Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology New Delhi

II Semester -- 2017 – 2018

MCL 241 Energy systems and Technologies

TESTING OF FUELS : FLASH AND FIRE POINT

1. Introduction
The flash and fire points of a liquid fuel specimen are the indicators of its flammability.
In general, flash point is the lowest temperature of the test specimen, corrected to a
barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa, at which the application of an ignition source causes
the vapor of the test specimen to ignite momentarily and the flame to propagate across
the surface of the liquid under the specified conditions of test. It is important to realize
that the value of the flash point is not a physical constant but is the result of a flash
point test and is dependent on the apparatus and procedure used. Fire point may be
considered as the lowest temperature of the liquid at which vapor combustion and
burning commences. A fire point happens when an ignition source is applied and the
heat produced is self-sustaining, as it supplies enough vapors to combine with air and
burn even after the removal of the ignition source.

2. Flash and fire point in engine perspective

Gasoline has a flash point around -43⁰ C whereas diesel has flash points higher than
52⁰ C. Lower flash points are the indicators of good flammability and volatility.
Therefore, gasoline makes faster vapour formation than diesel and instantly catches
fire when spark, an external flame source, is provided. However, as its autoignition
temperature is high (in low compression ratio gasoline engine perspective), which is
in the order of 247-280⁰ C, it does not ignite prematurely due to the residual heat
generated during compression stroke and heat transfer from wall. On the contrary, the
higher flash point of diesel indicates poor vaporization tendencies and lesser tendency
to ignite subjected to external flame source. However, as the autoignition temperature
of diesel is low (in high compression ratio diesel engine perspective), which is in the
order of 210⁰ C, diesel autoignites easily with the residual heating during compression
stroke and heat transfer from wall without the need of an external flame source such
as spark plug. Poor vaporization tendency of diesel is dealt with in-cylinder swirl and
high pressure injection.
Vegetable oils have significantly high flash points which are in the order of diesel fuels
and higher. Hence their vaporization and mixing are a huge challenge for direct engine

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 applications. Therefore, vegetable oils are transesterified to produce fatty acid methyl
esters or biodiesel which has comparable flash point for direct compression ignited
diesel engine application. In the alcohol category, methanol has a flash point of around
12⁰ C and autoignition temperature of 470⁰ C. Similarly, ethanol has 16⁰ C flash point
and autoignition temperature around 365⁰ C indicating their close proximity to gasoline
fuel and potential alternative fuel application in spark ignited engines.

3. Penskey Martens Flash Point Apparatus Laboratory test

3.1 Objective: To determine the flash and fire point of a given sample using Pensky-
Martens flash point apparatus and determination of experimental repeatability.
3.2 Apparatus and consumables required:
a) A Pensky-Martens flash point apparatus.
b) Thermometer of suitable range.
c) Test samples.
3.3 Methodology and procedure
3.3.1 Preparation of samples
a) Samples should be in reasonably fluid state before testing. For asphalts and other
viscous materials, preheating should be done to ensure fluidity before testing.
b) Samples may be warmed with constant heating rate. However, under no
circumstances, should be heated above a temperature that lies 16⁰ C below the
expected flash point.
c) Samples containing dissolved water may be dehydrated with calcium chloride or
by filtering through a suitable filter paper. If the same is not done, its consequence
on experimental results and repeatability should be duly inferred.
3.3.2 Generalized procedure
a) Clean and dry all parts of the cup thoroughly.
b) Fill the cup with the sample to be tested to the level indicated by the filling mark.
c) Place the lid on the cup and set the latter on the stove.
d) Insert the thermometer and supply heat with the help of the rheostat switch to
ensure temperature rise rate not more than 5 to 6⁰ C per minute.
e) Turn the stirrer with 90 to 120 rpm in a downward direction.
f) Provide the test flame time to time and start nearly 17⁰ C below the expected flash
point of the sample with 0.5 to 1⁰ C gap.
g) Lower the test flame to the vapour space of the cup for 5s and allow it to be there
for 1s. After that move the test flame up as quickly as possible and shut down the
lid for vapour build up.
h) Do not stir the sample while providing the test flame.

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i) Denote the flash point and fire point accordingly.
j) For suspension of solids, follow the procedure as mentioned below.
 Bring the materials to be tested to a temperature of 15±5⁰ C or 11⁰ C lower
than estimated flash point.
 Completely fill the space between the cup and the interior of the air_bath
with water at the temperature of the tester and the sample.
 Turn the stirrer at 250±10 rpm in a downward direction.
 Raise the temperature throughout the duration of the test at a rate not less
than 1⁰ C or more than 1.5⁰ C per minute.
 The rest of the procedures same as the generalized one.
3.4 Results and brainstorming
a) Compare the average of the observations with the known value of the sample.
b) Determine the repeatability of the results of the same sample and compare it to the
standard which is 2⁰ C for below 105⁰ C and 6⁰ C for above 105⁰ C samples.
c) If the repeatability is not compliant to the standard, provide the reasoning.

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 Figure 1: Standard sketch for Pensky-Martens flash point apparatus

4. Abel Flash point Apparatus Laboratory test

4.1 Objective: To determine the flash point of a given sample using Abel’s flash point
apparatus and determination of experimental repeatability.
4.2 Apparatus and consumables required:
a) An Abel flash point apparatus.

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b) Suitable thermometer.
c) Test samples.
4.3 Methodology and procedure
Two methods namely, Method A for liquids flashing between -18 to 18.5⁰ C and
Method B for liquids in19 to 70⁰ C are prescribed in the standard. The generalised
procedures are accordingly narrated below.
5.3.1 Method A with procedures (-18 to 18.5⁰ C)
a) Fill the water bath completely and the air chamber which surrounds the oil cup to
a depth of at least 38mm with 50:50 mixture of corrosion inhibiting ethylene glycol
and water mixture.
b) Cool the bath to -27⁰ C or at least 9⁰ C below the expected flash point of the
material being tested whichever is higher. Do continuous stirring while cooling the
samples.
c) Note:
 Use an alcohol thermometer to avoid mercury freezing at low temperatures.
 Liquid which crystallizes on cooling should not be cooled below
crystallization points.
d) Place the cup in bath and replace the thermometer by the oil cup thermometer.
e) Pour the sample till the level reaches the point of the index gauge without agitation
avoiding air bubble formation to the extent feasible.
f) Do not move the apparatus after filling and heating rate should be less than 1⁰ C
per minute.
g) Provide the test flame time to time after 9⁰ C less from the expected flash point
temperature is met. Apply test flames with every 0.5⁰ C after that till flash is
realized.
5.3.2 Method B with procedures (19 to 70⁰ C)
a) The thermometers need not be taken care of as mercury freezing is no longer an
issue.
b) Instead of ethylene glycol water mixture, plane water can be used in the bath.
c) Rest of the procedures are same as method A.
5.4 Results and brainstorming
a) Compare the average of the observations with the known value of the sample.
b) Determine the repeatability of the results of the same sample and compare it to the
standard which is 1⁰ C.
c) If the repeatability is not compliant to the standard, provide the reasoning.

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Figure 2: Standard sketch for Abel flash point apparatus (All dimensions in mm)

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