Unit -3

ENGINEERING USE OF SOILS

1. Foundations:
 All the civil engineering structures are supported on or below the surface of the earth. This
is applied to all structures whether it be building, bridge or dams. The construction of
foundation is very much necessary to transmit the load of the structure constructed above
to be transmitted below the ground in an efficient and safe manner.
 When a foundation is constructed and the load transmission takes place on the upper strata
of the earth, we call it as shallow foundation.
 When the load transmission takes place at a great depth below the surface of the earth, it is
termed as the deep foundation.
One of the common example of deep foundation is pile foundation. The foundation
engineering is an important branch of soil engineering.
2. Retaining Structures:
When there is no sufficient space available to spread the soil, it
becomes necessary to heap the soil. A structure constructed to
maintain the slope (safe slope without collapse) of the soil is called as
Retaining structures.
3. Slope stability:
If the soil placed in large quantity is not horizontal, the slope tends to
create a component of weight that makes the soil to move
downwards. This creates soil instability.
The slopes can be either man made, like the slopes caused due to
excavation works in construction or these slopes can be natural
formed by natural effects likes landslides, sedimentation, flood etc.
4. Underground structures:
For many structures that are constructed under the ground are
subjected to soil pressure from all the sides. These structures must be
designed based on the future soil pressure. Some of the underground
structures includes tunnels, shafts, conduits.
5. Pavements:
The construction of pavement is done on the surface of the soil. This
pavement layer consists of different layers of aggregates and bitumen
layer. These layers must be designed to obtain smooth surface. The soil
layer below must be prepared so that the pavement is resistant
towards the loading and the environmental changes.
6. Earthen Dams:
The construction of earth dams is performed to make water reservoirs.
The failure of earth dam structure can cause huge damage and
catastrophe. Thus, construction of earth dams requires good care in
the design and construction.
POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
Permeability is not proportional to
porosity
 SURFACE METHODS OF GW EXPLORATION

• The exploration of groundwater above-surface locations, which is

known as surface investigation.
• Do not provide quantitative data/information
• Correct interpretation requires supplemental data from subsurface
investigations to verify the findings of surface investigations.
• Less expensive and less time consuming than the subsurface
investigations.
• Surface Methods – 1) Geological Methods
2) Geophysical Methods
GEOLOGICAL METHODS OF GW EXPLORATION
• The occurrence and movement of groundwater is mainly dependent on the
geology of an area.
• The type of geophysical method to be conducted later can be decided only after
the geologic investigations.
• Involves the collection, analysis and hydrogeologic interpretation of existing
topographic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps, well logs.
• Supplemented by geologic field reconnaissance and hydrologic data such as
stream flow, springs, well yield, groundwater levels, groundwater recharge and
discharge, and water quality.
• Indirectly/directly indicate the possibility of water-bearing formations
(aquifers), their extent and continuity, interconnection of aquifers, aquifer
boundaries, nature and thickness of overlying strata, presence of faults, etc.
• Quite helpful in planning detailed field exploration by subsurface methods of
groundwater investigation.
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION
• Geophysical methods are scientific measurements of differences or anomalies
of physical properties within the earth‟s crust.
• Electric resistivity, density, magnetism, and elasticity are the most commonly
measured properties by different geophysical methods .
Electric Resistivity Method
• Most widely used for groundwater investigations.
• Measurement of electrical resistivity of the subsurface formations.
• Four electrodes are required to measure the resistivity, Current „I‟ is sent
through the earth formation through one pair of electrodes (A & B) called
current electrodes. The potential difference (AV) produced as a result of current
flow is measured across a second pair of electrodes (M&N) called potential
electrodes.
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION
• Wenner electrode arrangement - A and B are current electrodes, M and N are
potential electrodes, and „a‟ (distance between adjacent electrodes) is called
spacing or separation of the electrodes; the value of „a‟ is taken as the
approximate depth of resistivity measurement. In this case, the apparent
resistivity (ρa) is given as:

where, ΔV = potential difference between the potential electrodes M and N on

the earth‟s surface (volts), and I = direct current introduced into the earth by
means of two current electrodes A and B (amperes).
 Used for shallow subsurface exploration.
• Since subsurface is heterogeneous under normal conditions, the measured
resistivity is a weighted mean of the resistivity of all the individual bodies of
rock materials which make up the earth and is termed as "apparent resistivity" (
pa).
• Resistivity of rock formations varies depending on the material density,
porosity, pore size and shape, water content, water quality and temperature.
WENNER ARRANGEMENT
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION
• Schlumberger electrode arrangement - the distance between the current
electrodes A and B is denoted by L and that between the potential electrodes
M and N is dented by l.
• Potential electrodes are placed close together and that half of the current
electrode spacing (i.e., L/2) is taken as the approximate depth of resistivity
measurement.
• Apparent resistivity (ρa) is given as:
Used for both shallow and deeper subsurface exploration.
SCHLUMBERGER ARRANGEMENT
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION
• Electric resistivity surveying is carried out by using an Electric Resistivity (ER)
Meter.
• Generally done in two ways:
(i) Vertical electric sounding (VES) or sounding - is used when the zone of
investigation varies vertically more than horizontally; it is frequently used for
finding out suitable sites for well drilling.
(ii) Horizontal electric profiling (HEP) or profiling - In profiling, the lateral
distribution of resistivity is studied by maintaining a relatively constant depth of
investigation (i.e., constant electrode spacing).
• When the apparent resistivity data obtained by a VES survey are plotted against
the electrode spacing („a‟ in case of Wenner and „L/2‟ in case of Schlumberger) for
various spacing's at a given location, a smooth curve can be drawn through the data
points.
 Resistivity in rocks
• Resistivity varies to a large extent in different
rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rocks show a
range of 102 and 106 Ohm-m. and the
sedimentary rocks show 10 to 105 Ohm-m.
However, in the porous formations such as
highly weathered and fractured rocks and
unconsolidated sediments, the resistivity is
controlled more by the amount and quality of
water present, than the actual rock resistivity.
Resistivity and Seismic velocity in rocks
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION – SEISMIC METHOD
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION – SEISMIC METHOD
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION – SEISMIC METHOD
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF GW
EXPLORATION – SEISMIC METHOD
GEOLOGICAL METHODS OF GW EXPLORATION
– REMOTE SENSING
• Remote sensing from aircraft or satellite has become an increasing valuable
tool for understanding subsurface water conditions.
• Aerial photographs and satellite images taken at various electromagnetic
wavelength ranges can provide useful information about groundwater
conditions.
• Fractures and faults appear on aerial photos and satellite images as tonal
variations in surface soils caused by the difference in soil moisture.
• The lines of springs or seeps are caused by the movement of groundwater
along the fracture zones. Thus, fracture patterns and other observable surficial
features obtained from remote sensing data serve as interpretive aids in
groundwater studies because they can be related to the porosity and
permeability of subsurface formations, and ultimately well yield.
 SUB-SURFACE INVESTIGATION
• Detailed and comprehensive examination of groundwater and conditions under
which it occurs can be made by subsurface investigations only.
• Subsurface investigations are conducted by a person or a group of persons on
the earth‟s surface who operate the equipment/instruments extending underground
through a borehole which provides direct access to subsurface formations and
groundwater.
• Various subsurface methods of groundwater exploration can be classified into
three major groups: (a) Test drilling, (b) Borehole sensing (sometimes it is also
called „television logging‟), and (c) Geophysical logging.
• Test drilling provides information regarding subsurface formations in a
vertical line from the ground surface,
• Borehole sensing provides more detailed information about the borehole,
geologic strata, and well casing and screen.
• Geophysical logging techniques provide information on physical properties of
subsurface formations, groundwater quality, and well construction.
• Drilling a small-diameter (usually 1”
or 1.5” diameter) hole to ascertain
geologic and groundwater conditions
at a particular location/site is known as
test drilling.
• During test drilling, geologic samples
are collected at regular depth intervals
and the air-dried samples are subject
to sieve analysis for determining the
proportion of sand, silt, clay and
gravel in a given geologic sample.
• Well/borehole logs provide reliable
information about subsurface
conditions (i.e., variation of
subsurface materials and their
thickness, availability and type of
aquifers, type of other layers, etc.),
thereby enabling aquifers and
confining layers to be delineated.
 Borehole Sensing
A borehole sensing or television logging is a convenient technique with
increasing use for investigating boreholes (uncased or cased).
Specially designed wide-angle cameras, typically less than 7 cm in
diameter (Todd, 1980), are equipped with lights and when lowered into a
borehole (uncased or cased), provide continuous visual inspection of the
borehole which can be preserved in electronic storage devices.
 Borehole sensing has a variety of applications such as locating changes in
geologic strata, pinpointing large pore spaces, inspecting the condition of
well casing and screen, checking for debris in wells, locating zones of sand
entrance, and searching for lost drilling tools
 Geophysical Logging
The term “logging” refers to making records of some
measurements or observations.
 Geophysical logging is a procedure to collect and transmit
specific information about the geologic formations penetrated
by a well by raising and lowering a set of probes that contain
water-tight instruments in the well.
Geophysical logging technique utilizes the measurement of
certain physical parameters across different subsurface
formations with the help of sensing probe inside the bore hole
providing a continuous record of these parameters versus depth.
These parameters are interpreted in terms of lithology, porosity,
moisture content & quality of formation fluids.
 GROUNDWATER PROVINCES OF INDIA

1. Precambrian Crystalline province

2. Precambrian Sedimentary province
3. Gondwana Sedimentary province
4. Deccan Trap province
5. Cenozoic Sedimentary province
6. Cenozoic Fault Basin province
7. Indo-Gangetic Alluvial province
8. Himalayan High Land province
 GROUNDWATER PROVINCES OF INDIA

1. Pre-Cambrian Crystalline Province:

It extends over half of the country‟s geographical area covering Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Dandakaranya,
Bundelkhand and Aravali range. This province is deficient in ground water
resources.
2. Pre-Cambrian Sedimentary Province:
It extends over Cuddapah and Vindhyan basins where the rocks belong to
Cuddapah and Vindhyan systems. This province is also not much suitable
for ground water development and contains inadequate amount of ground
water.
3. Gondwana Sedimentary Province:
The Gondwana sedimentary rocks of the Barakar and Godavari river basins
contain good aquifers of ground water.
4. Deccan Trap Province:
These are 1,200 metre thick covering of impermeable basalt over the surface
which obstructs percolation of water. As such, the whole province is deficient
in ground water resources. The only aquifers preserved are in the fractures
where secondary porosity develops in the weathered moorums at times, in the
intertrappean beds sandwiched between two impermeable strata as also in the
vesicles and amygdales.
5. Cenozoic Sedimentary Province:
This province includes the Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat
coasts. These areas have tertiary sandstones and the province as a whole has
good aquifers.
6. Cenozoic Fault Basin:
The rift zone of the Narmada, the Purna and the Tapi provides good resource of
ground water in their 80-160 metre thick alluvial cover of sand, silt and clay.
7. Ganga-Brahmaputra Alluvial Province:
This is the richest ground water province of the country. The bhabar, tarai and
the axial belts are well defined. The streams disappearing in the unassorted
materials of the bhabar zone seep out in the tarai belt. Moreover, the ground
water table is also high.
8. Himalayan High land Province:
This complex structural and geographic unit is not very significant with respect
to ground water resources. Local springs are common but wells are a rare
feature.