Introduction

Introduction to Digital Signal

Processing • Types of Signals in various applications:
– Electrical signals: voltage, current, magnetic and electric fields

– Mechanical signals: velocity, force, displacement

– Acoustic signals: sound, vibration

 Introduction to Digital Signal Processing
– Other signals: pressure, temperature
 Introduction to Signal Spectra
 Discrete Time Signals • Real-world analog signals
 Shannon-Nyquist’s Sampling Theorem – They are continuous in time and amplitude

– Convert to voltage or currents using sensors and transducers

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Limitations of Analog Signal Processing Digital Signal Processing

1. Accuracy limitations due to

a. Component tolerances o represent signals by a sequence of numbers like sampling or analog-to-
b. Undesired nonlinearities
digital conversions
2. Limited repeatability due to
a. Tolerances
b. Changes in environmental conditions o perform processing on these numbers with a digital processor, hence it is
 Temperature
 Vibration called Digital signal processing
3. Sensitivity to electrical noise
o reconstruct analog signal from processed numbers, Reconstruction or
4. Limited dynamic range for voltage and currents
digital-to-analog conversion
5. Inflexibility to changes

6. Difficulty of implementing certain operations

digital signal digital signal
a. Nonlinear operations
b. Time-varying operations analog analog
signal A/D DSP D/A signal
7. Difficulty of storing information

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 Signal Processing How a Signal is Represented?

o Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of one or more independent

variables.
o any type of manipulation done in the signal

o For instance a black & white video signal intensity is dependent on x, y coordinates and
o a typical reason for signal processing is to eliminate or reduce an time t f(x,y,t)
undesirable signal
o The signal below is a function of time represented as f(t)
o we convert the original signal into a form that is suitable for further
processing f(t)

o Different types of processing that can be done:

a. filtering
b. noise cancellation
c. encryption t
d. echo suppression, etc.

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Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals Continuous -Time Signals

o Continuous-Time Signals o a value of signal exists at every instant of time

• Most signals in the real world are continuous time
 voltage, velocity
• denoted by x(t), where the time interval may be bounded (finite) or
infinite

o Discrete-Time Signals t
• signals that have values at regular or discrete intervals of time Independent variable
• amplitude can be any value
• time interval is called the sampling time of the signal

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 Discrete-Time signals Notation

o the value of signal exists only at equally spaced discrete points in time
o A continuous-time signal is represented by enclosing the independent variable (time)
in parentheses ()

x (t )
t
t
Independent variable

o A discrete-time signal is represented by enclosing the independent variable (index) in

square brackets []

x[n ]
t
Independent variable
n

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Sinusoidal Signal Shifting and Scaling Functions

xs (t ) = X s sin(2πf st + φs ) o Let a function be defined graphically by

Amplitude Phase in radian

(rad)

Time in seconds
(s)

Frequency in
Hertz (Hz)

g (t ) 0 , t > 5
and let=

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 Amplitude Scaling Amplitude Scaling

g(t ) → A g(t )

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Time Shifting Time Scaling

t → t − t0 t →t/a

Shifting the function to the right or left by t0 Expands the function horizontally by a factor of |a|

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 Time Reversal Multiple Transformations

t →t/a  t − t0 
g (t ) → A g  
 a 

o Amplitude scaling, time scaling and time shifting can be applied

simultaneously.
o A multiple transformation can be done in steps

amplitude
 t  t →t −t0  t − t0 
g ( t ) 
scaling, A
→ A g ( t ) 
t →t / a
→ A g    → Ag  
a  a 

o The order of the changes is important. For example, if we exchange

the order of the time-scaling and time-shifting operations, we get:

amplitude
t   t − t0 
g ( t ) 
scaling, A
→ A g ( t ) 
t →t −t0
→ A g ( t − t0 ) 
t →t / a
→ A g  − t0  ≠ A g  
a   a 

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Multiple Transformations Even and Odd CT Functions

 t − t0  Even Functions Odd Functions

g(t ) → A g
 a 
g(t ) = g(−t ) g(t ) = − g(−t )
o a sequence of amplitude
scaling , time scaling and
time shifting

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 Even and Odd Parts of Functions Combination of Even and Odd Function

g ( t ) + g ( −t )
The even part of a function is g e ( t ) =
2
g ( t ) − g ( −t ) Function Type Sum Difference Product Quotient
The odd part of a function is g o ( t ) =
2
Both Even Even Even Even Even

Both Odd Odd Odd Even Even

Even and Odd Neither Neither Odd Odd

o a function whose even part is zero is odd and a function whose odd
part is zero is even

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Product of Two Even Functions Products of Even and Odd Functions

An Even Function and an Odd Function

Two Even Functions

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 Products of Even and Odd Functions Product of Two Odd Functions

An Even Function and an Odd Function

Two Odd Functions

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Function type and the types of
derivatives and integrals Discrete-Time Signals

Discrete-Time Signal Representations:

Functional Representation:

Function Type Derivative Integral

Even Odd Odd + constant

Tabular Representation:
Odd Even Even

Sequence Representation:
Infinite duration sequence

Finite duration sequence

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 Discrete-Time Signals Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

Graphical Representation Unit Sample Sequence (Unit Impulse)

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Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

Unit Step Signal

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 Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

Unit Ramp Signal Energy Signals & Power Signals

The energy E of a signal x(n) is defined as,

If the E is finite (0<E<∞),

then x(n) is called an energy
signal.

The average power of x(n) is defined as,

• If E is finite, P = 0.
• If E is infinite, P may be either finite or infinite.
• If P is finite (and nonzero), the signal is called a power signal.

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Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals Shannon-Nyquist's Sampling Theorem

Periodic Signals & Non-periodic Signals

Signal is periodic if and only if o The sampling frequency Fs must be at least twice the highest frequency
present in the signal to be sampled to prevent aliasing
For all n

The smallest value of N which satisfy the above prosperity is called

Fundamental Period. Fs >= 2 Fh

is periodic when f0 is a rational

number

If x(n) is periodic signal with fundamental period N the average

power is:

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 Effect of Aliasing Sampling Theory

o Fourier Series expansion states that any waveform can be reproduced by sine What is the frequency of the signal?
waves. What is the minimum sampling rate required?
o Improperly sampled signals will have other sine wave components.

o Alias Frequency, Fa

Fa = Fs – kFh if Fs > Fh
Fa = Fh – kFs if Fh > Fs
k = 1,2,3…….

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Sampling Theory Sampling Theory
Sampling at minimum
Sampling at minimum
Fs = 6samples within 6 seconds (6/6)
Fs = 6samples within 6 seconds (6/6)

Sampling time
Sampling time
ts = 6 seconds / 6 samples = 1 second per sample
ts = 6 seconds / 6 samples = 1 second per sample

Use offsetting, what is the recovered frequency?

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 Sampling Theory Sampling Theory

Sampling at much more than minimum Sampling at less than minimum

Fs = 20samples within 6 seconds (6/6) Fs = 4 samples within 6 seconds (6/6)
Sampling time
Sampling time ts = 6 seconds / 4 samples = 1.5 seconds per sample
ts = 6 seconds / 20 samples = (6/20) seconds per sample What is the recovered frequency?
What is the recovered frequency?
Fa = Fs – kFh, k=1
Fa = 4/6 – 1(3/6) = 1/6
==== Alias frequency

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