LECTURE 6

- Understand the basis of division between categorical propositions in traditional logic.

Universe has things/objects. Example?

Things have attributes. Example?

A thing may have more than one attributes. Example?

We classify things when we talk about them, i.e. we categorize them into different classes. It helps in
communication.

What is a class

- A class is a collection of things that have some attribute in common.

- Some definitions may call them the ‘set of things’ or ‘category of things’. Some definitions may use
‘attribute’ and ‘property’ interchangeably.

- This makes them different from other things.

- Thus classification is nothing but making a group of things similar in some way.

- How do you define a class?

- A class may be defined by simply enumeration its members. Example? This is called the extensional
meaning.

- A class may be defined by enumerating the characteristics/properties/attributes necessary for the

- The richer the intensional definition, lesser (or similar) the membership of extension.

- Knowing the extensional members does not guarantee knowing the intensional definition.

- Classes have relationships with each other.

- One class may be entirely a member of another class.

- One class may be partially a member of another class.

- This relationship between different classes is dealt with classical logic.

 Categorical propositions

- Deductive arguments are made up of propositions. What are they?

- Propositions in a deductive argument are of the type Subject-Predicate.

Example: Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal.

- Thus, propositions are statements about two categories or classes, one in subject and one in predicate.
Propositions state how two categories are related to each other.

- This means that propositions with which deductive arguments are built, are categorical propositions.
I.e., deductive arguments are built on propositions that describe relationship between classes/categories.

Example: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

- Checking for validity requires to see if the conclusion validly follow from the premises or not. This is
simply checking if the statements about the class membership are valid or not.

- In other words, validity is nothing but checking if the membership established in the conclusion
(Therefore, Socrates is mortal.) really follows from the membership established in the premises (All
men are mortal. Socrates is a man.).

- Theory of deduction thus, can be understood on the basis of categorical propositions.

But before we go any further:

Venn Diagrams

- Graphical representation of categorical representations.

- Invented by John Venn, the British Logician and Mathematician

- Predicate and subject classes are represented through circles.

- For categorical propositions, the circles overlap to show the relationship of the subject and predicate.
They have to overlap.

- The circles can have a shading that represents emptiness;

- Or an ‘x’ mark that represents at least one individual that belongs to the class.

Back to categorical propositions:

 There are four types of categorical propositions

1. Universal affirmative propositions

- Propositions stating that all of one class is a member of another class. In other words, all of one class
is included in another class.

- All S is P
All members of subject class belong to the predicate class

- Example = All men were boys. All BITSIANs are engineers. All politicians are liars.

- Also called ‘A-type’ propositions.

- Venn diagram

2. Universal negative propositions

- Propositions stating that none of the members of one class is a member of another class.

- No S is P
No members of subject class belong to the predicate class. It denies the relation of inclusion.

- Example = No women were boys. No BITSIANs are stupid. No politicians are liars.

- Also called ‘E-type’ propositions.

- Venn diagram
3. Particular affirmative propositions

- Propositions stating that some of the members of one class are member of another class.

- Some S is P
Some members of subject class belong to the predicate class.

- Example = Some civilians were soldiers. Some BITSIANs are cool. Some politicians are liars.

- It does not affirm or deny any claim about the entire class. It simply says that there is at least one
member of a class belongs to another class as well.

- Therefore, Some civilians were soldiers can mean only one civilian was soldier, two were soldiers, or
even all civilians were soldiers. The proposition does not give a clue about the number of membership,
except that it is one or more. If all BITSIANs were cool, it will be true that ‘at least one BITSIAN is
cool’.

- Similarly, it does not preclude that some members of S are not in P. If Some BITSIANs are cool, then
it is possible that some BITSIANs are not cool. Particular affirmative proposition does not affirm or
deny that.

- Also called ‘I-type’ propositions.

- Venn diagram

4. Particular negative propositions

- Propositions stating that some of the members of one class are NOT member of another class.

- Some S is not P
Some members of subject class do not belong to the predicate class.

- Example = Some civilians were not soldiers. Some BITSIANs are not cool. Some politicians are not
liars.

- It does not affirm or deny any claim about the entire class. It simply says that there is at least one
member of a class that does not belongs to another class.

- Therefore, Some civilians were not soldiers can mean only one civilian was not a soldier but rest of
them were. It could mean that two were not soldiers, or even all civilians were not soldiers. The
proposition does not give a clue about the number of membership, except that it is one or more. If none
of the BITSIANs were cool it will be true that ‘at least one BITSIAN is not cool’, i.e. Some BITSIAN
is not cool.
- Similarly, it does not preclude that some members of S are indeed in P. If Some BITSIANs are not
cool, then it is possible that some BITSIANs are not cool. Particular negative proposition does not
affirm or deny that.

- Also called ‘O-type’ propositions.

- Venn diagram

These four types of categorical propositions are the building blocks of deductive arguments.

 Quality of propositions

Categorical propositions either affirm or deny relationships between two classes. On the basis of that,
they can be:

1. Affirmative in quality = They declare a positive relationship between two classes. The relationship
may be complete (All S is P) or partial (Some S is P).

2. Negative in quality = They declare a negative relationship between two classes. The relationship may
be complete (No S is P) or partial (Some S is not P).

Mnemonic.
A and I types are affirmative. AffIrmative
E and O types are negative. NegO.

 Quantity in propositions

Categorical propositions either affirm or deny relationships, but they may do so for only some of the
members or all of the members of subject. On the basis of that, they can be:

1. Universal in quantity = They declare a relationship between entire Subject class with the predicate
class. The relationship may be affirmative (All S is P) or negative (No S is P).

2. Particular in quality = They declare a relationship between only some members of the subject class
with the predicate class. The relationship may be affirmative (Some S is P) or negative (Some S is not
P).