic, you can be sure no GMOs,
raised on organic farms have to pasture their cows for at least 120 days a year. That’s
good for the animals as well as your health – providing the cows with more space to
Growth Hormone (rBGH or rBST), a genetically engineered hormone that increases
milk production. If you do choose conventional dairy, look for a label that indicates
the product comes from cows not treated with rBGH or rBST (check out our Guide to
3. Choose grass-fed
Grass-fed dairy is healthier, more humane than animal factories (also known as
Despite whatever pretty picture is on the label, many of the dairy products on
supermarket shelves come from industrial mega-dairies. A good rule of thumb is to
look for farms you can actually visit, buy milk from brands that are cooperatively
5. Choose local
Buying local is important for many reasons, not just how far a product travels from
farm to consumer. By choosing dairy products from local family farms, you are
supporting your local economy in addition to cutting down on “food miles.” And
3) What do you understand by convenient foods? Explain different types of
convenient food products available in the market.
Ans Convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is food that is commercially
prepared (often through processing) to optimise ease of consumption. Such food is
usually ready to eat without further preparation. It may also be easily portable, have a
long shelf life, or offer a combination of such convenient traits. Although restaurant
meals meet this definition, the term is seldom applied to them. Convenience foods
include ready-to-eat dry products, frozen foods such as TV dinners, shelf-stable foods,
prepared mixes such as cake mix, and snack foods.
Bread, cheese, salted food and other prepared foods have been sold for thousands of
years. Other kinds were developed with improvements in food technology. Types of
convenience foods can vary by country and geographic region. Some convenience foods
have received criticism due to concerns about nutritional content and how their
packaging may increase solid waste in landfills. Various methods are used to reduce the
unhealthy aspects of commercially produced food and fight childhood obesity.
Convenience food is commercially prepared for ease of consumption. Products
designated as convenience food are often sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as
room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen food products
that require minimal preparation (typically just heating) Convenience foods have also
been described as foods that have been created to "make them more appealing to the
consumer." Convenience foods and restaurants are similar in that they save time. They
differ in that restaurant food is ready to eat, whilst convenience food usually requires
rudimentary preparation. Both typically cost more money and less time compared to
home cooking from scratch
4) Briefly explain the factors influence our acceptance of food.
Ans 6 Factors That Influence Our Food Choices
Taste
The most obvious factor that makes you choose one food over another is its taste. Food
that tastes good is understandably appealing, although what is considered tasty may
vary widely from individual to individual. Caviar, for example, is considered a rich,
delicious delicacy to those who enjoy it, while a child would probably turn up his nose.
People often tend to feel hungry for -- and thus seek out -- foods which they
subjectively find appealing.
A TV commercial extolling the virtues of a mouth-watering brand of frozen pizza may
make you want to rush out and buy one, which is exactly the hope of most advertising
executives. In fact, many food choices are heavily influenced by advertising and media
marketing specifically designed to make customers choose one food or brand of food
over another. Children, for example, are influenced by factors such as toys that come
with fast-food meals and cartoon characters promoting breakfast cereal.
Culture
Your ethnic and cultural background can play a key role in influencing your food
choices. A Mexican-American, for example, is likely to choose very different foods than
a Chinese-American would, for purely cultural reasons. Many people will gravitate
toward food they find comforting or familiar, which can differ widely from culture to
culture.
Health
Many people have an emotional connection with food, which is often tapped as a
source of comfort in times of sadness and distress. As a result, emotions often influence
food choices. Conditions such as depression, stress and anxiety can cause people to
make choices about food that they might not make in a different emotional state. Most
of the time, this leads to impulse eating, often involving unhealthy usually leading
toward less-healthy "junk" foods.
Economic Status
Your income and monetary status will heavily influence which food you decide to eat. A
person on a small fixed income is likely to look for the most inexpensive food possible.
Budget shoppers often try to make multiple recipes with the same basic family of
ingredients, and purchase less expensive prepared and canned foods. Someone for
whom money is no object is more likely to indulge in more expensive dishes or impulse
buys
PART B: Practical Exercise
1) Suggest any two food preparation made from the following products. Also list down
the ingredients and the method of preparation.
i) Jaggery
ii) Sprouted dal
iii) Khoa
iv) Bajra
I) jaggery
Jaggery is a sweetener that is made from sugarcane; it is also known as unrefined
sugar, which is prepared without the separation of molasses and crystals and is mostly
produced in India and Africa. The colour of the gur ranges from golden brown to dark
brown in colour. It is used to make several Indian desserts and is known as a healthy
replacement of sugar, primarily because it is unprocessed. It may not look very
appealing to some, but it does have various health benefits to look out for.
aggery is commonly made from sugarcane, the process follows only three steps to
prepare it.
These are extraction, clarification and concentration. We give you a detailed
explanation of how it is produced -
1. The sugarcanes are pressed through machines in order to extract all the sweet
juice or sap from them and this process is known as extraction.
2. Now, the juice is allowed to stand in large containers so that any residue or
sediment is settled at the bottom of the containers. The juice is then strained to
produce a clear liquid. This process followed is known as clarification.
3. The juice is now placed in huge flat bottomed pans and boiled for hours; this
process is known as concentration. During this process the juice is stirred
constantly.
4. While stirring, impurities are skimmed off the top until only a yellow, dough-like
thick paste remains in the pan.
5. This paste is then transferred in huge moulds where it is left to cool, until it
becomes hard and becomes what is eventually called jaggery. The colour of the
jaggery may vary from light to dark brown, depending on the quality of
sugarcane and the juice it produced.
White sugar, on the other hand, is processed many times to form tiny crystals. The
process includes crushing sugarcane to produce juice, partial purifying of the juice,
melting and filtering to remove impurities, crystallizing sugar from syrup and finally
drying of sugar crystals further making them edible.
How much jaggery should you consume in a day?
Jaggery contains carbohydrate and sugar content and is free from any chemical
processing. Hence, according to expert nutritionist Dr. Rupali Datta, you can have six
spoons of any form of sugar, be it refined or unrefined both; 10 grams of jaggery should
be enough for daily consumption.
While jaggery is a healthier more nutritious form of sugar, it is still recommended that
one should not go overboard and consume too much of it. Ensure a moderate
consumption on a daily basis to attain it various health benefits.
iii)METHODS OF PREPARATION OF KHOA
1 Introduction
Khoa is prepared by different methods depending on the location and quantity of milk
available for conversion. Khoa is manufactured by the following four basic methods viz.
traditional method, improved batch method, mechanized method and use of membrane
technology.
2 Traditional Method
Generally buffalo milk is preferred for manufacture of khoa as it results in higher yield,
smooth texture and soft body with sweet taste. Where buffalo milk is not available,
cow milk is used for khoa making but it results in pasty body and slightly saltish taste
due to higher chlorides in the product.
4 liters of buffalo milk or 5 liters of cow milk which approximately yields 1 kg khoa is
used per batch. Filtered milk is taken in a heavy bottomed wide mouth iron pan
(karahi) and boiled on a brisk non – smoky fire. An iron scraper (khunti) is used for
stirring the milk during boiling and also to scrap the milk film forming on the surface
during boiling. A rapid stirring and scrapping is carried out through out boiling to
facilitate quick and rapid evaporation of water from milk and also to prevent scorching
of milk film on surface. Due to continuous evaporation of water, the milk progressively
thickens. The researchers have observed that at 2.8 fold concentration of cow milk and
2.5 fold concentration of buffalo milk, heat denaturation of milk proteins takes place
and the proteins will not go into solution again. The heating is continued till the milk
thickens considerably and at this stage heating is reduced and speed of stirring and
scraping is increased to obtain good quality product. If the milk is subjected to high
heat treatment with less stirring and scraping at this stage it results in dark colored
khoa that does not fetch a good price in the market as white/ cream colored khoa is
preferred for sweets making.
As the concentration is progressing, the product slowly tends to leave the sides of the
pan and starts’ accumulating at the bottom and at this stage; the pan has to be
removed from the fire. The contents are worked up and the residual heat of the vessel
helps in further evaporation of moisture. The contents are transferred to the non
corrosive metal moulds and allowed to cool.
There are several limitations of this method such as:
1) Time and labor consuming
2) Large variation in quality
3) Poor keeping quality
4) Small scale production
5) Smoky smell
2.1 Production of three varieties of khoa
2.1.1 Dhap
For preparing dhap variety of khoa, the heating should be stopped at rabri stage (thick
mass) and leaving the product without much working which carry soft grains and high
moisture content.
2.1.2 Pindi
For production of pindi variety of khoa, heating is continued after rabri stage and with
the help of a wooden ladle the soft grains are crushed and the mass is worked up to a
smooth textured product. khoa is molded in to hemispherical molds to give its shape,
and allowed to cool.
2.1.3 Danedar
Generally the milk that is left over after the preparation of other varieties of khoa
during the day develops acidity which is converted into danedar variety of khoa.
Sometimes citric acid (0.05 to 0.1%) or sour whey is added to milk at boiling stage to
get granular texture.
3 Improved Batch Method
A stainless steel double jacketed, steam heated pan or kettle is used to provide greater
control on the heating process and to ensure a non smoky heating. Five liters of
standardized cow milk with 4.5% fat or four liters of standardized buffalo milk with
5.5% fat is taken per batch and milk is brought to boil in the kettle. During boiling,
bottom and the surfaces of the kettle are scraped and milk is stirred vigorously by a
stainless steel stirrer to avoid burning of milk solids. About 2 kg/cm2 pressure is used
for boiling milk. When the milk attains a rabri stage, slow heating is necessary at this
stage to prevent burning of solids on the surface, discoloration of the product,
development of burnt flavour and hard body and coarse texture. The rate of stirring
should be increased during last stages to obtain good quality product. As soon as the
product shows signs of leaving the sides of the kettle and accumulates in the centre in a
pat form, heating is stopped. It takes about 15 -20 min to prepare a batch of khoa (1 kg
approx) by this method.
As steam will not be available at village level the above method has its application
only in dairies having steam production lines. However a village level khoa pan was
developed to overcome the above problem. The set up consists of hemispherical mild
steel pan joined to a cylindrical jacket. Water is taken in the outer jacket and heated by
placing the whole unit over a Chullah. Steam is generated in the jacket and the pressure
is indicated by a gauge. The milk is taken in the steel pan and heated by the steam and
after loosing the latent heat, returns to water phase. Water in liquid and vapour form
exists in phase equilibrium at adjusted pressure because of the closed system. Good
quality khoa can be prepared in the pan from 2.5 litre milk in 8 min.
4 Mechanized Processes for Khoa Production
4.1 The first continuous khoa making machine
A continuous khoa making machine was developed which consists of a preheating
cylinder and two cascading pans. The preheater is a steam jacketed cylinder containing
rotary scrapers which rotate at 120 rpm. The cascading pans are covered steam jacketed
pans with open holes provided with spring loaded reciprocating type scrapper knives
operating at 30 strokes per min. The milk is taken into the preheater and heated by
steam at 3 kg/cm2 pressure. Here the milk is concentrated to about 30 to 35 per cent of
total solids within 10 to 12 min. From the preheater, the milk enters the first cascading
pan. Here the milk is further concentrated to about 50 to 55 per cent total solids within
7 to 8 min. The product then moves to the second cascading pan where its concentration
is raised to the desired level i.e., 65-70 percent in 6 to 7 min. The steam pressures
maintained in the two pans are 2 kg in this machine. The steam requirement is
50kg/cm2 and electric power requirement is 4 KW per hour.
4.2 Use of roller drier
A roller drying process was adopted in the preparation of khoa. Process variables such
as steam pressure, flow rate and distance between rollers and scrappers were adjusted
to get the desirable product. Vacuum concentrated milk with 50% T.S. was heated to
74ºC for 10 min to develop cooked flavour in khoa. Steam at a pressure of 25 -30 psi
and roller speed of 17-19 rpm gives good results. It was concluded that satisfactory
khoa can be prepared on drum driers using 50% T.S. vacuum concentrated milk. The
concentrate is preheated to 101 to 103ºC for 10-12 min to develop cooked flavour on
drums with steam pressure of 0.7 to 1 kg/cm2 and a roller speed of 10 rpm.
Limitations
1) Losses in the beginning is high
2) Uneven product
3) Lacks grainy texture
4) Need careful monitoring during working
5) Difficult to maintain constant steam pressure
(If more steam dried product will come and if less steam liquid product)
4.3 Use of scraped surface conical vat
Attempts have been made to use scrapped surface heat exchangers in the preparation
of khoa. A mechanized scraped surface heat exchanger with a conical vat process is
developed for the production ofkhoa. Forty kg concentrated or 80 kg whole milk can be
taken per batch which takes about 14 min and 50 min respectively. Steam pressure used
is 1.5 kg/cm2. Product losses are high in this machine.
Fig. 1 Conical vat for khoa making developed at NDRI
4.4 Contherm–Convap system
Attempts were made to prepare khoa on Contherm-Convap system which was
developed by Alfa-Laval. This unit consists of two parts, a Contherm for heating the
feed to about 95ºC and Convap for concentrating milk to desired milk solids level.
Concentrated milk with 35- 40%T.S. at the rate of 300-350 kg per hour can be fed to
the machine. The steam pressures employed are 3 kg /cm2 in Contherm and 4 kg/cm2 in
Convap.
Fig..2 Contherm–Convap system (Alfa Laval)
Limitations
1. Lacks typical khoa flavour
2. Sticky, pasty and burnt particles
3. Lacks grainy texture and uneven colour
4. Inconsistent product quality
5. High loss of milk solids in the beginning (Due to lot of adjustments required in
the initial stage of operation).
4.5 Thin film scraped surface heat exchanger (TSSHE)
A horizontal heat exchanger for khoa making was developed which consists of a hopper
to accommodate the foam and provide milk concentration under atmospheric pressure.
In this model, the steam jacket is subdivided into three parts to reduce the amount of
heating as the product moves. The scraper speed is 40 rpm and the steam pressure
maintained is 3 kg/cm2 in the first compartment which is step wise reduced to 1.5
kg/cm2 in the last compartment. The machine can convert 50 kg of milk intokhoa per
hour per batch. A continuous khoa making machine with three stage concentration has
been developed. The machine has three jacketed cylinders placed in a cascade
arrangement. This facilitates easy transfer of milk from one cylinder into the other. The
scrapper speeds are 40, 55 and 69 rpm for the first, 2nd & 3rd stage respectively. The
operating steam pressures used are 2.0 & 1.7 & 1.5 kg/cm2 in respective stages. One
roller is used in the last stage in place of scraper blade which kneads the khoa to
improve its body and texture. The first stage raises the milk solids level from initial 15
to 25 percent, the second stage to 50 percent and the third stage to 65-70 percent. The
machine converts 50 kg of milk intokhoa per hour at the operating pressures, specified.
However, the capacity depends on the milk flow rate, steam pressure, total solid
concentration of feed and final moisture required in the product. It is claimed that use
of concentrated milk improves the capacity of the machine.
4.6 Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger (ISSHE)
An inclined scraped surface heat exchange for continuous khoa making was developed.
A scraper assembly is so built as to combines the functions of scraping and conveying.
The SSHE has 3 jackets which operate at 1.0, 1.5 and 1.0 kg/cm3 respectively. Milk is
previously vacuum pre-concentrated to 40 - 55% T.S and fed at the rate of 60-80 lit/hr.
Feed temperatures between 10 – 80°C can be employed. Rotor speed used is 40 to 80
rpm. The advantages claimed by this unit are:
● Increased solids content in feed improves the colour of khoa because of
reduced residence time. It also improves the capacity of the machine.
● Increase in feed temperature enhances the production capacity of the
plant.
● By increasing rotor speed, there will be significant increase in the heat
transfer rate.
● Variation in steam pressure in separate sections of steam jacket results in
change of heat transfer rate, colour and texture of khoa due to change in
the temperature to which the milk constituents are subjected to different
stages of khoa making.
● The man power requirements are reduced.
Fig. 3 Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger (ISSHE)
(Source: NDDB)
Advantages of the ISSHE
1) As the khoa making is continuous process it is possible to maintain uniform
quality for khoat hroughout the production run.
2) There are minimum operational losses.
3) The equipment gives flexibility to change the characteristics of khoa as per the
requirement of the product formulations.
4) It is easy to go in for automation so that the entire khoa making process can be
monitored by a microprocessor.
5) The plant is suitable for ‘in place cleaning’.
6) The man power requirements are less compared to that of batch method.
7) Due to small hold up raw material in the plant at any point of time there is no
chance of whole batch getting spoiled.
8) Permits quick start up and close down.
9) Milk flows in enclosed system, thus permitting freedom from environment
contamination.
Limitations
It requires concentrated milk as a feed which is available only in organized dairies.
Hence the unit is not suitable in the situation where concentrated milk is not available.
5 Chemical Quality of Khoa
Wide variations exist in chemical quality of cow and buffalo milk khoa.
Table 1 Chemical composition of khoa
The market samples of khoa show wide variations in chemical composition. Certain
times, the market samples fail to meet the minimum legal standards. To provide
minimum legal standards in khoa, the minimum fat content of 4.4% in cow’s milk and
5.5% in buffalo milk should be maintained.
Suggested Readings
1) Punjurath, J. S., Veeranjeneyulu, H., Mathunni, M. I., Samal, S. K. and Aneja, R. P.
(1990). Inclined scraped surface heat exchanger for continuous khoa making. Indian J.
Dairy Sci. , 43(3):225-230.
2) Dharam Pal et al (TO BE ADDED)
3) Arora (TO BE ADDED)
4) Dodeja (TO BE ADDED)
5) Agrawala (TO BE ADDED)
6) S. K. Singh (TO BE ADDED
2) Observe and record the practices related to food hygiene adopted for the following
in your home.
a) Food preparation
b) Food service
c) Storage of food and water
d) Storage of leftover
e) Disposal of waste
Ans
preparing food
● Wear a clean apron.
● Wear closed-in shoes to protect your feet, in case of hot spills or breakages.
● Wash your hands before and after handling food.
● Keep food preparation surfaces clean.
● Tie back long hair.
● Store food appropriately.
● Wash vegetables and fruit under cold water before use.
● Do not run around the room where food is being prepared.
● Wipe up food spills immediately.
● Handle knives and other sharp equipment with care.
● When using a knife, always cut away from yourself or downwards on a chopping board to avoid
cutting yourself.
● Turn handles of saucepans away from the front of the stove when cooking.
● Use oven mitts when taking hot dishes from the oven or microwave.
● Wash kitchen and eating utensils after use in hot soapy water. Wash the cleanest dishes first, and
then the messiest dishes last, so you don’t have to change the dishwater as often.
It’s important to make sure that an adult is supervising children at all times in the kitchen. The adult can
help with the more difficult tasks, such as chopping vegetables, using the stove and taking hot food out of
the oven or microwave.
Involving young children
Preparing a recipe from scratch can be too tricky for some children, especially younger children. However,
they can still help with a number of simple tasks, such as:
● helping you choose what to cook.
● measuring and weighing ingredients.
● stirring food or mixing ingredients.
● washing salad vegetables.
● setting the table.
b) making sure food is safe to eat
■ making sure you don’t add to, remove from or otherwise treat food in a way that makes it
harmful to eat
■ making sure the food is the same quality that you say it is
■ making sure you don’t mislead people by the way food is labelled, advertised or
marketed
■ keeping records on where you got food from, and showing this information on demand
(known as ‘traceability’)
■ withdrawing unsafe food and completing an incident report
■ telling people why food has been withdrawn or recalled, eg. via a leaflet or poster
■ displaying your food hygiene rating (if you sell food directly to the public)
■ only using approved additives
■ only using additives that are explicitly approved for use in that food
■ ensuring the food additive volume doesn’t exceed the maximum permitted level
Ans e)
3) Name any food item associated with the following physiological conditions in your
community. Give the method of preparation, ingredients used and nutritive
significance of each of the food item.
i) Six months infant
ii) Pregnancy 8th month
iii) Postnatal period (lactating women 3 days after delivery)
Ans .
i)
Here are the nutritional components in baby food for 6 months old:
1. Calcium: Calcium in food is essential for their bone and teeth development.
2. Iron: I ron helps carry oxygenated blood to all the developing parts of the body.
5. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy and fuels their
day-to-day activities.
6. Protein: These are a must for growth as they act as building blocks for cells.
7. Vitamins: Different vitamins contribute to the growth of the baby differently,
the baby.
ii)
1. Fish
Fish contains a large amount of iron, which is important during the last months of
pregnancy. Iron deficiency results in anaemia, which can cause a feeling of general
fatigue in the mother. Fish also has other important nutrients like protein and the likes,
Red meat is another great addition to the diet of an expecting mother, as it is also a rich
accelerate the growth of the baby. Red meat can improve the general health of the
mother too, as it contains minerals which keep you from being tired or sick during
pregnancy.
3. Bananas
One of the most underrated fruits, bananas have been a great source of essential
vitamins and minerals since ancient times. Bananas are rich in potassium, calcium and
iron, making it a must-have in any woman’s diet. On top of that, they also promote
digestion and relieve constipation, increasing the comfort of the expectant mother in
great ways.
4. Dairy Products
There is a reason why dairy products are so heavily promoted among children during
their formative years- dairy products, including milk are a non-exhaustive source of
vitamins and minerals, including calcium, potassium, proteins and the likes. Consuming
dairy products during the last month of pregnancy can have a telling effect on the
5. Leafy Vegetables
constipation which occurs due to the excess weight and excess hormone secretion
during the third trimester. Leafy vegetables contain more than enough fibre, along with
Fat is also a necessity for the body during the final trimester, although many people
seem to assume otherwise. While high fats are strictly off-limits, vital fatty acids still
foetus. Other sources, like peanut butter, include eggs and fish.
7. Oranges
Apart from having large amounts of fibre, orange also contains a large amount of
to soak up the iron intake, so a deficiency can result in anaemia and fatigue in the
Foods Not to Include in the Eighth Month of Pregnancy
Diet
Here are foods that can cause harm to either you or the foetus:
1. Unpasteurized Milk
In many Indian households, unpasteurized milk directly from the cow or sheep is the
norm. This has to be strictly avoided during the third trimester of pregnancy, as the milk
is not processed enough to be deemed safe for consumption. Goat milk should be
2. Coffee
to make the drinker constipated after consumption. You can instead opt to consume
This goes without saying, but alcohol and tobacco must be avoided at any stage of the
delivery, and also have an impeding effect on the growth of the fetus inside the mother.
4. Fried Foods
Oil-fried food items are another category that you should avoid during your third
trimester of pregnancy, as they add little to your diet in terms of nutritional value. Fried
foods can also cause gastrointestinal problems, including improper digestion and
heartburn, which can be extremely uncomfortable when you are carrying a child with you.
detrimental substance called methylmercury. Methylmercury can cause complications in
the development of the nervous system of the fetus, so choose fish that have the
required nutritional value and are not too fatty for consumption.
and listeriosis in the unborn child, making it strictly off-limits for any expectant mother
7. Soft Cheese
of pregnancy. Also, cheese like the Danish Blue which has blue veins often contain
listeria, so they are also harmful to the health of the child during pregnancy. So if
mothers have a craving for cheese during the third trimester, opt for hard cheese like
● Consume only food items that add nutritional value to your diet (no more
chocolate cake!)
● Consume fluids- they are important as they prevent constipation, while also
mother and the child. So make sure to drink water between each meal and
● Do not avoid seafood as a whole- even though they may contain harmful
substances like mercury, you can still choose fish that are safe to consume
during pregnancy. Fish contains omega-3 fatty acids which are extremely
mother and also the growth of the child. Consumption of the necessary food items in
ample quantities is a must, and staying away from harmful substances like alcohol,
tobacco and drugs are also important for the health of the foetus.
iii)