Exp. Anim.

60(1), 1–6, 2011

—Review—

Yoso-Tama-No-Kakehashi; The First Japanese

Guidebook on Raising Rats

Takashi Kuramoto

Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University,

Yoshidakonoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan

Abstract: During the 18th century, raising the “nezumi” rodent became so prevalent in Japan
that two guidebooks were published on the topic. The first guidebook was entitled Yoso-
tama-no-kakehashi (1775) and the second was entitled Chinganso-date-gusa (1787). It
remains unclear in these texts whether the term nezumi was used to refer to the rat (Rattus
norvegicus) or the mouse (Mus musculus). In this review, I explore Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi
(English translation: A bridge to obtaining novel jewel-like nezumi). It was written by the
owner of “Shunpo-do” and comprises two volumes; the first is 34 pages in length and the
second is 14 pages. It introduces the nezumi and then provides details on novel varieties
and the methods that were used to raise them. The nezumi dwells in peoples’ homes. It is
noteworthy that the “norako” species is classified in the same group as the nezumi. The
norako is smaller than the nezumi. Its alias is “hatsuka-nezumi”, a term which is still used
in Japan today when referring to the mouse. This indicates that when the guidebook was
written people distinguished the rat from the mouse by identifying the rat using the word
nezumi and the mouse using the word norako. Moreover, I recently confirmed that the rat
varieties which are introduced in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi, such as “white”, “spotted”, “black
bear-like”, “deer-spotted”, and “cracked-mark”, can be found in modern laboratory rats. Taken
together, it is very likely that the term nezumi is used to refer to the rat in Yoso-tama-no-
kakehashi and that this was indeed a guidebook on the rat.
Key words: domestication, mouse, mutant, nezumi, rat

Introduction usual patterns included “spots”, “bear spots”, and “deer

spots”.
During the Meiwa period (1764–1771) of the Edo era In those days, two books were published which were
in Japan, the hobby of raising nezumi as pets became used to introduce different varieties of nezumi to people
prevalent in Osaka. By that time, nezumi had been do- and to encourage them to raise this type of rodent. The
mesticated. People were anxious to breed nezumi that first was entitled Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi (1775) and
had unusual coat colors and patterns that nobody had the second was entitled Chinganso-date-gusa (1787).
seen before. Unusual coat colors included “white”, “egg Because the original copy of Chinganso-date-gusa had
color”, “pale purple”, and “lilac”, and examples of un- survived, it was introduced to the scientific community

(Received 8 August 2010 / Accepted 4 October 2010)

Address corresponding: T. Kuramoto, Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshidakonoe-cho,
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
2 T. Kuramoto

as an eighteenth century Japanese guidebook on mouse- Table 1. Contents of Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi

breeding by Dr. Tokuda in 1935 [9]. He pointed out that Volume Contents Pages
in this document, the term nezumi refers to the mouse Volume 1 Preface 1–8
(Mus musculus). When explaining the “mame-nezumi” Introduction 9–22
Taxonomy 23–34
variety, he noted that he was not sure himself whether
or not the term mame-nezumi refers to the mouse, or the Volume 2 How to raise rats Rat varieties (1) 2–3
Disease treatment 3
term nezumi refers to the rat. However, given the word Raising pups 3–4
for the mouse that is used in classical Japanese, the size Food 5
of the nezumi that are illustrated in Chinganso-date- Rat varieties (2) 5–9
Mating 9–10
gusa, and the asymmetrical “piebald” pattern that can
Housing 10–11
be found in the modern mouse mutant, he concluded that Taming 12
the term nezumi means the mouse. His conclusion Trading 13
formed the basis of the description of the origins of the Credits 14

modern laboratory mouse [12].

Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi is composed of two volumes.
The first volume has survived but the text has not yet Yoso-Tama-No-Kakehashi:
been translated into modern Japanese. The second vol- An Eighteenth Century Japanese
ume was previously thought to be lost. Given the ap- Guidebook on Raising Nezumi
pearances of the nezumi in the illustrations, Serikawa
recently concluded that the term nezumi as used in the Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi (English translation: A bridge
first volume refers to the rat [7, 8]. It seems that Yoso- to obtaining novel jewel-like nezumi) was published in
tama-no-kakehashi was referenced in Chinganso-date- Osaka in the fourth year of the An’ei era (1775). It was
gusa, because some of the content of both is similar. For written by the owner of “Shunpo-do”, whose real name
example, the illustration that depicts the bear-type coat is unknown. It comprises two volumes; the first is 34
color seems to be identical. Thus, if one were to speci- pages in length and the second is 14 pages. To make it
fy the species that the term nezumi denotes in Yoso-tama- easy for even children to understand its contents, comic-
no-kakehashi, it would be helpful for identifying the style illustrations are used. In total, 14 illustrations are
species that are referred to in Chinganso-date-gusa. used, some of which are accompanied by “Kyo-ka”, a
While looking for the original copy of the second popular type of tanka poetry (Fig. 1).
volume of Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi, I came across full The author fancied nezumi and raised many novel
page images of it that are stored in the Internet archive types. His colleagues shared the same hobby and cre-
of the National Diet Library (http://www.ndl.go.jp/nature/ ated a group to exchange information on the subject, and
thum/004.html). Subsequently, I obtained the full text he published a book through which he could share his
of both volumes that were translated by an expert on know-how with them. Through this guide, he advised
classical Japanese language. After reading the text, I his readers on how to improve the methods that were
believe that the term nezumi as it appears in Yoso-tama- used to raise nezumi and he encouraged them to obtain
no-kakehashi refers to the rat. Moreover, I recently their own rare specimens, which he called “jewels”.
showed that modern laboratory rats or those that are After the preface which was provided by Kan-ga-sho,
derived from current fancy rats exhibit coat colors or the author introduces old Japanese and Chinese tales
coat patterns which are similar to those that are men- about nezumi, the different classes of nezumi, and those
tioned in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi. Here, I introduce the varieties which were prized at that time. He also pro-
contents of Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi and clarify the vides his know-how on how to raise them (Table 1).
meanings of some parts of that text. I also advocate that
the term nezumi refers to the rat.
 THE FIrST JaPaNESE GuIDEBooK oN raISING raTS 3

the mole, marten, mink, hedgehog, musk shrew, and

flying squirrel. Detailed explanations for these species
seem to have been reproduced from Wakan-sansai-zue,
which is a Japanese encyclopedia that was published
around 1712.
The nezumi is described as “being small, having a
rabbit-like body shape with a hairless tail. Its coat color
is dark grey, its whiskers are long, and its eyes pop out”.
meanwhile, it is noteworthy that the norako species is
introduced as a specific type of nezumi. The term nora-
ko is also found in Wakan-sansai-zue but not in Chingan-
so-date-gusa. The alias of the norako is “hatsuka-nezu-
mi”. In modern Japanese, hatsuka-nezumi denotes the
mouse. The detailed explanation of the norako is that “it
is smaller than the nezumi and no more than ~6 cm in
size. It is not a weaned nezumi that can be seen exiting
the nest. Its alias, ‘hatsuka’, means small thing”.
Thus, it is reasonable to think that Japanese people at
that time distinguished the rat from the mouse and re-
ferred to the rat using the term nezumi and to the mouse
using the term norako. Therefore, Yoso-tama-no-kake-
hashi was written for the purpose of raising the rat, not
the mouse.

Fig. 1. rats as illustrated in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi. a) Spouse

for a rat. There is a bride with whiskers. She is a rat,
White Rats and Spotted Rats Are
which is auspicious as well. There is a Japanese folk tale the Major Varieties
about a rat's wedding, the bride looks very happy even
though she is a rat with whiskers. B) The candy stall and
its owner who kept his rat at hand (close-up shown in D). Several varieties of rats are introduced in Yoso-tama-
A rat draws a lottery ticket gently and that attracts chil- no-kakehashi; the most important one is the white rat.
dren whom want some sweets. There was a store where Two kinds of white rat are mentioned; one is the “red-
children could get sweets according to the number on a
lottery ticket that is carried by a rat. C) In front of a rat eyed white” and the other is the “black-eyed white”. of
trade shop. Children are running after a rat (colored black) the two, the black-eyed white was highly prized, because
that has escaped from the store (close-up shown in E). it was believed to portend prosperity. The other impor-
The owner has a spotted rat in his hand and is playing with
it using a string (close-up shown in F). People have tant variety was the spotted rat which had a black and
crowded around to watch. A rat doing a captivating trick white piebald pattern. The author advised that white rats
is kept in the cage and will never be caught by a cat.
should be mated with white rats and spotted rats should
If a rat can do a trick, he could get a cage and even a cat
could not catch him. be mated with spotted rats. mating one type with the
other would result in a loss of their special characteristics
and this should be avoided.
The “Nezumi” Is the Rat,
While the “Norako” Is the Mouse Other Varieties

In Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi, the nezumi and twenty- although mating rats with different coats was often
two other species are classified in the same group. The avoided, some people mated them to obtain other variet-
group includes not only the rat and the mouse, but also ies. These varieties included the “bear rat”, “dwarf rat”,
4 T. Kuramoto

“cracked rat”, “deer-spotted rat”, and “fox rat”. The bear ally born about twenty days after mating. After mat-
rat possessed a black coat and a moon ring spot on its ing, the male and female should be placed in separate
breast. The dwarf rat was much smaller in size than the cages. At most, eight to nine pups can be produced,
common rat; its body size was no more than ~3 cm. but there are cases where one or two are produced.
However, it was not a mouse. Illustrations of the cracked About seventeen days after birth, their eyes will open
rat show unilateral pigmentation on its head or hair that and their coat will appear. Until their eyes open, they
is divided to the left and right along the midline of the should be raised on mother’s milk. After their eyes
head with a white spot that traverses the bridge of the open they will consume food other than milk. There-
nose. The deer-spotted rat had a mottled pattern that is fore, until their eyes open, allow them their mother’s
similar to the coat of a deer. The fox rat had a coat color milk. It is also okay to give them sticky rice cake. In
that is similar to that of a fox and it also had a white the case that the mother is absent and they have to be
belly. Additionally, “yellowish”, “bright red”, “lilac”, and taken from the nest, warm them often, and give them
“clay-pot” colored varieties of rat may have existed. hard candy that has been dissolved in water. It is also
okay to give them human breast milk. In these cases,
Raising the Rat as Described in feed them until they have opened their eyes.
Yoso-Tama-No-Kakehashi
Rats open their eyes within 14 to 17 days of age [5].
The raising and breeding rats, including housing, food Although they are typically weaned at 20–21 days of
and water, and how to treat their diseases are described age, they may be weaned successfully as early as 17 days
in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi. Written below in italics are [2]. Thus, it is reasonable to say that open eyes is a good
translated excerpts from its text. indicator of having been weaned.

Housing Disease Treatment

It is beneficial to use a large cage for raising rats. In the case of illness, feed with broiled crayfish. It
The width should be 36–40 cm, the height 42–45 cm is also permissible to heat some camphor and fan the
and the depth 24–27 cm. It should be enclosed on three odor.
sides with plates. The front and bottom should be made
from steel netting and drain board. Below the drain Rat Trade Shops in Osaka
board, make a drawer that can be used for cleaning.
Place a small hanging tray made of straw or a wooden At the end of Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi there is an in-
box within the cage. It is also okay to enclose one of troduction to five shops which bought and sold rats.
its corners. In all cases, put straw or cotton inside it. Among them, four were located on Shinsai-bashi Street
Place food into a sliced section of bamboo and water and one was located on Sanoya-bashi Street; they are
into a small cup. For the netting, if iron is not used located in present day Minami-senba, Chuo-ku, Osaka.
then it will be chewed apart. For food, give white rice, What is interesting is not only the types of rats that were
rice grains or sticky rice cake. In the case of using rice available for purchase but that it is recommended that
grains, water must also be provided. There also is no they be taken home to be raised and bred to produce nov-
problem with providing fresh fish or fresh vegetables. elty rats. These rats could then be brought back to the
If they consume too many varieties of fish, their coat store and sold. The owner of the rats and the store clerk
will lose its luster. If they are fed soya beans, their coat probably negotiated the price of the rats (Fig. 1C).
color will improve.
Fancy Rats of Today
Breeding
To obtain offspring, it is best if the male is young Even now, there are people who raise rats as pets. I
and the female has reached maturity. Pups are usu- visited a rat fancier in Kansas City, Missouri, USA in
 THE FIrST JaPaNESE GuIDEBooK oN raISING raTS 5

2002. Her colony is named “Spoiled ratten rattery” (for a cage, the rats licked my extended finger. When the
details see http://www.spoiledratten.com/index.html). owner spoke a name, a rat immediately came forward.
The rats live in several cages that are 60 cm wide, 40 cm This is also mentioned in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi where
deep and 80 cm high. a plastic chest with wheels is used “one can call out and rats will come to hand”.
as a breeding cage. If a female rat becomes pregnant, she
is transferred to the breeding cage where she delivers her Rat Varieties in Yoso-Tama-No-Kakehashi
pups. She then feeds her pups for several weeks until Are Reproduced in Modern Laboratory Rats
they have been weaned. I was surprised at how accus-
tomed the rats were to people and their variety. When I Coat colors and coat patterns of the rat varieties that
entered the room, they looked up as if to ask “who is this are introduced in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi are found in
person? can you play with us?” When their owner opened modern laboratory rats. The red-eyed white is seen in
albino rats. The black-eyed white is seen in the WS rat
that is homozygous for the Kit mutation [10] and the
KFrS6/Kyo rat that is homozygous for the Black eye
(Be) mutation [3] (Fig. 2a). The spotted pattern is com-
monly seen in the hooded rat. The crescent-shaped white

Fig. 2. Novelty rats that are introduced in Yoso-tama-no-kakehashi.

a) Left: Illustration of a black-eyed white with Kyo-ka. It
is said that a prosperous family always has a white rat in
their house, as a symbol of good luck. upper right: the
black-eyed white coat color can be observed in rats that are
homozygous for the Kit mutation. The 12-bp deletion in
the tyrosine kinase domain of the rat Kit gene results in
defects in melanocyte progenitor differentiation and migra-
tion. as a result, melanocytes are not distributed in hair
follicles [10]. melanocytes in the eye can develop without
expressing Kit and the irises of rats that are homozygous
for the Kit mutation are pigmented. Lower right: the black-
eyed white KFrS6/Kyo rat in a wooden cage that was re-
made based on information contained in Yoso-tama-no-
kakehashi. The KFrS6/Kyo rat carries the autosomal
dominant Black eye (Be) mutation. The Be mutation is
dominant only in the presence of the homozygous state
albino mutation [3]. B) Left: illustration of a spotted rat
(rear) and a black bear rat (front). Center: the crescent-
shaped white spot, which is like the black bear rat, can be
obtained as F2 progeny of Wistar/ST and BN/NSlc rats.
This type of pattern is thought to occur when the multiple
genes involved in producing white spots are combined.
Therefore, it is difficult to fix the phenotype. right;
KFrS3B/Kyo rat that is carrying the hooded mutation. The
hooded pattern can be modified by selecting in both direc-
tions toward more black and to toward more white [1].
Note that the KFrS3B rat carries the grey mutation and
therefore the coat color pigmentation is diluted [3]. C) Left:
illustrations of a spotted rat (left), cracked rat (right), and
deer rat (front). upper right: a cracked rat where the white
spot traverses the bridge of the nose. This type of rat is
found in the fancy rat-derived KFrS4/Kyo strain [3]. Note
the different colors of the eyes. This strain may possibly
be used as a model of iris heterochromia. Lower right: the
spot coat color pattern is present in descendants of a mod-
ern fancy rat that carries the downunder mutation [6].
6 T. Kuramoto

spot, which is like the “black bear rat”, can be obtained of Kyoto University for their advice, to Mito Otsuki for
from F2 progeny of Wistar/ST and BN/NSlc rats (Fig. translating Kyo-ka, to Yoshinori Kuramoto for making
2B). The asymmetrical cracked pattern is seen in the a wooden cage, and to Elisabeth Brooks of the Spoiled
KFRS4/Kyo strain [3]. The deer-spotted pattern is found Ratten Rattery for making available her fancy rats.
in descendants of a modern fancy rat that carries the
“downunder” mutation [6] (Fig. 2C). References
Although the rat varieties present in Yoso-tama-no-
1. Castle, W.E. and Phillips, J.C. 1914. Piebald Rats and
kakehashi have been reproduced during 21st century, it
Selection; An Experimental Test of the Effectiveness of
remains unclear if any descendants of these varieties con- Selection and of the Theory of Gametic Purity in Mendelian
tributed to the establishment of modern laboratory rats. Crosses, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,
Literature or historical records about the establishment of D.C.
2. Kohn, D.F. and Clifford, C.B. 2002. Biology and diseases
modern laboratory rats are only available from 1906, of rats. pp. 121–165. In: Laboratory Animal Medicine (Fox,
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Institute. The “Wistar rats” were disseminated from this Academic Press, London.
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commercial colony all over the world and genetically
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