What

is the most intelligent computer ?

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Answer ...

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How does an Electronic Computer
Differ from our Brain ?

Feature Computer Our Brilliant Brain

Intelligence Dumb Intelligent
Speed of basic calculations Ultra-fast Slow
Can get tired Never After sometime
Can get bored Never Almost always

*  Computers are ultra-fast and ultra-dumb

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How to Instruct a Computer ?

compile execute
Program Executable Output

*  Write a program in a high level language – C,

C++, Java
*  Compile it into a format that the computer
understands
*  Execute the program
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What Can a Computer Understand ?

*  Computer can clearly NOT understand

instructions of the form
*  Multiply two matrices
*  Compute the determinant of a matrix
*  Find the shortest path between Mumbai and Delhi

*  They understand :
*  Add a + b to get c
*  Multiply a * b to get c

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The Language of Instructions
*  Humans can understand
*  Complicated sentences
*  English, French, Spanish

*  Computers can understand

*  Very simple instructions

The semantics of all the instructions supported by a processor is known

as its instruction set architecture (ISA). This includes the semantics of
the instructions themselves, along with their operands, and interfaces
with peripheral devices.

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 Features of an ISA

*  Example of instructions in an ISA

*  Arithmetic instructions : add, sub, mul, div
*  Logical instructions : and, or, not
*  Data transfer/movement instructions

*  Complete
*  It should be able to implement all the programs
that users may write

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 Features of an ISA

*  Concise
*  The instruction set should have a limited size.
Typically an ISA contains 32-1000 instructions.

*  Generic
*  Instructions should not be too specialized, e.g.
add14 (adds a number with 14) instruction is too
specialized

*  Simple
*  Should not be very complicated.
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 Designing an ISA
*  Important questions that need to be answered :
*  How many instructions should we have ?
*  What should they do ?
*  How complicated should they be ?

Two different paradigms : RISC and CISC

RISC CISC
(Reduced Instruction Set (Complex Instruction
Computer) Set Computer)

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 RISC vs CISC
A reduced instruction set computer (RISC) implements
simple instructions that have a simple and regular
structure. The number of instructions is typically a small
number (64 to 128). Examples: ARM, IBM PowerPC,
HP PA-RISC

A complex instruction set computer (CISC) implements

complex instructions that are highly irregular, take
multiple operands, and implement complex
functionalities. Secondly, the number of instructions is
large (typically
500+). Examples: Intel x86, VAX

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 Takeaway Points..
*  Computers are dumb yet ultra-fast machines.
*  Instructions are basic rudimentary commands used to
communicate with the processor. A computer can execute
billions of instructions per second.
*  The compiler transforms a user program written in a high level
language such as C to a program consisting of basic machine
instructions.
*  The instruction set architecture(ISA) refers to the semantics of
all the instructions supported by a processor.
*  The instruction set needs to be complete. It is desirable if it is
also concise, generic, and simple.

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 Completeness of an ISA

How can we ensure that an

ISA is complete ?

*  Complete means :
*  Can implement all types of programs
*  For example, if we just have add instructions, we
cannot subtract (NOT Complete)

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Completeness of an ISA – II

How to ensure that we have just enough

instructions such that we can implement
every possible program that we might
want to write ?

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 Answer
*  Let us look at results in theoretical computer science
*  Is there an universal ISA ?

Universal ISA Universal Machine

The universal machine has a set of basic actions, and each such
action can be interpreted as an instruction.

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The Turing Machine – Alan Turing
*  Facts about Alan Turing

*  Known as the father of computer science

*  Discovered the Turing machine that is the most

powerful computing device known to man

*  Indian connection : His father worked with the Indian Civil

Service at the time he was born. He was posted in
Chhatrapur, Odisha.

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 Turing Machine

Infinite Tape

L R

State Register Tape Head

The tape head
can only move
left or right
Action Table
(old state, old symbol) -> (new state, new symbol, left/right)

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Operation of a Turing Machine
*  There is an inifinite tape that extends to the left and right. It
consists of an infinite number of cells.
*  The tape head points to a cell, and can either move 1 cell to the left
or right
*  Based on the symbol in the cell, and its current state, the Turing
machine computes the transition :
*  Computes the next state
*  Overwrites the symbol in the cell (or keeps it the same)
*  Moves to the left or right by 1 cell
*  The action table records the rules for the transitions.

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 Example of a Turing
Machine
Design a Turing machine to increment a number by 1.

$ 7 3 4 6 9 $

Tape Head
*  Start from the rightmost position. (state = 1)
*  If (state = 1), replace a number x, by x+1 mod 10
*  The new state is equal to the value of the carry
*  Keep going left till the '$' sign

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 More about the Turing Machine

*  This machine is extremely simple, and extremely

powerful

*  We can solve all kinds of problems – mathematical problems,

engineering analyses, protein folding, computer games, …

*  Try to use the Turing machine to solve many more types of

problems (TODO)

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 Church-Turing Thesis

Church-Turing thesis: Any real-world computation can be translated

into an equivalent computation involving a Turing machine.
(source: Wolfram Mathworld)

*  Note : It is a thesis, not a theorem

*  For the last 60 years, nobody has found a counter-example

Definition:
Any computing system that is equivalent to a Turing machine is said to be
Turing complete.

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 Universal Turing Machine
*  For every problem in the world, we can design a Turing Machine
(Church-Turing thesis)
*  Can we design a universal Turing machine that can simulate any
Turing machine. This will make it a universal machine (UTM)
*  Why not? The logic of a Turing machine is really simple. We
need to move the tape head left, or right, and update the
symbol and state based on the action table. A UTM can easily do
this.
*  A UTM needs to have an action table, state register, and tape
that can simulate any arbitrary Turing machine.

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 Universal Turing Machine

Prog. 1 Prog. 2 Prog. 3

Turing Machine 1 Turing Machine 2 Turing Machine 3

Universal Turing Machine

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A Universal Turing Machine

Simulated State Register

Simulated Action Table Work Area

L R
Generic State Register Tape Head

Generic Action Table

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 A Universal Turing Machine
Program
Counter
Simulated State(PC)
Register
Instruction
Simulated Action Table Work Area
Memory Data Memory

L R
Generic State Register Tape Head
Program

PC CPU
Generic Action Table
 Computer Inspired from the Turing
Machine
Program
CPU
Program Control Arithmetic
Counter (PC) Unit Unit

Instruction

Program Data
Memory

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Elements of a Computer
*  Memory (array of bytes) contains
*  The program, which is a sequence of instructions
*  The program data → variables, and constants
*  The program counter(PC) points to an instruction in a program
*  After executing an instruction, it points to the next instruction
by default
*  A branch instruction makes the PC point to another instruction
(not in sequence)
*  CPU (Central Processing Unit) contains the
*  Program counter, instruction execution units

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 Let us now design an
ISA ...
*  Single Instruction ISA
*  sbn – subtract and branch if negative
*  Add (a + b) (assume temp = 0)

1: sbn temp, b, 2
2: sbn a, temp, exit

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 Single Instruction ISA - II
*  Add the numbers – 1 … 10
Initialization:
one = 1
index = 10
sum = 0

1: sbn temp, temp, 2 // temp = 0

2: sbn temp, index, 3 // temp = -1 * index
3: sbn sum, temp, 4 // sum += index
4: sbn index, one, exit // index -= 1
5: sbn temp, temp, 6 // temp = 0
6: sbn temp, one, 1 // (0 - 1 < 0), hence goto 1

exit

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Multiple Instruction ISA
*  Arithmetic Instructions
*  add, subtract, multiply, divide

*  Logical Instructions
*  or, and, not

*  Move instructions
*  Transfer values between memory locations

*  Branch instructions
*  Move to a new program location, based on the values of some
memory locations

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 Designing Practical Machines

CPU
ALU

Instruction
Data
memory Control memory

I/O devices

Harvard Architecture

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Von-Neumann Architecture

CPU
ALU

Memory Control I/O devices

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 Problems with Harvard/ Von-Neumann
Architectures

*  The memory is assumed to be one large array of

bytes
*  It is very very slow
General Rule: Larger is a structure, slower it is

*  Solution:
*  Have a small array of named locations (registers) that can
be used by instructions
*  This small array is very fast

Insight: Accesses exhibit locality (tend to use the same

variables frequently in the same window of time)

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 Uses of Registers

*  A CPU (Processor) contains set of registers (16-64)

*  These are named storage locations.
*  Typically values are loaded from memory to registers.
*  Arithmetic/logical instructions use registers as input
operands
*  Finally, data is stored back into their memory locations.

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 Example of a Program in Machine
Language with Registers

1: r1 = mem[b] // load b
2: r2 = mem[c] // load c
3: r3 = r1 + r2 // add b and c
4: mem[a] = r3 // save the result

*  r1, r2, and r3, are registers

*  mem → array of bytes representing memory

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 Machine with Registers

CPU
Registers
ALU

Memory Control I/O devices

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 Where are we ...
*  We have derived the structure of a computer from
theoretical fundamentals.
*  It has a CPU with a program counter & registers,
memory, and peripherals.
*  The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is the link
between hardware and software.

Instruction
Set
Architecture

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 Instruction Set
Architecture
*  Interface between software and hardware
*  A compiler converts a program into machine instructions in the
given ISA
*  The processor executes the instructions in the ISA

*  We shall first look at the software aspect of the ISA

(assembly programs)
*  Then look at implementing the ISA by designing the
processor
*  Then, we shall make the computer more efficient by
designing fast memory/ storage systems

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THE END

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