Ground Wave Propagation/

Surface wave
The EM wave is produced by antenna, it moves from
transmitter to the receiver, the wave is travelling along
or near the surface of the earth. This wave is called
ground wave or surface wave.

Ground wave exists when

• Both transmitter and receiving antenna are close to
the earth
• The antennas are vertically polarised

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 1

Ground wave is useful at low frequency broadcast
applications. The broadcast signal received in the day-
time are by ground waves.
Incident Reflected
wave waves

Ground wave between transmitting and receiving antenna

Ground wave signal is limited as the horizontal component

of the electric field in contact with the earth is short
circuited by earth.
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 2
When wave is in contact with the earth, it induces charges
in the earth and constitute a current.
The electric and magnetic fields of the wave over the
earth are show in figure
H- field

E- field

The earth behaves like leaky capacitance in carrying the

induced current. The equivalent circuit of the earth.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. /

ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave
Propagation 3
the wave is attenuated as it propagates due to imperfect
nature of the earth. The attenuation is mainly as result of
the absorption and reflection of EM energy by the earth.

Earth constants
The characteristic of the earth are described by its
fundamental constants namely permittivity, conductivity and
permeability.
According to the Somerfield analysis, the ground wave
field strength for flat earth is

AE0
E
d
E= Electric field strength at a point
E0= Electric field strength of the Sr.wave
J. Ravindranadh/ at/ a unit distance
Assoc.Prof.
from the Tx antenna.ECE DeptPropagation
/ Antenna and Wave
4
A= Factor of the ground losses
d= distance of the point from the transmitting antenna
E0 depends on
• Power radiated by transmitting antenna

• Directivity of the antenna in vertical and horizontal plane.

The factor A depends on
• Conductivity • Permittivity of the earth
• Frequency of the wave •Distance from the Transmitter

The determination of field strength due to Somerfield

analysis mainly consists of determination of A. this is
found from the knowledge of numerical distance P and
phase constant b for vertical polarization
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 5
  d r 1
p cos b b  Tan ( 1
)
Df  Df

D f  1.8  10 12

f
Df is known as dissipation factor of the dielectric

d/λ = normalized distance with respect to λ

Wave Tilt of the ground wave
Wave tilt occurs at the surface of the earth. Change of
its orientation of the vertically polarized ground wave at
the surface of earth is Tilt.
Tilt depends upon conductivity and permittivity of earth.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 6

It causes power dissipation, due to til, there exists
horizontal and vertical components of the electric field.
These two components are not in phase. The wave tilt
changes the original vertically polarized wave into
elliptically polarized.
The horizontal components of the electric field Eh is
Eh  J s Z s
Js = Surface current density

Zs = Surface impedance 
 2 2 2
The vertical components of the electric field Eθ is
E  H 
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 7
The ratio o horizontal and vertical field components

1  1
E Tan -1 D f
377  2 2 2 2

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 8

 Space Wave or Troposphere
Wave Propagation

The EM wave propagates from the transmitter to the

receiver in the earths troposphere is called space wave or
troposheric wave. Troposphere is the region of the
atmosphere within 16km above the surface of the earth.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 9

Space wave propagation is useful at frequency above 30M
Hz. It is useful for FM, TV and radar application. It is
also used in VHF, UHF and higher frequency bands.
The space wave can be reaches to the receiving antenna
through i) Via direct wave ii) ground reflected wave

Field Strength of Space wave

The field strength at the receiver is mostly contributed by
direct and ground reflected rays.
Ht =height of the antenna Tx
Hr =height of the antenna Rx

d =distance b/w the antenn

r1 =Direct ray path
r2 =ground reflected ray pat
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 10
 r  (ht  hr )  d
1
2 2 2
From binomial series
2 1/ 2
  ht  hr  
r1  d 1    
1  x 1/ 2 1
 1  x  ....
2
  d  
 1  ht  hr  2 
r1  d 1    
 2  d  
(ht  hr ) 2
r1  d 
2d
similarly
(ht  hr ) 2
r  (ht  hr )  d
2
2 2 2  r2  d 
2d
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 11
 2ht hr
The path difference between two rays r2  r1 
d
phase difference between due to path difference

2 4ht hr
  path difference   
 d
Let Ed be the field due to direct ray and Er be the field
due to reflected ray. The resulted field at the receiver
 j
E R  Ed  Er e
When a wave is incident an earth it is reflected with the
same amplitude but with phase reversal
Therefore total phase Ψ = 180 + α
Ed =Er = Es
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 12
ER  Es  Es e  j (180 )
ER  Es 1  cos(180   )  j sin( 180   )

 Es (1  cos  ) 2  (sin  ) 2 
 E  2(1  cos  ) 
 E  4 sin  / 2 
s
2
E
s
Es 
 d
E R  2 Es sin
2 d  ht (or )hr
2 E 2hr ht
E  sin
d d
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 13
 4hr ht
E  E
d 2

Eθ is free space field strength at a unit distance E  7 p

Where P= effect power radiation

88 p hr ht
E  v/m
d 2

The space wave field strength is affected by

1. Curvature of the earth
2. Earth’s imperfection and roughness
3. Hill, tall buildings
4. Height above the earth
5. Transition between ground and space wave
6. Polarization of the waves 14
 Effect of the curvature of the ideal earth
When the distance between the transmitting and receiving
antenna is considerably large, curvature of the earth has
effect on space wave propagation.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 15

  The field strength at the receiver becomes small as
the direct ray may not be able to reach the receiving
antenna. The earth reflected rays diverge after their
incidence on the earth.
 The curvature of the earth creates shadow zones
these are the regions where no signal reaches.
Shadow zone are also called diffraction zones.
 It reduces the possible distance of transmission
 The field strength that is available at the receiver
becomes small.
When earth curvature is considered, the field strength at
the receiver
2hr ht
' '
2 E
E  sin
d d
' ' Are the effective height of transmitting and
h h
t r receiving antenna
16
 Atmospheric effect in space wave propagation
The atmosphere consists of gas molecules and water
vapour. This causes the dielectric constant to be slightly
greater than unity. The density of air and water vapour
vary with height.
The dielectric constant and refractive index of air depends
on the height. Dielectric constant decreases with height.
The variation of refractive index with height gives rise to
different phenomena like refraction, reflection, scattering,
duct propagation and fading.
The refractive index η is define as the square root of the
dielectric constant η = √εr
For standard atmosphere effective radius of the earth is
equal to 4/3 times the actual radius of the earth. Actual
radius of the earth is its geometrical radius.
17
 Troposphere Scattering
This is mechanism by which propagation is possible by the
scattered and diffracted rays. The scattering takes by
the troposphere region. This mode of propagation occurs in
the high frequency range from 160M Hz onwards.
This mechanism helps to get unexpectedly large field
strength at the receivers even when they are in shadow
zone.

The EM wave generated by high powered transistors with

high gain directive antenna reach the upper layer of
troposphere scattering of wave takes place due to
considerable variation of refractive index. The scattered
wave reaching the receiver

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 18

 Advantage
 It reduces the no. of station required to cover a given
large distance when compared to radio links
 It provides reliable multichannel communication b/w
islands
 It is useful when radio wave must cross territories of
another political administration
 It is desirable to use a thin link military system with
link upto 1480km

DisAdvantage
Troposphere installation is a big financial investment
Because it requires Transmitting power 10Kwatts.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 19

 Radio Horizon
Horizon means visible. A line at which earth and sky
appear to meet. Radio horizon of an antenna is defined as
the locus of the distant points at which direct rays from
the antenna become tangential to a planetary surface. The
horizon is a circle on a spherical surface.
Radio horizon is the range by which a direct ray from
transmitting antenna reaches receiving antenna. Radio
Horizon extended behind optical horizon for standard
atmosphere. This is due to bending of refraction of the
radio waves.
Radio horizon is about 4/3 times of optical horizon this can
be increased by increasing antenna heights.
20
a  d  (a1 ht ) 2
2 2
similarly
1 1

d2  2a1hr
d1  h  2a1ht
t
2

d1  2a1ht
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 21
 The maximum length the wave is propagating in duct region
is
max  2.5hd M 10 6
v 3 108
f min  
max max
Modified refractive index in the troposphere is defined as
the sum of the refractive indices at a given height above
the mean geometrical surface and the ratio of the height
to the mean geometrical radius.

M  (  1  h / r )10 6

Duct propagation happens during the monsoons, it is not a

standard propagation. It can be operating at VHF and UHF
microwave range. 22
Ionosphere Wave Propagation
/ Sky wave propagation
Ionosphere wave propagation is also called sky wave
propagation. EM waves directed upward at some angle from
the earth’s surface are called sky waves. Sky wave
propagation is useful in the frequency range of 2 to 30M
Hz and for long distance communication

The upper part of atmosphere between 50km to 400km

above the earth known as ionosphere. It absorb large
quantities of radiant energy from the sum. Ionization is
process by which a neutral atom or molecule gains or loses
electrons is left with a net charge.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 23

The ionized region consists of free electron, positive ions
and negative ions. The major ionization is from α , β, and г
radiations from the sun and cosmic rays and metros.
Ionosphere in not uniform but it distributed in layers. The
physical properties of the ionosphere vary from day-to-
day, month-to-month and year-to-year.
For each layer there is critical frequency, above which if a
radio wave is sent vertically upward, will not return back to
the earth but will penetrate it.
There are four principle layer during day time, there are
called D, E, F1 and F2 layers.

During night time, F1 and F2 layers combines and form one

layers called F layer and D layer vanishes. Hence during
night only two principle layers are exist E and F layers.
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 24
Characteristics of Ionosphere
Ionosphere is divided meteorologically into different regions
or layers and each layers exhibits different
characteristics.

D layer 50-90km
E layer 90-140km
F1 layer 140-250km
F2 layer 250-400km
25
1. Characteristics of D-layer
a) It is the lower layer of the ionosphere
b) Height of D layer is 50 to 90km above the earth
surface.
c) Its thickness is 10km
d) D-layer is present in day time only
e) D-layer reflects very low frequency and low
frequency
f) High frequency communication is not possible via D
layers
g) Critical frequency 100kHz to 189kHz.
h) its electron density N=400 electrons/cc

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 26

2. Characteristics of E-layer
a) It exists next to D-layer
b) Height of E layer is 90 to 140km above the earth
surface.
c) Its thickness is about 25km
d) E layer exists only in daytime and during night E
layer is weakly ionized
e) the main function of E layer is to reflect some High
frequency waves in day hours.
f) E layer is most useful layer for long distance radio
propagation during day light hours
g) Critical frequency 3MHz to 5MHz.
h) Its electron density N= 2x 105 electrons/cc

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 27

3. Characteristics of F1 layer

a) Height of F1 layer is 140 to 250km

b) It exists at a height of about 180km in day-
time
c) Its thickness is about 20km
d) F1 layer reflected high frequency waves
e) Critical frequency 5MHz to 8MHz.
f) It combines with F2 layer during nights,
during day time it breaks into two layer F1
and F2

28
4. Characteristics of F2 layer

a) It is the most import layer for HF communication

b) The height of F2 layer is 250-400km
c) Its thickness is about 200km
d) It falls to height of 300km at nights as it combines
with the F1 layer
e) F2 layer exists day time as well as night time
f) It is topmost layer of the atmosphere
g) Its critical frequency fc = 8M Hz in day time and fc
= 6M Hz at nights

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 29

Gyro Frequency
It is defined as the lowest natural frequency at which
charged particles spiral in a fixed magnetic field.

It is a vector quantity and defined as

1 Qe B
fg 
2 m
Q= Charge of the particles, coloumbs
B= Magnetic flux density, wb/m2

m= mass of the particle , kg

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 30

Refraction Index of Ionosphere
It is the ratio of the phase velocity of the wave to the
velocity in the ionosphere
1
 0 0 NQe2
  r r  1
1  0 mw2
 0 0 r
εr = relative permittivity of ionosphere
N= Electron density
m= mass of electron
Qe = electron charge
W = frequency
ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 31
When w=wp i.e plasma frequency (gyro frequency) ε0 =0
2
NQ
 
2 e

 0m
NQe2
f 2

 0 m (2 ) 2

fp 
Qe N fp  9 N
2  0m
NQe2 fp
  r  1  1 ( )2
 0 mw 2 fc

81N
  1 2
fc
32
Parameters of Ionosphere propagation

1. Virtual height
2. Critical frequency
3. Maximum usable frequency (muf)
4. Skip distance

1. Virtual height

Virtual height of an ionosphere layer define as the height

that is reached by short pulse of energy which has the
same time delay as the original wave.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 33

Virtual height of the layer is always greater than the
actual height. Virtual height of the layer is useful to find
the angel of incident required for the wave to return to
earth at specific point.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 34

 2. Critical frequency
The critical frequency of an ionized layer of the ionosphere
can be defined as the highest frequency which can be
reflected back to earth by a particular layer at vertical
incidence.
81N
  1 2
f
(or)
It is also defined as the limiting frequency below which a
wave is reflected and above which it penetrates through
an ionosphere layer.

By definition n=0 N=Nmax f=fc

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 35

 81N max
0  1
f c2

f c  9 N max

3. Maximum usable frequency (muf)

MUF is highest frequency of wave that can be reflected
back by the layer for a specific angle of incidence rather
than vertical (or) normal incidence.
MUF depends on time of day, distance, direction, season.
MUF is the highest frequency that can be used for sky-
wave communication between transmitter and receiver.
MUF ranges between 8 to 30MHz for a sky wave to return
to earth angel of reflection is 900
36
 sin i 81N
  1 2
sin r f muf

sin i 81N
 1 2
sin 90 f muf

81N f c  9 N max
sin i  1 
2
2
f muf
2
f
sin i  1  2c
2

f muf
f c2
2
 1 sin 2
i
f muf
f muf  f c sec i
J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 37
4. Skip distance
It is defined as the shortest distance from the transmitter
that is covered by a fixed frequency .

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 38

When the angle of incident is large ray2 in figure returns
to ground at a long distance from the transmitter.
The angel of incident slowly reduces the wave returns
closer and closer to the transmitter shown by ray6 and
ray3. if the angle of incident is now made significantly less
than that of ray3 it may be too close to the normal to be
returned to earth.
The bending will be insufficient to return unless the
frequency being used for communication is less than the
critical frequency.
The skip distance is a variable dependent upon frequency
ionosphere condition and curvature of earth.

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 39

Relation between MUF and skip distance
Ionosphere layer
b

i r

D/2 0
a D c
Skip distance D
h
BO  2h
cos i  D 2 
AB h 2
4h 2  D 2
4

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 40

h= height of the layer D= propagation distance
2
f
cos i  2 c
f MUF
f c2 4h 2

f 2
MUF 4h 2  D 2
2
f MUF 4h  D 2 2
D
  1  
fc 4h 2  2h 

2
D
f MUF  f c 1  
 2h 

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 41

Skip distance

2 
  D  
2

f MUF  f c 1   
2
  2 h  
 
2
 f MUF 
2
D
 2h    f   1
 c 
2
 f MUF 
D  2h    1
2 2

 fc 
2
 f MUF 
D  2h    1
 fc 

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 42

If the critical frequency of an ionized layer is 1.5MHz
find the electron density of the layer

f c2
f c  9 N max N max 
81
 2.77 1010 Elec / m3

Assume the reflection takes place at a height of 400Km

and that the maximum density in the ionosphere
corresponding to a 0.9 refractive index at 10MHz. What
will be the range for which the MUF is 10MHz

81N
  1 2
f muf

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 43

 0.19 10 14
N
81

f c  9 N max f c  4.35  10 6 Hz

2
 f MUF 
D  2h    1
 fc 

D  1651.76km

J. Ravindranadh/ Sr. Assoc.Prof. / ECE Dept / Antenna and Wave Propagation 44